C

hapter 7 Abundant Metals 251

1 1
11111i

11111111 11 1 11
(a)

(b)
FIGURE 7.16 (a) Manganese nodules are common on many parts of the deep ocean
floor. These nodules in the Pacific Ocean
are 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 5 inches) in diameter. (Photograph by W. T. Al
len, Deep Sea Ventures.) (b) A cross section cut
through a typical manganese nodule shows the concentric nature of the mangan
ese and iron oxides within the manganese
nodule. (Photograph by B. J. Skinner.)
(12,000 feet) is difficult and expensive. The exploitation so difficult to free
the metal from its minerals that
of nodules on the deep seafloor raises two additional
aluminum has been pro

duced commercially for only

questions. The first is: What are the possible environite its relatively recent appearmental effects? Little is known of the deep-sea lifel scene, aluminum has proven to
forms and the extent, if any, to which they could be
l metal. It weighs only about

about 125 years. Desp

ance on the industria
be a remarkably usefu

harmed by sediment disturbance caused by seafloor

either iron or copper; it is malmining. The second question is: Who has the right to
asily machined and cast; it is cormine on the ocean floor? The International Law of the
it is an excellent conductor of
Sea conference of the United Nations worked for many
satility has resulted in such wideyears to try to define ownership of, and right of access
aluminum is the second most
to, mid-ocean resources. It resulted in the general
er iron. Rubies and sapphires
recognition of exclusive economic zones covering the
e biblical times, but it was not
continental shelves but did not resolve the problems of
eighteenth century that these gems
mining manganese nodules and other deep-ocean reorundum, were recognized as oxsources. Serious international problems remain, and a
03), and were collectively called
legal framework for the recovery of manganese nodhe metal was named aluminum in
ules has still to be worked out and to be accepted by all
isolated in its free state until 1825.
countries. There was much reluctance by the United
or a short time, because of the diffiStates to accept any agreement because of concerns
uminum and because of its novelty
about deep-sea resources. When the United States
s valued more highly than gold.
finally signed the treaty in 1994, a consensus was
of Napoleon Bonaparte and

one-third as much as

reached that the industrial countries would have sigm 1852 until 1871, even had an alunificant control over resources, such as manganese
e for his infant son, and his most
nodules, that they might ultimately wish to mine.
s were made from aluminum. The

Emperor of France fro

leable and ductile, e

rosion resistant; and
electricity. This ver
spread use that today
widely used metal aft
have been valued sinc
until the end of the
(Figure 10.30), and c
ides of aluminum (Al2
alumina. From this, t
1809, but it was not
Initially, and f
culty of producing al
as a new metal, it wa
Napoleon Ill, nephew

minum baby rattle mad

prized eating utensil
breakthrough that per

mitted commercial production,

ALUMINUM, THE METAL OF THE TWENTYale use of aluminum, came in
FIRST CENTURY
l in the United States and Paul

and hence the wide-sc

1886 when Charles Hal

Heroult in France dev

eloped an electrolytic process to
Aluminum is the second most abundant metallic elerelease the metal fro
m the oxide. At about the same
ment (after silicon) in Earth's crust, where it occurs at time, in Austria, Kar
l Bayer developed a chemical

an average concentration of 8.2 percent. However, it is

umina in large quantities from

process to produce al