9.

Muscular Control of Movement

MUSCULAR CONTROL OF MOVEMENT

A. The Structure & Function of Skeletal Muscle

1. The Muscle Fiber

 A single muscle cell is known as a muscle fiber.

 Number of muscle fibers depends on the muscle’s size and function.

 A muscle fiber is enclosed by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma.

 The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the sarcoplasm.

 Sarcoplasm contains proteins, minerals, glycogen, fats & other organells. It differs
from other cytoplasm because it contains high glucose and myoglobin ( O 2- binding
compound found in the muscle).

 The extensive tubule network found in the sarcoplasm includes T tubules

(transverse tubules), which allow communication & transport of substances
throughout the muscle fiber.

 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) are extensive network that runs longitudinally through
the muscle fiber. Its main function is to store calcium (Ca++) ions essential for
muscle contraction.

2. The Myofibril

 Each muscle fiber contains hundreds to thousands of myofibrils - the contractile

elements of skeletal muscles.

 Myofibrils are composed of sarcomeres, the smallest functional units of a muscle.

 A sarcomere is composed of filaments of 2 protiens (myosin & actin), which are

responsible for muscle contraction.

 There are striation consisting of the A-band (dark region/zone) and the I-band
(light region/zone).

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Myosin
 A thick filament, folded into a globular head at one end.
 Composed of 2 protein strands twisted together.
 Each myosin head protrudes from the filaments to form cross-bridges, which also
contains binding sites for ATP & ATPase.

Actin
 Consists of 3 different protein molecules:-
 Actin – contains active sites to which myosin heads can bind.
 Tropomyosin – during rest lie on top of active sites.
 Troponin – work together with ca++ ions to maintain relaxation or initiate action of
the myofibril.
 One end of each actin filament is attached to a Z disk.

3. Muscle Fiber Action

 Each muscle fiber is innervated by a single motor nerve, ending near the middle of
the muscle fiber.

 A single motor nerve & all the muscle fibers it supplies/innervates are collectively
termed a motor unit.

 The synapse between a motor nerve & a muscle fiber is referred to a

neuromuscular junction. This is where communication between the nervous &
muscular system occurs.

 Muscle action is initiated by a motor nerve impulse. The motor nerve releases Ach
(acetylcholine), which opens up ion gates in the muscle cell membrane, allowing
sodium to enter the muscle cell (depolarization). If the cell is sufficiently
depolarized, an action potential is fired and muscle action occurs.

 The action potential travels along the sarcolemma, then through the tubule system,
& eventually causes stored calcium to be released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.

 Calcium binds with troponin, & then troponin lifts the tropomyosin molecules off of
the active sites on the actin filament, opening these sites for binding with the
myosin head.

 Once it binds with the actin active site, the myosin head tilts, pulling the actin
filaments so that the two slide across each other. The tilting of myosin head is the
power stroke (The sliding filament theory).

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 Energy is required before muscle action can occur. The myosin head binds to ATP, &
ATPase found on the head splits ATP into ADP & Pi, releasing energy to fuel the
contraction.

 Muscle action ends when calcium is actively pumped out of the sarcoplasm back
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum for storage. This process, leading to relaxation,
also requires energy supplied by ATP.

B. Skeletal Muscle and Exercise

Endurance & speed during exercise depend on the muscle’s ability to produce energy
and force.

1. Slow-Twitch & Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers

 Most skeletal contain both ST and FT fibers.

Muscle Fiber Classification

 Slow-Twitch (ST) fibers / Type I / SO (Slow Oxidative) fibers.

 Fast-Twitch (FTa) fibers / Type II a / FOG ( Fast Oxidative Glycolytic) fibers.

 Fast- Twitch (FTb) fibers / Type II b / FG (Fast Glycolytic) fibers.

* (System 3 classifies the fibers based on the fibers’ contraction speed &
primary mode of energy production.)

 On average most muscles are composed of roughly 50% ST fibers, & 25% FTa.
Remaining 25% are mostly FTb.

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Classification of Muscle Fiber Types

Fiber classification
System 1 ST FTa FTb
System 2 Type I Type IIa Type IIb
System 3 SO FOG FG
Characteristic:
Oxidative capacity High Moderately high Low
Glycolytic capacity Low High Highest
Contractile speed Slow Fast Fast
Fatigue resistance High Moderate Low
Motor unit strength Low High High

Structural & Functional Characteristics of Muscle Fiber Types

Fiber type
Characteristic: ST FTa FTb
Aerobic capacity High Moderate Low
Anaerobic capacity Low High High
Motor unit force Low High High
Sarcoplasmic reticulum Low High High
development
Type of myosin ATPase Slow Fast Fast
Nerve conduction velocity Slow Fast Fast
Motor neuron size Small Large Large
Fiber per motor neuron 10-180 300-800 300-800
Contractile speed 50 110 110

Characteristics of ST & FT Fibers

 The different fiber types have different ATPases.

(ATPase is the enzyme that located on the myosin head, splits the ATP to yield
energy that used to bind myosin head to the actin filament)

 The ATPase in the FT fibers acts faster, providing energy for muscle action more
quickly than the ATPase in ST fibers.

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 FT fibers have a more highly developed sarcoplasmic reticulum, enhancing the

delivery of calcium needed for muscle action than ST fibers.

 Motor neurons supplying FT motor units are larger and supply more fibers than do
neurons for ST motor units. Thus FT motor units have more fibers to contract and
can produce more force than ST motor units.

 The proportions of ST and FT fibers in an individual’s arm and leg muscles usually
quite similar.

 ST fibers have high aerobic endurance and are well suited to low-intensity
endurance activities.

 FT fibers are better for anaerobic activity. FTa fibers are well utilized in explosive
bouts of exercise. FTb fibers are not well understood, but it is known that they are
not easily recruited into activity.

Fiber Type & Exercise

 ST Fibers
 High level of aerobic endurance, therefore ST fibers are very efficient at
producing ATP from the oxidation of carbohydrates & fats.
 Recruited at low-intensity and long duration exercise.
 Therefore, mostly used during high muscular endurance exercise such as
marathon running or channel swimming.

 FT Fibers
 Anaerobic
 FTa - > force that ST but fatigue easily, therefore recruited mostly during high
intensity exercise that last for short period of time e.g. 1-mile run, 400m swim
 FTb – not easily recruited. Therefore only during very high intensity and
explosive events e.g. 100m dash/sprint & 50m sprint swim.

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2. Muscle Fiber Recruitment

 Motor units give all-or-none responses. For a unit to be recruited into activity, the
motor nerve impulse must meet or exceed the threshold. When this occurs, all
muscle fibers in the motor unit act maximally. If the threshold is not met, no fibers
in that unit act.

 More force is produced by activating more motor units, and thus more muscle
fibers.

 In low intensity activity, most muscle force is generated by ST fibers. As the

resistance increases, FTa fibers are recruited, and if maximal strength is needed -
the FTb are activated. The same pattern of recruitment is followed during events
of long duration.

3. Fiber Type & Athletic Success

 World champions in marathon have been reported to posses 93% to 99% ST fibers
in their gastrocnemius muscles. World-class sprinters, however, have about 25% ST
fibers in this muscle.

4. Use of Muscle

 Muscles involved in a movement can be classed as:

• Agonists (prime movers), muscles primarily responsible for the movement.
• Antagonists (opponents), muscles that oppose the prime movers.
• Synergists (assistants), muscles that assist the prime movers.

 Flexion of elbow requires shortening of brachialis & biceps brachii muscles

(agonists) and relaxation of the triceps brachii (antagonist). The brachioradialis
muscle (synergist) assists the brachialis & biceps brachii in their flexion of the
joint.

 Agonists produce most of the force needed for any particular movement.
Synergists assist the agonists & sometimes are involved in fine-tuning the direction
of movement. The antagonists play a protective role.

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Types of muscle Action

 The 3 main types of muscle action are:

• Concentric action, in which the muscle shortens
• Static action, in which the muscle acts but the joint angle is unchanged.
• Eccentric action, in which the muscle lengthens.

Generation of force

 Force production can be increased by recruiting more motor units.

 Force production can be maximized if the muscle is stretched 20% prior to action.
At this point, the amount of energy stored & the number of linked actin-myosin
cross-bridges are optimum.

 All joints have an optimal angle at which the muscle crossing the joint function to
produce maximum force. This angle varies with the relative position of the muscle’s
insertion on the bone & the load placed on the muscle.

 Speed of action also affects the amount of force produced. For concentric action,
maximum force can be achieved with slower contractions. The closer to get to zero
velocity (static) the more force can be generated. With eccentric actions, however,
faster movement allows more force production.

 Generation of force depends on:

 Number of motor units activated

 Types of motor units activated
 Size of muscle
 Muscle’s initial length when activated
 Angle of joint (angle of force application – AFA)
 Muscle’s speed of action

SUMMARY

1. An individual muscle cell is called a muscle fiber.

2. A muscle fiber is enclosed by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma.

3. The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the sarcoplasm.

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4. The extensive tubule network found in the sarcoplasm includes T tubules , which
allow communication & transport of substances throughout the muscle fiber and
sarcoplasmic reticulum , which stores calcium.

5. Myofibrils are composed of sarcomeres, the smallest functional units of a muscle.

6. A sarcomere is composed of filaments of 2 protiens (myosin & actin), which are

responsible for muscle contraction.

7. Myosin is a thick filament, folded into a globular head at one end.

8. An actin filament is composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin. One end of each
actin filament is attached to a Z disk.

9. Muscle action is initiated by a motor nerve impulse. The motor nerve releases Ach,
which opens up ion gates in the muscle cell membrane, allowing sodium to enter the
muscle cell (depolarization). If the cell is sufficiently depolarized, an action
potential is fired and muscle action occurs.

10. The action potential travels along the sarcolemma, then through the tubule system,
& eventually causes stored calcium ions to be released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.

11. Calcium ions bind with troponin, & then troponin lifts the tropomyosin molecules off
of the active sites on the actin filament, opening these sites for binding with the
myosin heads to bind strongly with them.

12. Once a strong binding state is established with the actin, the myosin head tilts,
pulling the actin filament so that the two slide across each other. The tilting of
myosin head is the power stroke.

13. Energy is required before muscle action can occur. The myosin head binds to ATP, &
ATPase found on the head splits ATP into ADP & Pi, releasing energy to fuel the
contraction.

14. Muscle action ends when calcium is actively pumped out of the sarcoplasm back
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum for storage. This process, leading to relaxation,
also requires energy supplied by ATP.

15. Most skeletal muscles contain both ST & FT fibers.

16. The different fiber types have different ATPases. The ATPase in the FT fibers
acts faster, providing energy for muscle action more quickly than the ATPase in ST
fibers.

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17. FT fibers have a more highly developed sarcoplasmic reticulum, enhancing the
delivery of calcium needed for muscle action than ST fibers.

18. Motor neurons supplying FT motor units are larger and supply more fibers than do
neurons for ST motor units. Thus FT motor units have more fibers to contract and
can produce more force than ST motor units.

19. The proportions of ST and FT fibers in an individual’s arm and leg muscles usually
quite similar.

20. ST fibers have high aerobic endurance and are well suited to low-intensity
endurance activities.

21. FT fibers are better for anaerobic activity. FTa fibers are well utilized in explosive
bouts of exercise. FTb fibers are not well understood, but it is known that they are
not easily recruited into activity.

22. Muscles involved in a movement can be classed as agonists (prime mover),

antagonists (opponents), or synergists (assistants).

23. The 3 main types of muscle action are concentric, in which the muscle shortens;
static, in which the muscle acts but the joint angle is unchanged; & eccentric, in
which the muscle lengthens.

24. Recruiting more motor units can increase force production.

25. Force production can be maximized if the muscle is stretched 20% prior to action.
At this point, the amount of energy stored & the number of linked actin-myosin
cross-bridges are optimum.

26. All joints have an optimal angle at which the muscle crossing the joint function to
produce maximum force. This angle varies with the relative position of the muscle’s
insertion on the bone & the load placed on the muscle.

27. Speed of action also affects the amount of force produced. For concentric action,
maximum force can be achieved with slower contractions. The closer to get to zero
velocity (static) the more force can be generated. With eccentric actions, however,
faster movement allows more force production.