Other Macmillan titles of related interest Microcomputer Applications in Sthuctural Engineering 'W. H. Mosley and W. J. Spencer Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer R. Hulse and W. H. Mosley Prestressed Concrete Design by Computer R. Hulse and W. H. Mosley Computer Spreadsiveet Applications in Building and Surveying B. Cooke and S. V. Balakrishnan Practical BASIC Programming P.E. Gosling Program your Microcomputer in BASIC PLE. Gosling. Giit Engineering Materials, Second Kaition N. Jackson (ed.) Plastic Methods for Steel and Concrete Structures Stuart §, J. Moy. ‘Strength of Materials, Third Edition G.H. Ryder A Guide 10 the Preparation of CWil Engineering Drawings M.Y. Thomas Structural Theory and Analysis, Second Edition J.D. Todd Energy Methods of Structural Analysis - Theory, worked examples and problems BLA. Young REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN W. H. Mosley and J. H. Bungey Department of Civit Engineering University of Liverpool ‘THIRD EDITION MACMILLAN EDUCATION‘©W. H. Mosley and J. H. Bungey 1976, 1982, 1987 All rights reserved, No reproduction, copy or transmission (of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance ‘with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended), ‘or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place, London WCIE 7DP. ‘Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages First published 1976 Reprinted 197, 1978, 1980, 1981 (twice) Second edition 1982 Reprinted 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986 Third edition 1987 Published by MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world Printed and bound in Great Britain at The Camelot Press ple, Southampton Bh Library Catatoguing in Publication Data Mosley, W. H, een Reinforced concrete design —3rd ed 1 Reinforced ones eanstaction Tie tl Bungey. 9H Soavesey PAR ’ ISBN 0-333-45182-1 ISBN 0-333-45183-X Pox Contents Preface to Third Edition Notation 1.1 Composite Action 1.2. Suess-Strain Relations 13 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement 14 Creep 1S Durability 1.6 Specification of Materials Limit States Characteristic Material Strengths and Characteristic Loads 23 Partial Factors of Safety 24 Global Factog of Safety 2 Limit State Design 3. Analysis of the Structure 3.1 Loads 3.2 Load Combinations 33. Analysis of Beams and Frames 3.4 Redistribution of Moments. 4 Analysis of the Section 4.1. Stress-Strain Relations 4.2 The Distribution of Strains and Stresses across a Section 4.3 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block 44° Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending 4.5 Rectangular Seetion with Compression Reinforcement at the Ultimate Limit State 4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State 4.7 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations‘CONTENTS: 48 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State 49 The Rectengular-Parabolic Stress Block 4.10 The Triangular Stress Block ‘Shear, Bond and Torsion Si Shear 5.2 Anchorage Bond $3 Laps in Reinforcement $4 Analysis of Section Subject to Torsionsl Moments Serviceability, Durability and Stability Requirements 6.1 Detailing Requiremonts 6.2 Span-Effective Depth Ratios 63 Calculation of Deflections 64 Flexural Cracking 65. Thermal and Shrinkage Cracking 6.6 Other Serviceability Requirements 67. Stability Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 7A Preliminary Analysis and Member Sizing 7.2. Design for Bending 73. Design for Shear 74 Bar Spacing 7S. Continuous Beams 7 Cantilever Beams 7.7 Design for Torsion Devon of Rsinfoced Contes Site ‘Simplified Analysis £2 shesriSiae 8.3 Span-Effective Depth Ratios 8.4 Reinforcement Details 8.5. Solid Siabs Spanning in One Direction 8.6 Solid Slabs Spanning in Two Directions 8.7 Flat Slab Floors 8.8 Ribbed and Hollow Block Floors 8.9 Steir Slabs 8.10 Yield Line and Strip Methods otumn Desin ‘Loading and Moments 82 Short snd lees Columns 9.3 Reinforcement Details 9.4 Design of Short Columns 9.5 Nonrectangular Sections 9.6 Design of Slender Columns 9 88 1 98 103 106 107 412 113 47 119 134 141 144 147 1s4 156 159 174 180 180 187 188 192 192 193 198 200 201 209 24 222 26 230 239 229 2a 216 261 264 i CONTENTS 10 Foundations 10.1 Pad Footings 10.2 Combined Footings 103 Strap Footings 10.4 Strip Footings 10.5. Raft Foundations 10.6 Piled Foundations 11 Watersetaining Structures and Retaining Walls 11.1 Watersretaining Structures 11.2 Joints in Water-retaining Structures 11.3 Design Methods 114. Reinforcement Details 11.5. Retaining Walls 12 Prestressed Concrete 12.1 Principles of Prestressing 12.2. Methods of Prestressing 123 Analysis of Concrete Section Under Working Loads 12.4 Design for the Serviceability Limit State 12.5. Analysis and Design at the Ultimate Limit State Appendix Further Reading Index 270 23 280 284 286 289, 291 296 296 298 302 312, 316 327 327 330 333, 339 365 380 384 386Preface to Third Edition ‘The purpose of this book is to provide a straightforward introduction to the principles and methods of design for concrete structures It is divected primarily at students and young designers who requie an understanding ofthe basic theory and a concise guide to design procedures. Although the detailed design methods are generally according to British Standards, much of the theory and practice is of a fundamental natute and should, thezefoze, be useful to engineer: in other countries. Limit state concepts, as cecently introduced in the new Codes of Practice, are used and the calculations are in SI units throughout, ‘The subject matter has been arranged so that chapters 1 0 5 desl mostly with theory and analysis while the subsequent chapters cover the design and detailing of ratious types of member and structure. In order to include topics that are usually in an undergraduate course, there is chapter on earth-etaining end ‘woterztaining structures, and also a final chapter on prestessed concrete, Important equations that have been dorived within the text are highlighted by an asterisk adjacent to the equation number. In preparing the third edition of this book the opportunity has bean taken to rearrange the sequence of presentation of some material and make amendments to reflect developments in design practice. The principal changes ar associted ‘ith the introduction of the revised British Stendatd BS 8110 to replace CP 110. ‘This has led to extensive detlled changes, especially to numerial examples, many ‘of which are associated with the aim of achieving improved durability performance It should be mentioned that standard Codes of Practice such as B31 10 are always liable tobe revised, and readers should ensure that they ere using the latest edition of any relevant standard “Extracts from the British Standards are reproduced by permission ofthe British Standards Institution. 2 Park Street, London WIA 2BS, from whom complete copies can be obtained Finally, the authors wish to thank Mss B. Cotgreave wo prepared the diagrams and Mrs F. Zimmermann who typed most of the draft and final copies ofthe rmanuscript Notation ‘Notation is gencrally in accordance with BS 8110, and the principal symbols are listed below, Other symbols are defined in the tex! whore necessary. The symbols ‘for strain and f for stress have been adopted throughout, with the general system ‘of subscripts such that the frst subscript refers to the material, e— concrete, 's— steel, and the second subscript rafers to the type of stress. ¢ — compression, t— tension, Ay Cross-sectional ates of tension reinforcement ‘AL Cross-sectional aree of compression reinforcement Agy Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement in the form of bentup bars ‘Age Cross-seetional area of shear reinforcement in the form of links a Deflection > Width of section by Breedth of web or rib of a member By, Breadth of web or rib of a member d” Effective depth of tension reinforeement d’ Depth to compression reinforcement E, Static secant modulus of elasticity of concrete E, Modulus of elasticity of steel e Eccentricity F Ultimate load fox Characteristic concrete cube strength. Characteristic strength of prestressing tendons Service stress or steel stress Characteristic strengti of reinforcement Characteristic strength of link reinforcement POND, Ge Characteristic dead load ge Characteristic dead load per unit length or area Ay Overell depth of section in plane of bending hig Thickness of flange T Second moment of area ; ky Average compressive stress in the concrete for a rectangular-parabelic stress BlockT SESE" SPP MEARE Px NOTATION ‘A factor that relates the depth to the centroid of the rectangular- parabolic stess block and the depth of the neutral axis Lever-arm factor = #/d [fective height of @ column or wall Bending moment Ultimate moment of resistance ‘Axial load Ultimate Load per unit area ‘Axial load on @ column corresponding to the balanced condition Final presress force (chapter 12) Characteristic imposed load Characteristic live load per unit length or area Curvature of a beam at point x Depth of equivalent rectangular stress block Spacing of links along the member Torsional moment Perimeter Shear force Shear stress Ultimate shear stress in concrete Characteristic wind load Ultimate load per unit length Neutral axis depth Lever arm Modular ratio Partial safety factor for load Paria afety factor For strength Shrinkage strain Coefficient of friction Bar size Creep coefficient 1 Properties of Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that ean be formed into ‘many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or shell Its utility and verstatility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and steel, Consider some of the widely difTering properties of these two materials that ae listed below. Concrete Steel stuength in tension poor good strength in compression good good, but slender bars wall buckle strength in shear fair durability good corrodes if unprotected fire resistance good poor ~ suffers rapid loss of strength st high temperatures It can be soon from this list that the materials ere snore or less complementary. ‘Thus, when they aze combined, the steel is able to provide the tensile sirength and probably some of the shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the steel to give durability and fie resistance. This chapter can present ‘only a brief introduction to the basic properties of concrete and its steel reinforce- ‘ment. For a more comprehensive study, itis recommended that reference should ‘be made to the specialised texts listed in Further Reading at the end of the book. 1.1 Composite Action ‘The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Because of this, nearly all reinforced conerete structures are designed on the assumption that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces, Reinforcement is designed to cerry these tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between ‘the interface of the two materials If this bond is nat adequate, the reinforcing bars 12 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a composite action, Thus ‘members should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during construction. In addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an extra mechanical grig. In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, itis assumed that there is perfect bond. so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the adjacent conczete, This ensuses that thece is what is known as compatibility of strains’ across the cross-section of the member, The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are of the order of 10 x 10~® per °C and 7-12 x 10° per °C respectively. These values ate sufficiently close that problems with bond seldom arise from differential expan sion between the to materials over normal temperature ranges, loo A rt werner 4 WA som seen a sstrostion aa Reintorcament hacking Figure 1.1 Compasite action Figure |.1lutrates the behaviour ofa simply supported bearn subjected to bending and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tense forces, ‘while the compression forces inthe top of the beam are caried by the conesete. ‘Wherever tension oveurs its lkely that cracking of the concrete will take place ‘his cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is ood reinforcement bone to ensure that the cracks aro restrained from ‘pening so thatthe embedded steal cantinues to be protected from corrosion When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete, then tee einforcement must again be provided, but in thes case itis only required to supplement the load-carrying capacity ofthe concrete. For example, compression reinforcement is generally required in a coluran, where it takes the form of vertical bars spaced near the perimeter. To prevent these bors buckling, steel binders are used to assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete. 1.2 Stress-Strain Relations The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and strains in the concrete and the steel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and ‘cosign of a member it is necessary to have a knovledge of the relationship between these stresses and strains, This knowledge is particularly important when dealing ‘with reinforced concrete which is « composite material for in this case the analysis PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 3 of the stresses on a crosssection of a member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in the concrete and stecl, and also the compatiblity of the strains across the erosssection. 1.2.1 Conerere Concrete isa very variable material. having a wide range of strengths and stress- sirain curves. A typieal curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.2. ‘As the load is applied, the vatio between the stresses and strains is approximately liner at fizst and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually 2 full recovery of displacement ifthe load is removed. Eventuslly, the curve is 10 longer linear and the concrete behaves more and more as. plastic materiel. IF the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be com plete and a permanent deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be a constant value of approximately 0.0035, inres- peetive of the strength of the conerete. The precise skape of the curve is very dependent on the length of time the loud is applied, a {actor which willbe further discussed in section 1.4 on ereep. Figure 1.2 is typical for a short-term loading, stress Siren Figure 1.2 Seres-train curr for concrete compression Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is lustra- ted by the graph in figure 1.3 which shows how tho increase is rapid at first, ‘becoming more gradual later. Some codes of practice allow the concrete stronath ‘used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it supports the design load. A typical variation in strength of en adequately cured Ordinary Portland cement concrete, as suggested by BS 8110, is 7 days Lmonth 2months 3 months 6 months 1 year 20 30 33 35 36 37 Nim? BS 8110 does not permit the use of strengths greater than the 28-day value iB calculations, but the Modulus of Elasticity may be modified to account for age as shown overleaf.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN m _ i a 8 OF 7 26S 1 Ss Age of concrete (leg scale! Figure 13 Increse of concrete strength with age. Typleel curve far an Ordinary Postand cement concrete ‘Modulus of Elasticity of Conerete It is seen from the stress-strain curve for concrete that although elastic behaviour may be assumed for stresses below about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this relationship is not truly linear. Consequently itis necessary to define precisely what value is to be taken as the modulus of elasticity stress stain A number of alternative definitions exist, but the most commonly adopted is E=E, where B, isknown as the secant or static modulus. This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a stati test in which 2 cylinder is loaded to just above one-thitd of the corresponding control cube stress and then cycled back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial “bedding in’ and minor stress redistri- ‘butions in the concrete under load. Lond is then reapplied and the behaviour will ‘then be almost linear the average slope ofthe line up to the specified stress is, token asthe value fer Ee. The testis described in detail in BS 1881 and the result fs generally known as the nstansoneous statie madulus of elasticity. ‘The dynamic modulus of elasticity. Fg, is sometimes referred to since this is ‘much easier to measure in the laboratory and there is fairly well-defined relation- ship between Ey und Fcq. The standard testis based on determining the resonant frequency of a laboratory prism specimen and is also described in BS 1861. tis also posible to obtain a good estimate of fq from ulteasonie measuring techni ues, which may sometimes be used on site To asses the concrete in an actuel structure, The standard test for Feq is on an unstressed specimen. It can be seen from figure 1-4 that the value obtained represents the slope ofthe tangent at 2er0 stress anid Bog is therefore higher than E¢. The relationship between the two modu is given by Static modulus £, = (1.25 Beg ~ 19) kN/onm? PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 5 ‘strass Eqldynomic) Eetetatic? Figure 14 Moduli of easttey of concrete ‘This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes. ‘The actual value of £ for a concrete depends on many factors related to the imix, but a general relationship is considered to exist between the modulus of clasticity and the compressive cube strength, Ranges of E, for various concrete grades whieh are suitable for design are shown in table 1.1. The magnitude of the ‘modulus of elasticity is required When investigating the deflection and cracking of aastructure, When considering short-term effects, member stiffnesses will be based fon the static modulus Bg, as defined above. If long-term effects are being consider- ced, it can be showa that the effects of creep can be represented by modifying the value of E, and this is discussed in section 6.3.2 Table 1.1 Short 1m modulus of elasticity of concrete 28 day characteristic Statie modulus Ee.25 ccube strength (Nim?) fes.28, (Xfm?) ‘Typical range Mean 5 19-31 5 30 20-32 26 40 22-34 28 50 24-36 30 60 26-38 2 ‘The clastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from Eoyg* Be 004+ 06 feud feu28)6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN (0) High yreta staat BcaF strom Figure LS Stressstirin curves for stest 1.22 Steet Figure 15 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) mild steel, and (3) high yield stec], Mild steel behaves as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the ‘ress up tothe yield, at which point there is «sudden ineresse in strain with no change in stress. After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic material and the sirain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value High yield ste! on the other hhand, does not have «definite yielé point but shows more greduel change from, an elastic toa plastic behaviour ‘The specified strength used in design is based on the yield stress for mild steel, whereas for high yield steel the strength i based on a specified proof ste, A 0.2 per cent proof sires is defined in figure 1.5 by the broken line drawn peraliel to the lear part of the stress-strain curve Removal ofthe 1oad within the plastic range would result in the stress-strain diagram following line approximately parallel to the loading postion ~ se line BC in figure 1.6, The steel will be left witha permanent strain AC, which i known as “sip: IF the steel is again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the un- loading curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B and then it will eurve jn the dizecton of the fist loading. Thus, the proportional limit forthe second loading i higher than for the initial loading. This action is efeured to as ‘strain hardening’ or ‘work hardening strase ff Stroin Figure 1.6 Stain hardening PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ‘The deformation of the steel is also dependent on the length of tne the loed is applied, Under a constant stress the strains wil gradually increase — this pheno- renon is known as ‘cteep” or ‘relaxation’. The amount of creep that takes place cover period of time depends on the grade of ste! and the magnitude ofthe stress. Creep of the steel is of ttle significance in normal reinforced concrete work, but its an important factor in prestressed concrete where the presteessing steel very highly stressed 1.3 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement ‘As concrete hardens there is 4 reduction in volume. This shrinkage is liable to cause ‘racking of the concrete, but it also has the beneficial effect of strengthening the bond between the concrete and the steel reinforcement. Shrinkage begins to take place as soon as the conerete is mixed, and is caused initially by the absorption of the water by the concrete and the aggregate. Further shrinkage is caused by evaporation of the water which rises to the conerete surface. During the setting process the hydration of the cement causes a great deal of heat to be generated, and as the conerete cools, further shrinkage takes place as a result of thermal contraction. Even after the concrete hus hardened, shrinkage continues as drying ut persists over many months, and any subsequent wetting and drying can also ‘cause swelling and shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by restricting the temperature rise daring hydration. which may be achioved by the following provedures, (1) Use a mix design with a low cement content, (2) Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground oement if possible, G) Keep aggregates and mixing water cool (@) Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray. (8) Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hyération to dissipate, ‘A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a minimum the volume of moistuce that can be lost. If the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place freely without ‘restraint, there will be no stress change within the concrete. Restraint of the shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile strains and stresses. The restraint ‘may be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an earth surface. and internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. Fore long wall or floor slab. the restraint from adjoining concrete may be reduced by using system of consinicting successive bays instead of alternate bays. This allows the free ond of every bay 10 contract before the next bay is cast. Day-to-day thermal expansion of the conereto can be greater than the move: ‘ments caused by shrinkage, Thermal stresses and strains may be controlled by the seetion or Lsection,4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Frames Supporting Vertical and Laterat Loads feral loads on a structure may be caused by wind pressures, by rtsined earth, x tyolnie fren An brand rsmeatjesd toting force mst be ana ed forall the three loading combinations described in section 3.2.1, The vertical loading analysis can be caried out by the methods deseribed previsly for braced frames (ee page 35). The analysis forthe lateral loads should be kept separate and ‘the focees may be calculated by an elastic analysis or by s simplified approximate smathod. For preliminary design calculations, and alo for mediumsize regular Structures, 2 simplitied analysis may well be adequate. BS 8110 recommends that ary simplified form of analysis should assume points of contrflexure at the mid-lengths of al the columns and beams. A sult- ole approximate analysis isthe cantilever method. I assumes tt (1) Points of contraftexure are located at the mid.points of all columns and beams: and (2) The direct axial loads in the columns are in proportion to thelr distances from the centre of gravity of the frame. It ig also usual to assume that all the colurans in a storey are of equal cross-sectional area, Application of this method is probably best illustrated by an example, as follows, Example 3.5 Simplified Analysis for Lateral Loads — Cantilever Method Figure 3.20 shows a building frame subjected to characteristic wind loud of 3.OKN per mette height of the frame, This load i assumed to be transferred to the frame asa concentrated load at each floor level as indicated inthe figure. By inspection, there is tension in the two colurans tothe left and compression in the columns to the right; and by assumption 2 the axial foroes in columns are Proportional to their distances from the centre lie ofthe frame, Thos axial force in exterior column: axial force in interior column = 4,0P 1.0P The analysis ofthe frame continues by considering a section through the top- storey columns: the removal of the frame below this section gives the remainder show in figure 3.214. The forces in this subframe are calculated as fellows. (a) Axial Forces in the Columns Taking moments about point s, EM, = 0, therefore 5.25% 1.75 +Px6.0~Px 10.0 4Px 16.020 and therefore P= 0.135 kN thus ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 45 ease g EA] sou 4th 5 SE rose we] 3 a on am | & i a #4 wo «| 4 “| a ar wr q 2.0m 4AOm_60m Figure 3.20. Frome with lzort food (b) Vertical Shearing Forces Fin the Beams For each part of the subframe, 2 Fy = Ny =0.540N Py Ny +My = 0,675 kN therefore (©) Horizontal Shearing Forces # in the Columns ‘Toking moments about the points of contraflexure of each beam, EAf=0, therefore Hy 3.95 Ny 03. Hy =0.93 kN and (Hy +H) 1.75 — Ny ¥8.0— Ns x 2.0 Hy =1.70kN ‘The caleulations of the equivalent forces forthe Fourth floor (figure 3.21) follow a sunilar procedure as follows, (4) Axial Forces in the Columas For the frame above section tt’, 24M, = 0, therefore $.25 (3 x 1.75) + 10.8 x 1.75 +Px 6.0 —P x 100 — 4P x 16.0 PHOGTSEN therefore Ny =4.0P = 2.70 kN fy = 1.0P = 0.68 kN4% REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 97 1054 20879 :0544N fist loor Ny =2437KN My = 6.09KN se, t t Fy =10.23KN Fy =12.79 KN iyi l. fossa cto slgcoss lye 2099 ‘Te bending moments in the beams an columns a thet connections ean be 4 caloulated from these results by the following formulae sy beams Mp =F x $ beam span ‘e) Root columns Mfc = A$ storey height ose ome ons oes sat theron central ommecton ont vot sod oad My = 054x460 236 27s | 26 as o16ENm 10 t Me =0.93x 4x35 v 1 | hrs 2 16ENm them Les fos vere i rot r 20 ok ote 20 co) 4th Foor Figure 3.21 Subjrames a! rhe roof and fourth floor (€) Beam Shears A A 2.70 —0.54=2.16kN 2.70 +0,68 — 0.54 — 0.135 = 2.705 KN @) Column Shears Hy «1.75 40.93% 1.75 (2.70 0.54)3,.0=0 Hy =2.78kN Hy = $05 +8.28) ~ 2.78 =5.1 N Values calculated for sections taken below the remaining floors are third floor Ny = 7.03 kN Fy = 433 kN Hy =4.644N second floor Ny = 14.14 kN. Fy =T11KN Hy = 6.61 kN Ny = 1.76KN Fy =5.A1KN Hy ~8.49 KN My =3.53 kN Py =8.88 kN Hy = 12.145N 11g 1 16 Fea He 30 16 |__ssl_sa__és} a0 49 Ss a4 65 = 49 129] os BS es 81 Tio oe 150 a asl a: [a3 ie las saa 202] se]? 202 2, hs 220 Kor fee bse v5. ame aha 1 es 4 External ® ° 244 stare! ‘Colne Beoms olumn Figure 3.22, Moments (RN m) and reactions (kN Asa check at exch joint, 2Mfy = DM ‘The bending moments due to characteristic wind loads in all the columns and beams of this structure are shown in figure 3.22,48 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 3.4 Redistribution of Moments, Some method of elastic analysis is generally used to ealeulate the forces in a con rote structure, despite the fact that the structure does not behave elastically near its ultimate load, The assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably tme for low stress levels; but a8 2 section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic ‘deformation will occur. This is recognised in BS 8110, by allowing redistribution ff the elastic moments subject to certain limitations. Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that of steet and concrete, The stress-strain curves for the two materials (Bgures 1.5 and 1.2) show the elastoplasic behaviour of steel and the plastic behaviour of concrete. The latter will fil ata relatively small compressive strain. The exact behaviour ofa reinforced conerete section depends on the relative quantities and the individuel properties of the two materials, However, sucha section may be considered virtually elastic until the stel yielés; and then plastic uatil the concrete fails in compression, Thus the plastic behaviour is limited by the concrete failure; or more specifcaly, the conoret failure limits the rotation that may take place ata seetion in bending. A typical moment-curvature diagram for a reinforeed eonerete member is shown in figure 3.23, EYES L concrate ast crock SPUN curvature: Figure 3.23. Typice! momencicurature diagram Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate moment of resistance My. i then behaves as a plastic hinge resisting a constant moment of that value. Further loading must be taken by other parts of the struc- ture, with the changes in moment elsewhere being just the same as if areal hinge existed. Provided rotation of a hinge does not cause crushing of the conerete, further hinges will be formed until a mechanism is produced. This requirement is considered in more detail in chapter 4 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 49 Example 3.6 Moment Redistribution ~ Single Span Fixed-end Beam ‘The beam shown in figure 3.24 is subjected to an increasing uniformly distributed load. we 1 wi? Elastic span moment = “4 lastic span mer oA Elastic support moment In the case where the ultimate bending strengths are equal at the span and at the supports; and where adequate rotation is possible, then the additional load w, ‘which the member can sustain by plastic behaviour, can be found. stunt langth pooeiettienatetitaneny Loos tt iat Elastic BMD 8 Moles, a = © oe Additvona! erarnantsalogram <=” inges ct Aone) OS™ callopse eenanisin » seo Elestic © MO (Cottons loecs) zl Final Collapse BMD Figue3.24 Moment redistribution - one span beam At collapse wh? = WET + additional mid-span momento, * 1 rvid-span mi B where my © (wy£7)/8 as for a simply supported beam with hinges at A and C. Thus ee Boot ‘where is the load to cause the first plastic hinge; thus the beam may carry a load of 1.33 with redistribution.50 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN From the design potat of view, the elastic bending-moment diagram can be obtained for the required ultimate loading inthe ordinary way. Some of these ‘moments may then be reduced; but this will necessiate increasing others to min: tain the static equilibrium of the structure. Usually it is the maximum support moments which are reduced, so econemising in reinforcing stee| and also reducing congestion at the columns. The requirements for applying moment redistribution (@) Equilibrium between internal and extemal forces must be maintained, hence it is necessary to recalculate the span bending moments end the shear forces for the load case invalved. (b) At sections of largest moment the depth of neutral axis, x, is imited by x> Gy —04)d ‘where d = the effective depth, and ‘moment at section after redistribution moment at seetion before redistribution Ae This rule effectively prevents any reduction of the moments in columns Wich are priarily compression members with large values of x, and this is dealt with more fully in chapter 4 ———Eostie moments —-———Resietributed maments = 70% of elastic moments Reaisiebured decign moments, Figure 3.25. Redisertbuton of hogstng moments ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE sl (©) The moment of resistance of any section should be at least 70 per cent of the moment from the elastic analysis, hence allowing up to 30 per cent redistribution, This requirement ensures that there can be no ‘movement in the position of the points af vontraflewuze obtained fron ‘the elastic analysis as shown by figure 3.25. I thus also ensures that a sufflefent length of tension reinforcement is provided to resist cracking atthe serviceability limit state For unbraced structures over four storeys the redistribution is 10 10 per eent, to prevent lateral instability. ited Example 3.7 Moment Redistribution In example 3.3, figure 3.14 it is required to reduce the maximum support moment of Mga = 15OKN mas much as possible, but without increasing the span moment above the preseat maximum value of 126 KN m. 1302 1124150 2 10 7 ’ @ c D Tai a la} Grigine! Moments, txtim) . 12 opt? ” Woe 10 an Se - SS 128 125 (m) Reaisteisutes Moments tet 102 yes 102 168 wr (fe) Shears, (KN) Figure 3.26 Moments and sheors wth redistribution Figure 3.26a duplicates the original bending-moment diagram (part 3 of figure 3.14) of example 3.3 while figure 3.26b shows the redistributed moments, with the span moment set at 126 KN m. The moment at support B cen be calculated, using 8 rearrangement of equations 3.4 and 3.1, Thus Va = VMecax — Map) 20] and sta (Van 2) tan2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 1 kN/m, therefore Van = V{(026-+ 70) x2 x 51] = 141 kN (1-288) oon 142 KN my and 06 — 141 = 165 kN Reduction in Mya = 150 — 142 kNm _ 8x 100 150 Yan = 5.3 per cent In order to ensure that the moments in the columns at joint B are not changed by the distribution, moment Myc must also be reduced by 8 KN m. Therefore Myc =112-8=104KNm hogging Figure 3,26e shows the revised shearing-force diagram to accord with the redistei- buted moments. This example illustrates how, with redistribution (1) the moments ata section of beam oan be reduced without exceeding the maximum design moments at other sections (2) the values of the column moments are not affected; and (3) the equilibrium between external loeds and internal forces is meintained, 4 Analysis of the Section [A satisfactory and economic design of a concrete structuse rarely depends on a complex theoretical analysis. It is achieved more by deciding on a practical over- all layout of the structure, careful attention to detai] and sound constructional practice, Nevertheless the total design of a structure does depend on the analysis ‘and design of the individual member sections. Wherever possible the analysis should be kept simple, yet it should be based on. the observed and tested behaviour of reinforced concrete members. The thanipula- tion and juggling with equations should never be allowed to obscure the fund meatal prineiples that unite che anelysis. The three most important principles are (J) ‘The strestes and strains are rlated by the material properties, neduding the stress-strain curves for concrete and steel. (2) The distribution of strains must be compatible with the distorted shape of the eross section (3) The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads for static equilibrium, ‘These principles are true irrespective of how the stresses and strains are distributed, ‘or how the member is loaded, or whatever the shape ofthe crosssection. ‘This chapter describes and antlyses the action of a member section under load. It derives the basle equations used in design and also those equations required for ‘the preparation of design charts. Emphasis has been placed mostly on the analysis associated with the ultimate limit state but the behaviour ofthe section within the clastic eange and the serviceability Hit state has also been considered. Seetion 4.7 deals with the redistribution of the moments from en elastic a of the structure, and the effect it hes on the equstions derived and the design procedure, ys 4,1 Stress-Strain Relations Short-term stress-strain curves are presented in BS 8110. These curves are in an idealised form which can be used in the analysis of member sections. 334 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 4.1.1 Concrete ‘The beheviour of structural concrete (figure 4.1) is represented by a parsbolic strese-strain relationship, up toa strain ¢9, from which point the strain increases while the stress remains constant. Strain ¢ is specified as a function of the characteristic strength of the concrete (fey), a8 is also the tangent modulus at the origin, The ultimate design stress is given by DSF fon = 16S = 0.447 fg = 0.45 fo om 5 whore the factor of 0.67 allows for the difference between the bending strength ‘nd the cube crushing strength of the concrete, and 7q,~ 1.5 isthe usual partial safety factor for the strength of concrete when designing members cast sit ‘The ultimate strain of 0.0035 is typical for all grades of concrete, O67 fey Farapone i fy -2-annoa [te 00035, strain Figure 4.1. Short-term design stets-strain curve for concrete in comprewtion 4.1.2 Retnforcing Steel ‘The representative short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement i given in figure 4.2. The behaviour ofthe stel i identical in tension and compression, being linear in the elastic range up to the desi yield stress of fy yg, Where fy 18 ‘the charecerste yield stress and 7 i the partial factor of safety Within the elastic range the relationship between the stres and stain is stress elastic modulus x strain Axe ep so that the design yield strain is ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 3s Tension ond Compression 200KN/mm? Stroin Figure $.2. Short-term design sessstratn curve for reinforcement At the ultimate limit for fy = 460 Nfram? = 460)(1.15 x 200x 10°) =0002 andfor fy #250 N/mm? cy = 250/(1.15 x 200 x 10°) 00109 nfsey 5 =0-9x eae ) | eautest | [ewe rr) ws tmongulor rectengular+ euivetent porte: ceetanguar section strains stress sioens Figure 4.3. Section with strain digrem and stress Blocks 4.2 The Distribution of Strains and Stresses across a Section The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the rogions of tensile strains and that, after eracking, all the tension is56 REINFORCED CONCRETE DI carried by the reinforcement, Its also assumed that plane sections ofa structural ‘member remain plan after staining so that across the section there must be linear distribution of strains. Figure 4.3 shows the cross-section of « member subjected to bending, and the resultant strain diagram, together with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete. IGN (1) The triangular stress distribution applies when the streses are very realy proportional tothe strains, which generally occurs atthe losding levels encountered under working conditions an I, therefore. used at the serviceability limit tae (2) The rectangolar-parabotiestres block represents the distebution at failure when the compressive strains are within the plastic range and i ssasociated with the design forthe ultimate limit state (@) The equivalent rectanglarstess block i simplified alternative tothe sectangular-perabolic distribution As there is compatibility of strains between the reinforcement end the adjacent ‘concrete, the steel strains éy in tension and és. in compression can be determined from the strain diagram. The relationship between the depth of neutral axis (2) and the maximum concrete strain (éc.) and the steel strains is given by 42) wld ” where dis the effective depth of the beem and d’ is the depth of the compression reinforcement. Having determined the strsins, we can evaluate the stresses in the reinforcement from the stressstrain curve of figure 4.2, together with the equations developed in section 4.1.2, For analysis of a section with known steo strains, the depth of the neutral axis cam be determined by rearranging equstion 4.2 as a and x (a4) 1+ At the ultimate limit state the maximum compressive strain in the concrete s taken a5 0.0035, For steel with ino equation 44 160 N/mm? the yleld strain is 0.002. Inserting these values ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7 0.0035 Hence, to ensure yilding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state: x >0636d ‘At the ultimate limit state it Is important that member sections in flexure should be ductile aad that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete, ‘Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that redistribution of maximum moments can occur, resulting ina safer and more economical structure. To be very certain of the tension steel yielding, the code of practice limits the depth of neutral exis so thst xP Gy — 08d where | -Moment at the section after redistribution ‘moment at the section before redistribution Thus with moment redistribution not greater than 10 per cent,and py, *0.9, xPOSd ‘This limit will normally be adopted for ultimate limit state design, but larger degrees of moment redistribution will require a smaller limit tox to ensure that plastic hinges can form, providing adequate rotation at the critical sections (see section 4.7 and table 41), 4.3 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block For the design of most reinforced concrete structures i is usual to commence the design for the conditions at the ultimate limit state, which is then followed by checks to ensure that the structure is adequate for the serviceability limit state without excessive cellection or cracking of the conerete. For this reason the analysis in this chapter will first consider the simplified rectangular stress block which can be used for the design at the ultimate limit stst. ‘The rectangular stress block as shown in figure 4.4 may be used in preference ‘to the more rigoroxs rectanguler-paraboli stress block. This simplified stress ‘distribution will faellitate che snalysis and provide more manageable design equations. in particular when dealing with non-rectangular cross-sections. It can be seen from the figure that the stress block does not extend to the ‘neutral axis of the section but has « depth s = 0.9 x. This will result in the centroid of the stress lock being s/2 = 0.45 x from the top edge of the section, which is very nearly the same location as for the more precise rectangular-parabolic stress block: also the arezs of the two types of stress block are approximately equal (see section 4.9), Thus the moment of resistance of the section will be similar using, calculations based an either of the two stress blocks58 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 0.0035 067 fey ‘ . 203! Pine 9-5 fy aa T J [7 0s] [e } Je ne Sa 4 rha l ote pa) e Fa Section Strains Stress Block Figure 48 Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block ‘The design equations derived in sections 4.4 to 4.6 ace for redisteibution of ‘moments being not greater than 10 per cent, When a greater moment redistribue tion is applied. reference should be made to seetion 4.7 which describes how to modify the design equstions. 44 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force Py Sn the reinforcing steel. and g resultant compressive force in the concrete Fg. which acts through the centroid of the effective arca of concrete in compression, as shown in figure 4a, For equilibrium. the ultimate design moment, Af must be balanced by the nioment of resistance of the section so that M= Fog X= Fy 45) ‘where zis the lever arm between the resultant forces Fee and Fy. Fg = stress x area of action 0.45 fou x bs = 32 68) ‘So that substituting in equation 4.5 M= OAS fay bs x2 and replacing s from equation 4.6 M=0.9 foyb (d~2)2 an Rearcanging and substituting = Afb? fy (fa? - Gay +Kjo9=0 Solving this quadratic equation: [05+ yi0.25 — xj0.9) 48)" and ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 39 ‘which is the equation in the code of practice BS 8110 for the lever arm, 2, of a singly reinforeed section, In equation 4.5 F, fylTm Ag With Yyy = LIS O87 fyAy Honce i oy O87 hx Equations 4.8 and 4.9 can be used to design the area of tension reinforcement in 2 concrete section to resist an ultimate moment, M. 0-95 Compression reinforcement 0-85 ai requred ‘ ‘ » -t0| — t AS nom 2m \ ar 0-08 O10 015 0-156 Kem rod toy The % values on the K oxi mark the limits for singly reinfercea sections mith mament redistribution applied (see Section 4.7) Figue ss Lerevarm curve Equation 4.8 for the lever arm z can be used to set up 2 table and draw a lever- ‘arm curve as shown in figure 4.5, and the curve may be used to determine the lever «um, z, instead of solving equation 4.8.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘The upper limit of the leverazm curve, z = 0.9, is specified by BS 8110, The lower limit of 2 = 0,775 d is when the depth of neutral axis x =d/2, which is the ‘maxiraum value allowed by the code for a singly reinforced seetian in order 10 provide » ductile section which will have a gradual tension type failure as already described. With 2 = 0.775 d from equation 4.7) M= 09 foyb (0.775 d) x 0.775 d M0156 fou ba? lor 18 marked on the lever-arm diagram. The coefficient 0.156 has actually been calculated using the concrete stress as more precisely equal t0 0.67 fay! = 0.447 fey. instead of O45 fog ‘When’ Mu BP hes compression reinforcement is lso required to supplement the moment of resist: ance of the concrete =K>0156 Example 4.1 Design of a Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section The ultimate design moment 10 be sisted by the section in figure 46 is 185 KN m, Determine the area of tension reinforcement (4,) required given the characteristic nnateralstengths are fy = 460 Nfmm® and fey = 30 Nimm? 2260, any 440 ke bd hoy 185 x 108 therefore compression steel is not required. [ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 6 fos+ /(ors-- S)t wo fosr (025-22) = 369 mm (Oralternatively, the value of z = fd could be obtained from the lever-arm siagram, figure 4.5.) Lever arm: uM O87 hz 185 x 108 G87 5 460 x39 = 1253 mm? A Analysis Equations for a Singly Reinforced Section ‘The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a ghven suction with a known area of steel reinforcement . For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile force in the steel in figuie 4. Foo Fa 045 foyb %3= O87 Sy Ay Therefore depth of stress block is DBT FyAs (ny 045 fu and x=909 Therefore moment of rexstanos ofthe section is Mi Fg xt =08T fA, (922) =08T HAL («- 2824) a1) 09 fab ‘These equations assume the tension reinforcement has yielded, which will be ‘the case if x 0,636 d. If this isnot the cese, the problem would require solving by trying successive values of x untilro REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Foo = Fox With the steel strains and hence sitesses being determined from equations 4.2 and 4.1, to be used in equation 4.12 instead of 0.87 f,. Example 4.2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the crost-seetion shows in figure 4.7 given that the characteristic strengths are f, = 460 N/mm? for the reinforce- ment and fo, 30 N/mm? for the cancrete. sst09 ost 2208, nse T Fc a lL [AF | f L lees a 4 z Figure 4.7 Analysts example ~ sgl reinforced section For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile forces on the section Feo = Fox therefore 0.45 fxyb8 = O87 fyAy 0.45 x 30 x 300 x5 = 0.87 x 460 x 1470 therefore 22145 mm and x= 910.9 = 145/0.9 = 161 mm ‘This value of x is less than the value of 0.636 a derived from section 4.2, and therefore the stecl has yielded and fax = 0.87 fy as assumed. Moment of resistance of the soction is Ma Fg xz = 0.87 fA, (4-9/2) 0.87 x 460 x 1470 (520 — 14572) x 10-* =263 KN m ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 03 the Ultimate Limit 4.$ Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement. State a) Derivation of Basic Equations It should be noted that the equations in this saetion have been derived for the case ‘where the reduction in moment ata section due to moment redistribution is not greater than 10 per cent, When this is not the cast, reference should be made to section 4.7 which deals with the effect of moment redistribution, a8 hey Ss => a bk section Steams Stress Block Figure4.8. Section wich compression rfnforcenient From the section dealing with the analysis of a singly reinforced section when M>0.156 fey bd® the design ultimate moment exceeds the mement of resistance of the concrete and therefore compression reinforcement is required. For this condition the depth of neutral axis, x3 0.5 d, the maximum value allowed by the code in order to ensure 1 tension failure with a ductile section, Therefore zad—s/2 0.9 .x/2 09x05 al2 ms¢ For equiltrium of the section in Figure 4.8, Fa Feo Fac so that withthe reinforcement at yield 087 fyAy= 0.45 foybs # 087 HyAi s=09xd/2=0.45 d 087 fy = 0.201 foybd #087 fy (4.13) and taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel, Ay6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN M= Fee X24 Pu (d-@) 0.201 faybd x 0.175 d+ 0.87 fA, (da) 0156 foubd® + 0.87 fyAi (dd) 4.14) From equation 4.14 M0156 fegbd? 0.87 f, @ a) Multiplying both sides of equation 4.13 by 2 = 0.775 d end rearranging gives = 2.156 foybd? , . 0874, x2 4 erg (41s) with 2 0.775 @ Hence te areas of compression steal, Aj, nd tension tel 4, con be ealeuated from equations 415 and 3.16, ‘Substituting A’ = 0.156 and K = Mfbd?f., into these equations thers into the same forms asin the code of practice, BS 8110, whi Ape RAK Vesta? uld convert Mee (ayy K foubl™ 4s . oar: 7“ @usy In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so that the steel stress f, = 0.87 J. From the proportions of the strain distribution diagram: = 20088 (4.19) so that x At yield with f, = 460 Nimm? the steel strain yg = ¢, * 0.002, Therefore for yielding of the compression steel fy — 20 s045 (4.20)¢ x ”)~ poo3s 1s specified in the code, or with x =d/2 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 6s a a ‘The ratio of dd for the yielding of other grades of steel can be determined by using their yield strain in equation 4.19, but for values of fy less than 460 Nimm* the application of equation 4.2 will provide an adequate safe check. dd > 0.215, thon itis necessary fo calculate the sirain ég from equation 4.19 and then determine fg from Fac * Ex Xb, * 200000 bye ‘This valu of stress forthe compressive stel must then be used inthe denominator ‘of equation 415 in place of 0.87 fy in order to calculate the area 4, of compres- sion Steel, The ares of tension steel is calculated from a modified equation 4,16 such that 0215 (421) OU56faybd® , 4s y See A iS ae 4 oaR (6) Deen Charts FO | tees 0, ys 480, adr ero +08 a6 os * e a8 oO : os 0 18 20 25 30 35 100 Ag vod Figure4.9. Typical design char for dowdy rebaforeed beams ‘The equations forthe design charts are obtoined by taking moments about the neutral xis. Thos M= OAS fey 0.9.x ( — 0.9812) + eS Ot d') + fas 4-8) ‘This equation and 4.13 may be written in the form66 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Ay A, * fy At = 0.201 fin © the fs feu the 01 fa 5 (1 0.45)+ fe a ¢) tat ( 5) oe aod For specified ratios of Aj/bd, x/d and d'/d, the two non-dimensional equations cen be solved to give values for Ag/éd and Af/d? so that a set of design charts such as che one shown in figure 4.9 may be plotted. Before the equations ean be solved, the steel stresses fx: and fig must be ealeulated for each value of 2/d. This is achieved by first determining the relevant strains from the strain dagram (or by applying equations 42 and 4.3) and then by evaluating the stresses ftom the stss- strsin curve of figure 4.2. Values of xfd below 0.3 apply when moments are redistributed Example 4.3 Design of a Reerangular Section with Compression Reinforcement (Moment Redistribution Factor i, 2 0.9) “The section showin in figure 4.10 sto resist an ultimate design moment of 285 KN m, The characteristic material stengths are f, » 480 Nimm? and fou =30 Noun? Determine the areas of reinforcement required M bah 2 285 x 108 260 x 440 130 >0.156 therefore compression steal is required afd = 50/440 =0.11 <0.2 asin equation 4.21 and the compression steel will have yielded. ‘Compression steel: = 0.189 Aya EEK fogba® O87f, da") = (0.189 - 0.156) 30 x 087 x 460 (440 =319 10m Tension stot: 2 0.156 30) 0.87 460 (0.775 x 440) = 1726 +319 = 2045 mm? 4319 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 67 Jouso paris) A t fete Figute 4.10. Design example wth compression retorcement, 5p > 0.9 Example 4.4 Analysis of a Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure 4.11 given that the characteristie strengths aze fy = 460 Nimm? for the einforce rent and fay = 30 N/mm? for the concrete -45te4 289, far + Ty terse re Sand s-092| a-510 oom L bye2ne fe Section Stress Block Figure 4.11 Analysts exampie, doubly reinforced section For equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forees on the section’ Fas Foot Fee ‘Assuring intially thatthe steel stresses fg and fi are the design yield valves, then 087 fy Ag = 0.45 fey bs + 0.87 fy AS Therefore = 0874, Uy = A2) 045 feud = 287 x 460241 0.45 «30 x 280 = 189 mm 628)68 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN x= 5/0.9= 210m, xf = 210/510 = 0.41 <0.636 so the tension steel will have yielded, Also d'fx=S0/210= 0.24 <0.43 s0 the compression steel will also have yielded, as assumed, ‘Taking moments about the tension steel M= Food ~ 512) + Fg @—a') = OAS fou bs (d — 5/2) + 0.87 fy Agta — a") = 0.45 x 30 x 280 x 189 (510 — 189/2) + 0.87 x 460 x 620 (510 — 50) = 412x108 N mm Itthe depth of neutral axis was such that the compressive or tensile steel had not yielded. it would have been necessary to try successive values of x until Fut Foot Fi balances, with the steel strains and stresses being caloulated from equations 4.2, 4.3 and 4). The steel stresees at balance would then be used to calculate the ‘moment of resistance, 4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State —"—. 24 r A ss00x nf [oeeror one | of OT | a - Fat 1 Figuro 4.12 scion, eres Mock within the flonge, $< ig ‘T-sections and L-scetions which have their flanges in compression ean both be designed or analysed in z similar manner, and the equations which are derived can ‘be applied to either type of cross-section. As the flanges generally provide a large ‘compressive ares, itis usually unnecessary to consider the case where compression. steel is required; if t should be required, the design would be based on the principles derived in section 4.6.3 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 9 For the singly reinforced section itis necessary to consider two conditions: (2) the stress block lies within the compression flange, and (2) the stress block extends below the flange. 4.6.1 Flanged Section — the Depth of the Stress Block Lies Within the Flange, s iy then the procedure would then be similar to that in example 47. 4.6.2 Flanged Section ~ the Depth of the Stress Block Extends Below the Flange, s> he FFor the design of a flanged section, the procedure described in section 4.6.1 will check if the depth of the stress block extends below the flange. An alternative procedure is to calculste the moment of resistance, Mr, of the section with = hs, the depth of the flange (see equation 4.22 of example 4.6 following). Hence if the sign moment, Af, is such that M>My then the stress block must extend below the flange, and shy In this case the design can be cartied out by either: (@) using an exact method to determine the depth of the neutral axis, es in ‘example 4.6 or ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION a (b) designing for the conservative condition of x = d/2 as described at the end of this section, Example 4.6 Design of a Flanged Section with the Depth of the Stress Block ‘Below the Flange ‘The T-section beam shown in figure 4.14 is requited to cesist an ultimate di moment of 180 KN. The characteristic msterial strengths are f, = 460 Nimm?* an fey = 30N/mm®, Calculate the area of reinforcement required. x= 400 ast Tb 2380] a Fa ee Section sie a ee ‘ite fnwe Fer is the force developed in the Mange Frey is the force developed in the area of web in compression Moment of resistance. My. of the flange is My Fag 2, 145 fase he (d — de?) 420)" 45 x 30 x 400 x 100 (350 — 10/2) x 10°F 162 KN m <180 KN m, the design moment Therefor, the stress block must extend below the Mange. This now necesury to determine the depth, ty, ofthe web in compression, where ye =~ Ie For equlibrium Applied moment 18O= Fag 21 + Fon X2 = 162 +085 fadedn REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN = 162 + O45 x 30% 200 Sy (250 ~sw/2) x 10- 162 +2700 se (250 — 52) x 10-* ‘This equation can be rearranged into 8 = $005 + 13.33 4 10° Solving this quadratic equation fq = 28. mm So that the depth of neutral axis 100 + 280.9 = 142 mm Asx Fee so that > he ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION B by = 450 O45 fey “ nee + fa T2190 oe am ee dad | ural geaao) PP de oe [as2ai0 J 942300 stress section ue Figure 4.18 Analyse example ofa Tscrfon. s> hy and the force in the web is Fray 20.45 Fos bue (= hi) = 0.45 x 30 x 300 (6 — 150) x 10% = 4.05 (5 ~ 150) For equilibrium Fou = Fa ~Fet or 4.05 (5 ~ 150) = 964,5 — 911.2 Hence $= 163 mm 9/09 = 181 mm With this depth of newteal axis the reinforcement has yielded, as assumed, and Fegy = 4.05 (163 — 150) = 53 kN (If Fog > Fp, then the stress block would not extend beyond the flange and the Section would be analysed as in example 4.2 for a rectangular section of dimensions be xd) Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement Me Fag (A — g!2) + Foy (d~ 8) —hng2) = [911.2 (440 — 150/2) + $3 (440 — 163/2 ~ 1502)] x 10-* = 348 KNm Example 4.8 Design of a Flanged Section with Depth of Neutral Axis x=d/2 A safe but conservative design for a flanged section with s > iy can be achieved by setting the depth of neutral axis to x =d/2, the maximum depth allowed in the code, Design equations can be derived for this condition as follows.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN heal Section Stress Blocie Figure 4.16. Alnged secon with depth of neutrat axis x ~ 4/2 Depth of stress block, s= 0.9.x #045 ¢ Divide the flanged section within the depth of the stress block into areas 1 and 2 asshown in figure 4.16, so that bye XS= O45 bud Bg — bee) xe and the compression forces developed by these areas are Fay = O45 fog 04S ed = 0.2 fab Fea = OAS foyhs (br — bw) Taking moments about Fez at the centroid of the flange M = Fag Cd — higf2)~ Fey (912 — Ag!) = 087 fyAa (d — hel2) — 0.2 fasbyd (O45 d ~ hi? Area Ara Therefore MAO foybud (O45 d hg) 087 fy (d— 05h) ‘This i the equation given in clause 3.4.4.5 of BS 8100, It should not be used when ig 2 0.48 a. “Applying this equation to example 4.6 Ag~ 80X10 + 0.1 x 30x 200 x 350 0.45 4350 — 100) 10,87 x 460 (350 — 100/2) = 1600 mm? (compare with 1540 mm? of example 4.6) Before using equation 4.23 for calculating ds. itis necessary to confirm that compression reinforsement is not requited, This is achieved by using equation 4:24Ho check tha the moment of resunce Of the eonerste A, Wrest than the design moment, iene 423y ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7 4.6.3 Flanged Section with Compression Reinforcement With x = d/2in figure 4.16 and taking moments about dy, the maximum resistance rmoment of the concrete is Me = Fey X21 # Fea X22 0.156 feyby id? +085 fey (Oy bu) (d= hesf2) 4.24) (ote that the value of 0,156 was derived previously forthe rectangular section.) Dividing through by feuded” A zo.1s6 & +0. wh Fob? be a ‘which f similar fo the equation given in BS 8110. Tf the applied design moment, M > Af, compression reinforcement is required. Tnwhich ease the areas of steel can be calculated from by a9 *) (42sy 1 MM, js fe (4.26 0877, @-a) ae and considering the equilibrium of forces onthe section Fu=FatFat Pe so that y= OR ead +043 fase (r= Be) 5 gt an 08th Again, d’x > 0.43, othornise the design compressive steel stress sles than 087 f,. ‘When, because of moment redistribution, fy <0.9 the limiting depth of neutral axis is less than 2 and these equations wil require modification using the factors given in the table 4,1 of section 4.7 whicl. deals with moment redistribution. 4.7 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equstions ‘The plastic behaviour of reinforeed concte' at theultimate limit state affects the distebution of moments ina structure. To allow for this, the moments derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the assumption that plastic hinges have formed a the sections with the largest moments. The formation of plstic hinges requires olatively larg rotations with yielding ofthe teasion rein. forcement, To ensure large strains in the tension set, the code of practice restricts the depth ofthe neutral axis of a section azcording to the reduction of the elastic moment so that xP Gy —04)d (4.28)" ‘whore d is the effective depth76 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ane fg = momenta setion after redistribution a i. moment at section before redistribution $0, forthe design of «section with compression senforcement after moment disiibutio the depth of neutral aie Wl take the muximom sae Eee equation 428 “herafoe the depth ofthe stress bck s 9 By — O44 ‘and the level arm is ~ 0.985 0.4) a2 (429) ‘The moment of resistance of the concrete in compression is Me™ Fog x2 #045 fobs x2 $045 fyb x09 Oy — 04) Ax [d— 0.9 (8 —0.4) a2] Therefore bakfjg “O95 ¥09 By — 04) [1 ~ 0.45 ~0.4)] = 0.402 (By — 0.4) — 0.18 (By — 0.4)? So that earrangiag Me = K'bd? fay where = 0.402 (f — 0.4) - 0.18 (@ — 0.4)? (430)" ‘This is the equation for A’ given in BS 8110. (should be noted that in calculating the coeffiients 0.402 and 0.18, the more Brake value of conrete ses fx = 0.67 ol as bee wed and not the vale ‘When theultimate design moment is such that M> K'bd? fey or K>K then compression sea is required such that aye KK feud? 087K dd’) (aan and = Kfesta? ys 4 ostg: *4 (432) ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7” u - 439" K BM he (4.33) ‘These equations are enti! in form :o those derived previously for he desin of 4 section with compcesin reinforcement fr By 0.9 “Table 1 shows the various design factors associated with he moment sedis tribution, If the value of d’fd for the section exceeds that shown in the table, the erapresion tel wil ot ave yslded and the compressive stress wil be less than OTF Unsuch cases. the compressive stress fc Wl be Eye where the stain ces otal from the proportions ofthe sain diagram. This value of fj should feplace O87 f, inequation 4.31, and equation 432 becomes Mabel? Kifoubd? 5 4: Se OSsTsye * O87 fy where ‘Table 4.1 Moment redistribution design factors I Redistribution By xd aid aie (per cent) ewe <10 09 os O77s 0.160.215 15 oss o4s 0797 Oa 0.193 20 08 4 082 0132 0.172 25 7s 03508420199 0.150 30 07 03 0865 ois 0129 ee It should be noted that for e singly reinforced section (K K" therefore compression stee! is required. Compression steel: Ae KEK Vey bd? O87 fda’) (0.151 ~ 0,132) 30 x 260 x 440? 0.87 x 460 (440 — 50) = 184mm? (CThe vasiation with the previous result is due to rounding-off errors in the arith metic and the subtraction of two numbers of similar magnitude in the numerator.) Tension steel: 95 + v0.25 -«'09)) (05+ ¥(0.25 - 0.13309) = 0.824 K fosbil? yy o8ry: 0.32% 30 x 260 x 4402 0.87 460% 082 x 0 = 138) + 184= 1565 mm* +184 4.8 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State ‘The applied axial force may be tonsite or compressive. In the analysis that follows, ‘compressive force is considered. For a tesile load the same basic principles of cquilibriam, compatibility of strains. and stress-strain relationships, would apply. but it would be necessary to change the sign of the applied load (NW) when we consider the equilibrium of forees on the cross-section, (The area of conerete in compression has not been reduced to allow for the concrete displaced by the compression steel, This could be taken into account by reducing the stress fye the compression steel by an amount equal © 0.45 fay.) Figure 4.18 represents the cross-section, of a member with typical strain and stress distributions for varying positions of the neutral axis, The cross-section is subject 10 a moment M and an axial compressive force WV. and in the figure the direction of the moment is such as to cause compression on ihe upper purl of the section and tension on the lower part.REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 0-0035 O45 fy pt eile re bee fe | oe a onl |e il ie oe | Yi neuteat_* | . a tS 7 Section ake fo) tO 0.0035 Og me a | } 7 > Fe se | If LL. a Strains Stresses Moh Zen Figure 4.18 Bending plus exit fad with verstig postions ofthe neutna ast so ze ee oS Mon mm Figure $19. 7yplcel coum design chart ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 81 Lat Fee be the vompressve fore developed inthe conctete and acting through the centroid of the stress block Fee be the compressive force inthe rinforeement acea A and acting through its centroid F,_be the tensile or comprossive fore inthe reinforcement area Ay and acting through its centroid {i) Basie Equations nat Design Charts “The applied foree (WV) must be balanced by the forces developed within the cross section, therefore N= Poet Pet Fy In this equation, F, will be negative whenever the postion of the neutral axis is such thatthe reinforcement isin tension, asin figure 418a, Substituting into this equation the terms for the stresses and areas = 045 fiu8 + fers + Sey G35 where fc fs the compressive stress in reinexeement 4s and fi the tenile or compressive stress in reinforcement As ‘The design moment M must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the forces developed within the cross-section. Hence, taking moments sbout the ‘mid-depth of the section a 7 sevoasgme(" 2) oraat(* a) fils ( *) (436) When the depth of neutral axis is such that 0. x 3 fe asin part (b) of figure 4.18, then the whole constete section is subject :0 a uniform compressive stress of (0.45 feu. in this ease, the concrete provides no contribution to the moment of resistance and the first term on the right sie of equation 4.36 disappears | Fora symmetrical arangement of veinforcement (4; = 4, = Aye/? and =f: ~ d), equations 4.35 and 4.36 can be rewritten in the following form N 045 fous hk M 045 feas (9.5 : fads (a _ bh? nh ar) th Mh 1 (8 03) ap + As fei “kG asp82 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN In these equations the steel strains, and hence the stresses fig and f,, vary with the depth of the neutral axis (x). Thus N/bh and M/bi can be calculated for specified ratios of 4,/oh and x/h 30 that column design charts for a symmetrical arrange- ‘ment of zeinforcement such as the one shown in figure 4.19 can be plotted, ‘The direct solution of equations 4.37 and 4.38 for the design of column rein: forcement would be very tedious and, therefore, a set of design charts for the ‘usual case of symmetrical sections have been prepared by the British Standards Institution. Examples showing the design of columa steel aze given in chapter 9. (ii) Modes of Failure ‘The relative magnitude of the moment (M) end the axial lood (W) governs whether the section will fil in tension or in compression. With lage effective eecentrcity (e= MIN) a tensile failure is bkely, but With a small eccentricity 2 compressive failure is more likely. The magnitude ofthe eccenricty affects the position of the neutral axis end hence the strains and stresses in the reinforcement. Let ae be the compressive strain in reinforcement 4 be the tensile or compressive strain in reinforcement Ay be the tensile yield strain of steel as shown in the stress-strain curve of figure 4.2. From the lear sun dtution of gure 4.18 eq: = 0.0035 &) and (439) wows (69 ‘The stee! stresses and strains are then related aveording to the stressstrain curve of Figure 4.2. Consider the following modes of failure of the section as shown on the inter action diagram of Figure 4.20. (2) Tension Failure, ¢, > ‘This type of failure is associated with large eccentricities (e) and small depths of neutral axis (x), Failute begins with yielding of the tensile reinforcement, followed by crushing of the concrete as the tensile strains rapidly increase (b) Balanced Failure, e, = ey. point b on figure 4.20 When failure occurs with yielding of the tension steel and crushing of the concrete at the same instant i is described asa “balanced” failure, With ¢, = ¢, and from equation 4.39 a apg = 1+ fe 0035 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 8 For example, substituting the values of e, = 0.002 for grade 460 steel put 70.6364 Equations 4.35 and 4,36 become Neat = Foc + Fee ~ Fs and =O45 fyb 0.9 Xpat + fue; — O87 frAy 4.40) an Fa(4— 222m) oe (8—2) vA, (0-2) where fie = $087 fy ‘At point b on the interaction diagram of figuee 4.20, 4/= Nygy M= Moar and J,= — 0.87 fy. Whon the design load N> Nix the sbetion val fal in compression, whist if Ny there will bean initial tone fllure, with yielding of reinoree- ment Ay. comprassion 2 fonture at Tension failure o ™ THEE Figure 4.20 Bending, plus anit load chert with: modes of joture (©) Compression Faure {mn this caso x > xq) and > Npay ‘The change in slope at point rin figure 4.20 occurs when ete ang fom equation 439 92.0035 20.0035 — e,) 2.33 d’ for grade 460 steel. Point r will occur ir the tension failure zone of the interaction diagram if Xe Spa84 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Whenxd F,S 087 fy and compressive When x = 2.33 d. then from equation 4.39 = 0.00: AL this stage, both layers of stee! will have yielded and there will be zero moment of resistance with a symmetrical section, so that Ns #045 {bh +0874, (4,44) Such MCN interaction diagrams can be constructed fr any shape of eros ¢etion ich has an ais of eymmoty bj appying tho bass equim and stain co patibility equations with the stress-strain elations, as Gemonstrated in the fellow: ing examples. These diagrams can be very useful for design purposes. y for grade 460 steel Example 4.10 MAN Interactive Diagram for an Unsymimetrical Section Construct the interaction diagram forthe section shown in figure 4.21 with fog = 30 N/mm? and f, = 460 N/mm’. The bending causes maximum compression ‘om the Face adjacent to the steel ates A 22350 at = re i -00 arse | f | e450] 380] se nautrol a,.g62. | -Teirel 798? | Tons q ae stean Section Diagram Figure 4.21 Son-symiotetical section Man interaction example For a symmetrical cross-section. taking moments about the centredine of the concrete section will give M = 0 with W= No and both areas of steel at the yield stress. This is no longer true for unsymmetrical steel areas as Fu, # FF at yield ‘therefore, theoretically, moments should be calculated about an axis referred to ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 85 as the ‘plastic centroid’. The ultimate axial load No acting throug the plastic ‘centroid causes a uniform strain across the section with compression yielding of all the reinfereement, and thus there is zero moment of resistance, With uniform Ssuain the noutral-axis depth, x, is at infinity ‘The location of the plastic centroid is determined by taking moments of all the suressresultants about an arbitrary axis such as AA in figure 4.21 so that <= 2 EFalil2+ Fad’ + Fd) 00 Eee Fat 05 fey Age +087 fy, +087 fA, (O45 x 30 x 350 x 450? 2+ 0.87 x 460 (1610 x 60 + 982 x 390) 0.45 x 30 350 x 450 + 0,87 x 460 (1610 + 982) = 212 mm from AA ‘The fundamental equation for calculating points on the interaction diagram ‘with varying depths of neutral axis are (© Compatibility of stains (used in table 4.2, columns 2 and 3): Gan Gi) Stress-strain relations for the steel (table 4.2, columns 4 and 5): ee, 0.002, F2O87 fy (442) ecg PsExe (4 Equilibrium (tbe 4.2, columns 6 and 7): N* Feet Fee +B OF O9XKH N= DAS feyb09E4 felt dy O9x> A N=04S fyb fel + Hedy Taking moments about the plastic centroid O9x0002 0 -087f, - 138 17 2334'=140 0.002 >0.002 0.87f, -087f, B47 257 sw206364 0002 c002 087% -087f, 1306 774 a= 390 >0002 0 a87f, 0 2303158 2334=909 >0002 >0002 0874 O87f 31640 Example 4.11 M-N Interaction Diagram for a Non-rectangular Section Construct te intersstion diagram forthe equilateral jangle columa seton in figure 4.23 with fa, = 30 Nimm? and fy = 460 N/mm®. The bending is about an ts parallel tothe side AA and causes craximum compression onthe corner Adjacent to the see aren A ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 87 Figuce4.23. sorrectongular section MeN bnrersetion exemple For this triangular section, the plastic centroid is at the same location as the ‘geometric centeoig, since the moment of Fy, equals the moment of F, about this axis when all the bars have yielded in compression. ‘The fundamental equations for strain compatibility and the steels stress-strain relations are as presented in example 4.9 and are used again in this example. The equilibrium equations for the triangular section become N= Feet Feet F, o9xch N= O45 foysil2 + fe Ai fey o9x>h N=OA5 foyh 400/24 fies + Ay O9x0002 «0 0874, — 330 368 weet 0.016 9.002328 -087f, — 9 730 233a'=233 0.002 0.00095 O87, 189 354689 d=29 = >0002 0 087 f, 0 780 S81 233d=690 >0.002 >0002 087f, 087, 1523 0 4.9 The Rectangular-Parabolie Stress Block ‘A rectangular-parabolic stress block may be used to provide a more rigorous analysis of the reinforced concrete section. The stress block is similar in shape to the stress-strain curve for concrete in figure 4.1, having a maximum stress of OS fog at the ultimate strain of 0.0035, ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 89 In figure 4.25 > = the coacrete strain at the end of the parabolic section w= the distance from the neutral axis to strain ¢5 x = depthof the neutral axis ky = the mean conerete stress K,x= depthto the centroid of the stress block, x 90035 045 Jeg Bentrors of tiene 7 fe section strome Stross Block Frigate 4.25 Section bn bending witha rcrongular-perabotte sress block (a) To Determine the Mean Concrete Stress, &y From the strain diagram 005 * therfore ee 003s Sbsttting for eo = 24x 10* Vifea fq) (88 gue 4.1) wn Mi With Y= 15 (4.43) For the sess lock fy = aa of set block Thus, using the ar [properties of a parabola as shown in figure 4.26, we have iy = DEB Fa — 045 fo.0.15 Vfe (015-5) was areas: a= Fut, aye BE Position ef centrows: 9:20, opr 2 Figure 4.26. Properties ofa parabola (b) To Determine the Depth of the Centroid kx sky is determined for a rectangular section by taking area moments ofthe stress block about the neucral avis ~ seo figures 4.25 und 4.26. Thus _atea pars * x/2 ~ area ist x w/4 183 of stress block hax (O45 fay) x12 = (05 fog wi3) wl hax 0.45 foyle?/2-— w?12) hax Substituting for w from equation 4.43 Ge k= OAS Sear? [os fa] ‘ 383 si 048 hy [55 few . Slo [os és] easy Values of &, and &; for varying characteristic concrete strengths have been tabulaied in table 4.4 ‘Once we know the properties of the stress block, the magnitude and position of the resultant compressive force in the conerete ean be determined, and hence the moment of resisiance of the section caleulated using procedures similar to those for the rectangular stress block. ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 1 Table 4.4 Values of ky and k for different concrete grades Fou Tr (vimm?) (N/mm?) ki Mew ky aa fkafow 20 209) ‘OaI2 0.460 DG 25 10.200 0.408 0.456 089s 30 12.120 0.404 0.452 0.804 40 15.875 0.397 0.4es 0.893 30 19.331 0391 0.439 0.890 2) 23.097 0385 0.434 0887 ‘Typical values oa 0.45 089 Using typical vues from table 4.4, a comparison of the rectangular-parabolic and the rectangular stress blocks provides, {(W)Stress resultant, Fe rectangular-parabolic: ky 6x 0.4 faybx rectangular: 0.45 fey x 0.9 Bx = 0.4 faybx (8) Lever arm,z rectangular putabolie: d— kyx =~ 0.45 rectangular: d ~ } x 0.9x =d ~ 0.4Sx So both stress blocks have almost the same moment of resistance, Fee x2, showing is adequate to use the simpler rectangular stress block for design calculations, 4.10 The Triangular Stress Block ‘The triangular stress block applies to elastic conditions during the serviceability limit state. In practice it is not generally used in design calculations except for liquid retaining structures, or for the calculations of crack widths and deflections as described in chapter 6, With the triangular stress block, the eross-section can be considered as (i) ctacked in the tension zene, or (i) unotacked with the concrete resisting a small smount of tension, 4.10.1 Cracked Section ‘A cracked section s shown in figure 4.27 witha stress resultant Fy acting through the centroid ofthe stel and Fe acting through the centroid of the wiangular sures block, For equilibrium of the section Fat Fa or OS bfee * Ash 4.46)"2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 4 € fee * ce fe Neutrol 5 jo fu Section Strain Stress Figuie$.27- Tlngulr stress Mock ~ cracked seetion and the moment of resistance Me Fog 2 Fig x2 or M05 dxfeg (@—x/3)= Aska (d 3/3) aan (1) Analysis ofa Specified Section ‘The dopti of the neutral axis, x, can be determined by converting the section into an ‘equivalent’ area of conerete as shown in figure 4.28. where ae = E/E, the ‘modular ratio. Taking area moments about the upper edge: xe 2) EA /Trensformed Steel Area = Figure 6.28 Egulvolon transformed tection with the concrete cracked Therefore = BERND + ayAad bx tasAy ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 3 Lag “ 1 bx? +a Aye agi =0 Solving this quadratic equation gives sex Seda tea? 92 oat wasp Fqustion 4.48 may be solved using chart such asthe one showa i figure 4.29. Equations 446 to 4.48 con be used to analyse a specified reinforced concrete section gait 0302010 o3 Soe . on © 32 oa oe xia Figure 4.29. Neutrat-oxis depth for eroked rectangular secfons ~ clastic beiviour (1H) Design of Steet Area, A,, with Stresses fx and foe Specified ‘The depth of the neutral axis can also be expressed in terms of the strains snd stresses of the vonerete and steel From the linesr strain distribution of figure 4.27. xy _fe SeclEe 4 eet ee SeclBe + fulBe4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘Therefore (4asye Equations 4.47 and 4.49 may be used to design the area of tension steel required, at a specified stress, in order to resists given moment Example 4.12 Analysis of @ Cracked Section using a Trianguiar Stress Block For the section shown in figure 4.30, determine the concrete and steel stresses caused by a moment of 120 kN m, assuming a cracked section. Take y/Ee = b+ 300 n-$20 2128. t |e we 167 0mm? aa Figure 4.30. Analysis exmp with iingule stress biook a, As = 15x1470 * ed” 300% 460 Using the chart of figure 4.29 or equation 4.48 gives x = 197 mm. From equation 4.47 1 2 m=} oxhe (¢-2 pote (5 therefore 120. 108 = 1 20005 197 fs (100 1) therefore foo ® 10.3 Nimmn? From equation 4.45 SaAe™ 5 08 fee ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 95 therefore 1 2 =300«197 x 123 x 1 2207 Nfenm’ £23004 197 x 82 x Te t 4.10.2 Triangular Stress Block ~ Uncracked Section ‘The concrete may be considered to resist a small amount of tension. In this ease @ tousile stress resultant F, acts through the centroid of the triangular stress block jn the tension zone as shown in figure 4.31 Moutea! gar ptley a Section ‘strom Stress Figure 431 Trianguersiress Hock — uncracked section For equilibrium of the section Feo Fert Fre 4.50) where Fog 0S bY fos Fy 2 0Sbth- xf and Fa 2 Aha Taking moments about Fee. the moment of resistance of the sectfon is given, by = Faq xld x13) + Fax (2x4 2 Gx M> Fa x(d— x13) + Fey (3 #y )) sry ‘The depth of the neutral axis, x. can be determined by taking area moments about the upper edge AA of the equivalent concrete section shown in figure 4,32, such that pa ECA) BA fy a = 7 termed the module rato9% REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Figure 4.32. Fqulvalont nonsformed seerion with the concrete neracked ‘Therefore DRxN2 + agAs xd Bit eA, = A oor (asa 29 dar where 7 = Aslbi From the linear propoitions of the strain diagram in figure 4.31: (453) Therefore as stress = E x strain: asaye Hence ifthe maximum tensile strain or stress is specified, i s possible to calculate the corresponding conerete compressive and steel tensile stresses from equations 434, ‘The equations derived can be used to analyse a given cross-section In order to determine the moment of resistance of the uncracked section, as for liquid- retaining structures. This is lustrsted further by examples in chapter 11 Example 4.12 Analysis of an Uncracked Section For the section shown in figure 4.30, calculate the serviceability, moment of resistance with no cracking ofthe concrete, given fey = 3 N/mi®, = 30 KN/mn? and = 200 KN)? ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7 1470 | i 300x520 fs 70 2 669 E30 At age rar = 5204.2 6.67 x 000094 x 4 D2 x 6.57 x 0.0094 2) sah [460 — 272) 6.67 x3 (520-273) 0.0094 15.2. Nfmm* fa (- 3) + Soha fax G 2x: 2 sas) 2170x152 (4s0 2) 10+ ! 3006620 a ee i x(2x2724 2620-272) 10 (3 220 x) = 83+38,7=47kNm5 Shear, Bond and Torsion This chapter deals with the theory and derivation of the design equations for shear, bond and torsion. Some of the more practial factors goveraing the choice and arrangement of the reinforcement are dealt with in the chapters on member design, particularly chapter 7, which contains examples of the design and detailing of shear and torsion reinforcement in beams. Punching sheat caused by concentrated loads ‘on slabs is covered in section 8.2 of the chapter on slab design. Sil Shear Figuce 5.1 represents the distribution of principal stresses across the span of a homogeneous concrete beam. The direction of the principal compressive stresses ‘takes the form of an arch, while the tensile stresses have the curve of a catenary or suspended chain. Towards midspan, where the shear is low and the bending, stresses are dominant, the direction of the stresses tends to be parallel to the beam axis, Near the supports, where the shearing forces are greater, the prineipal stresses are inclined at a steeper angle, so that the tensile stresses are liable to eause ;gonal cracking. Ifthe diggonal tensfon exceeds the limited tensile strength of tie conerete then shear reinforcement must be provided, This reinforcement is either inthe form of (1) sticrups, or (2) inclined bars (used in conjunction with stizrups), oomeression ‘Diagonal tension igure 8.1. Principe sess ino beam: 98 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION ~ ‘The shear in a seinforeed concrete bean without shear reinforcement is carried by a combination of three main components. These are (concrete in the compression zone Gi), doweling scion of tensile reinforcement ii) _searegate inteslock across flexural cracks. “The actual behavious is complex, and difTeult te analyse theoretically, but by applying the sesults from many experimental investigations, reasonable simplified procedures for analysis and design have been developed, S11 Stirups In order to derive simplified equations the action ofa reinforced concrete beatn in shear i epresented by an analogous truss in which the longitudinal reinforcement ous the bottom chord, the stirrups ae the vectical merabers and the concrete cts as the diagonal and top chord compression members as indicated in figure 5.2 In the truss show, the stimups are spaced ata distance equal to the effective depth (2) af the beam so that the diagonal concrete compression members are at an angle of 45°, which more or less ages with experimental observations ofthe cracking of reinforced concrete beams close to their supparts section Figure 8.2. Surraps end che analogous russtoo REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN In the analogous truss, let Ag be the cross-sectional area of the two legs of the stirrup ‘yy be the characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement ‘Pe the shear force due to the ultimate loads, Using the method of seetions it ean be seen at section XX in the figure that at the ukimate limit state the foree in the vertical stirrup member must equal the shear force V, that is 087 fy ¥ 087 fp Aye = vd on where v= P/bd is the average shear stress on the section. ‘When the stirup spacing is less than the effective depth, a series of super- ‘imposed equivalent trusses may be considered, so that the force to be resisted by the stirrup Is reduced proportionally. Thus ify = the stizrup spacing, equation 5.1 becomes 087 fyyAgy = 38d (5) Aw Sy OBT Fy Since the concrete is also capable of resisting a imited amount of shear this ‘equation is rewritten as, Age _ SORT Sy where ve isthe ultimate shear stress that can be resisted by the concrete, Values of ve are given in table 5.1. It can be seen from the table that v- increases for shallow ‘members and those with larger percentages of tensile reinforcement. The longitu inal tension bars contribute to the shear resistence by their dowelling action ané they also help to prevent shear cracks from commencing at small tension cracks. To be effective, these tension bars should continue an effective depth, d, beyond the section, or ata support they should be adequately curtailed and anchored. Close to supports, sections have an enhanced shear resistance owing in part to the induced compressive stresses from the concentrated reaction and the steeper angle of the failure plane, which would normally occur at angle of 30° to the horizontal for an unreinforced section. Within a distance of 2d from a support or a concentrated load the design concrete shear stress y- may be increased to v,2dfa,. The distance a, is measured from the support or concentrated load to the section being designed. This enhancement is useful when designing beams with concentrated loads near to a support, or with corbels and pile caps ‘Asa simplified approach for beams carrying mainly uniformly distributed loads, the critical section for design may be taken ata distance d from the face of the ear SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION ol ‘Table 5.1 Value of ultimate shear stress v (N/mm?) for a concrete strength of fa, = 30 Nim? Effective depth (mm) 150175200 2s 250 300 400 O44 043 O41 0.40038 0,36 052 050 049 048 += 0460.82 066 «064 «06259057053 O75 072 0.70 089 064061 083° 080 0.78 «075072067 093 091 088 086 «0830.76, 104 1.01 «097085 Ost, M9 LIS LM 1.08104 0.97 For charagtersti stenaths other chan 30 Nfmm® the values in the table may be multiplied by (F25)"?1.06. Theva of fey should not be sreter than 40 Ninn support using the value of vg from table $.1 in equation §.2. The shear links required should then continue to the face of the suppor Large shearing forces are also liable to cause crushing of the conerete along the directions of the principal compressive stresses, and therefore atthe face of a Support the average shear stress should never exceed the lesser of 0.8 Wifey or SN)? ‘The areas end spacings of the stirups can be celeulated from equation $.2. Reacrangement of the equation gives the shearing resistance for a given stirrup size and spacing thus srorieersie(Arvostinsn)# 6 Farther information on the practealdeails end design examples are given in section 7.3 (Design for Shes). S12 Bentoup Bars To resist the shearing forces, bars may be bent up near the supports es shown in figure 5.3. The bent-up bars and the concrete in compression are considered t0 act 45 an analogous atic girder and the shear resistance of the basis determined by ‘aking a section XX through the giréer. From the geometry of part (a) of the figue, the spacing of the bentup basis Sp = (d — d') (cot a + cot 6) fang at the section XX the shear resistance of the single br is ¥=087 fy sin 6a) ‘here dgy it the crosssectionel aren ofthe bent barwoz REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Anchorage, fe es { Aa SS, th NK PH ! Z x1 sg: ie ¢Vlcotavcotp} (Single System Multiple Systern Figure $3 Rentup bars For a multiple system of bentup bas, asin par (b) of the figure. the shear resistance is increased proportionately to the spacing, sy. Hence (4- a’) feot a +eot) (5) 5 ‘The angles and f should both be greater than or equal to 45° and the code requires that the spacing sy hos © maximum value of 1.Sd, With and sy" (d— a"), equation 5.5 becomes 1.23 fyyden 66), ‘and this arrangement is commonly referred to asa double system. 0.87 SyyAap sin & Example 5.1 Shear Resistance at a Section Determine the shear resistance of the beam shown in figure 5.4, which carries a uniformly distributed load. The characteristic strengths are: fyy = 250 Nimm? for the stirrups. fyy = 460 N/mm? for the bentup bars and fey = 30 N/mm? for the concrete, 1004, _ 100x982 bd 350x650 ‘Thus, from table $.1, ¥. = 0.5 N/mm? by interpolation. Crosssectional area of @ size 12 bar = 113 mm? ‘SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 103 Pie sirruns ot 100 speq, ae ele t / \ Rie oh Yes — Dole system section 25 pant up bors 2125 deesSisaunn each Ay = 982sqmm Figure $4 Boars ith sirups and bent bars Thus, forthe stirups, Ap/5, = 2 x 113/100 = 2.26 The shear resistanes ofthe sticrups plus the concrete i given by equation 5.3 us ye Maver fd ened 6 O87 x 280 x 650+ 35005 x 650 (319 + 114) x 10? N=433 ¥ 10° N ‘The bent-up bars ate arcanged in a double system. Hence the shear resistance of the bentup bars is % 23 Fyway 23 x 400x491 78 x10 N ‘Total shear resistance of the stirrups, concrete and bent-up bars is therefore Ve Wy + My =(433 +278) 10 = T1110 N It should be noted that the shear resistance of 319 KN provided by the stirrups 's greater than the shear resistance of the bent-up bars, 278 KN. us required by BSs110. It should also be checked that at the face of the support V/bd does not exceed the lesser of 0.8 fey or § Nini? 5.2 Anchorage Bond ‘The reinforcing bar subject taditeet tension shown in figure S.$ must be firmly anchored if itis not to be pulled cut of the concrete, Bars subjected to forces induced by flexure must similarly be anchored to develop their design stresses. The104 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘anchorage depends on the bond becween the bar and the conerete, and the atea of contact. Let L = minimum anchorage length to prevent pull out ® = bar size or nomine! diameter ou = ultimate anchorage bond stess Je = the direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar Figures. Anchorage bond ‘Considering the Forces on the bar ‘ensile pullout force = bar's cross seetional area x direct stzess ag? a anchorage force = contact area x anchorage bond stress =(Ln0) kg therefore Cr) fog Eg, + hence Late 4 fou and when f, = 0.87, the ultimate (esl or compressive stress, the anchorage gh is 087 f, on DBT 5.7)" 4 fw 6 ‘The design ultimate anchorage bond stress, fy. is obtained from the equation Sou =BVfew (58) ‘The coefficient f depends on the bar type ond whether the bar isin tension or compression. Values of 8 are given in cable 5.2. Equation 5.7 may be rewritten as anchorage length L = K,® SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION Vos Table 5.2 Value of bond coefficient 6 6 Bar type Bars in Bars in tension compression Plain bars 0.28 03s ‘Type 1: deformed bars 0.40 0.50 ‘Type 2: deformed bars 050 0.63 Fabric 06s 081 ‘Values of K', corresponding to the anchorage of tension and compression bars for various grades of concrete and reinforcing bars have been tabulated in the appendix. Anchorage may also be provided by hooks or bends inthe reinforcement; thelr anchorage values are indicated in figure 5,6, When a bent bat or hook is used, the beating stress on the inside of the bend should be checked as described in section 73.2 and example 7.8, Ja} Anchorage value = be but nat greater than 126 la (0) Anchorege value but not greater than 268 =r, 28, For milé steel bare minimum = 26 For high yiela bers minimum © = 38 or 48 for sizes 2imm and odove Figure 56 Anchorage vues for bands ond hook Example 5.2 Calculation of Axchorage Length Determine the length of tension anchorage required for the 25 mm diameter pla nl stetreinforeing bars in the cantilever of figuee 8.7. The characteristic material strengths are fey = 30 N/mm? and f, = 250 N/mm? The ulnar ‘anchorage bond stress, fy = 8-Vfey = 0.28/30 = 1.5 N/mm? (see table §.2)106 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN = open ]_~Ancnorage length & roy R26 bars yh Figure 8.7. Anchorage fore cantilever baam 0874, snchorage length L = 25741 Anchorage length = fo 2 087 x 250 28 = 36,2 28 4x15 therefore L=910mm 5.3 Laps in Reinforcement Lapping of reinforceaent is often accessory to transfer the forces from one bar 10 another. The rules for this are: (1) The logs should preferably be staggered and be away from sections with high stresses, (2) The evinimumn lap length should be not less than the greater of, 15@ o¢ 300 mm for bars 250 mm for fabric (3) Tension laps should be equal to at least the design tension anchorage length, but ix certain conditions this should be increased as shown in fAgure 5.8, according to the following rules. (a) At the top of a section and with minimum cover <2 snultiply by Lt (b) At comers whete minimum cover to either face <24 or clear spacing between adjacent laps < 75 mm or 64 imoltiply by 1.4 (©) Where both (a) and (b) apply multiply by 2.0 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION Ww? ‘The concrete at the top of a member is generally less compacted and also tends to have a grester water content, resulting in a lower concrete strength. Also. at the corners of members there fs less confinement of the reinforcement. For these reasons longer lap lengths are required at these locations. (4) Compression laps should be at least 25 per cent greater than the com= pression anchorage length, (5) Lap Tengiiss for unequal size bars may be based on the smaller bar. ‘A table of mininmura lap lengths i included in the appendix. tata ——— 9) Reinforcement lap) lop langth « 2 ancrorage Hangin x10 Sx he 5) Increased lap lengths igure 8.8. Lapping ofrinforing bars 54 Analysis of Section Subject to Torsional Moments Torsional moments produce shear stresses which result in principal tensile stresses inclined at approximately 45° to the longitudinal axis of the member. Diagonal cracking occurs when these tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the con- crete, The cracks wil form a spiral around the member as in figure 5.9 ‘Reinforcement in the form of closed links and longitudinal bars will earry the forees from incressing torsional moment after cracking, by a truss action with reinforcement as tension members and concrete as compressive struts between Jinks, Failure will eventually occur by reinforcement yielding, coupled with crush- ing of the concrete along line AA as the cracks on the other faces open up. ‘tis assumed that once the torsional shear stress on a section exceeds the value ‘to cause cracking, tension reinforcement in the form of closed links must be provided to resist the full torsional moment,los REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Figure 5.10. Porsonalrlnforcement Tenson fen tnk = 48° 087 jy moment of force F about centre Line for vertical leg and ea for horizontal leg, where Ag = cross-sectional ares of the two legs ofa link. The total torsional ‘moment provided by one closed link i, therefore, given by the sum of the moments due to each leg of the link about the centre line of the section, that is TaFAt x24 7% = x2 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION too Where Links are provided at a distance s, apart, the torsional resistance of the system of irks is obtained by multiplying the moments due to each leg in the above expressions by the number of legs crossing each crack. This number is given by Sy for vertical legs and x, /5, for horizontal logs i itis assumed that ll eracksate approximately at 45°, The total torsional resistance then becomes Ae (0.87 fy.) 2 Hence iy (O87 fey) «0.8 ‘The efficiency factor of 0.8 is included to allow for errors in assumptions made about the truss behsviour. Hence closed links must be provided such that ‘Toensure the proper action of these links, longitudinal bars evenly distributed round the inside perimeter of the links must be provided. This reinforcement Which resists the longitudinal component of the diagonal tension fozces should be such that the total quantity is equal to the same volume as the steel in the links, suitably adjusted to allow for differing strengths, This is given by Ay fy Aga DY (x, ty, oy wines the dbase ytd sient of longitudinal rinforement The Caleulsederounts of torsional enforcement mas be powsed i ition ithe fl bonding and chat ettoranont cereals re elle oad Combination crtesyondng tothe torsional moment consdred. Whee longtdinal bending enforcement equed, the adda torsional tea a may exert pov by incense thy sae of ac pronto by aldnal bar & nembe Sich bcd fa Tocon pl andog or sbar cell ge Tobe ene Tanned "Thy eee GAG wisn Ionia Ode atta nk aaknxa SODA snd minanum of fou bars nut be used in each in All oso stel must aso sate datas ec eatequl pale east abe desos pat Te Sih pl eked te tbs nea enaca tat wo patie ces Hagatey preted The oe hance aa en an We tee OT methods BS 120 ncommonds a pasts analy sch tht fo a vectangult a isin’ (max ~ Pemin/3)he REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘where Min i the smaller dimension of the section. mas is the larger dimension of the seetion, or v= <2 fors thin hollow seetion where Jy is the wall thickness and A isthe area enclosed by the centre-ine of the walls. If the sum of wall thicknesses of a hollow section exceeds one-quarter of the overall dimension, this should be treated as solid 'A section having a T-, L-or [shape should be divided into component rectangles to maximise the funetion E¢Fppint Hons). The torsion shear stress on each rectangle should then be calculated by considering the rectangle as carrying a torsional moment of po { Peis? Homa Elimin® Fier ‘Torsion reinforcement will be required if the torsional shear stress, exceeds the capacity of the concrete section. It has been found experimentally that this value related approximately to the square root of the characteristic concrete cube strength, and the limiting value recommended by BS 8110 is 0.057 Vey bat not more than 0.4 Nfmin# Torsion Combined with Bending and Shear Serese Torsion is seldom present slone, and in most practical situations will be combined with shear and bending stresses. (2) Shear Stresses Diagonal cracking starts on the side of a member where torsional and shear stresses are additive, The shear force has a negligible effect on ultimate torsional strength when V'< vd, the shear strength of the concrete section, bul once diagonal ‘racks form, the torsional stiffness is reduced considerably. To ensure that crushing of the concrete does not occur (figure 5.9) the sum of the shear and torsion stresses on a section should not be excessive so that (40) whore Yqy=O8Vfey oF SN am? Aditionslly in the ease of small sections where y is less than $S0:mm bey Ze ere 350 ‘must be satisfied to prevent spalling of the comers. ‘The recommendations for reinforcement 10 resist a combination of shear and torsion are given in table 7.3, SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION mi (8) Bending Stresses When a bending moment is present, diogonal cracks will usually develop from the {op of the flexural cracks. The flexural cracks theraselves only slightly reduce the torsional stffuess, provided that the diagonal cracks do not develop. The final mode of failuce will depend on the distribution and quantity of reinforcement present, Figure 5.11 shows typical ultimate moment and ultimate torsion interaction curve for a section. As can be seen, for moments up to approximately O8M, the section can also resist the full ultimate torsion 7... Hence no calculations for torsion are generally necessary for the ultimate limit state of reinforced concrete ‘unless torsion has been included in the original analysis or is required for equilibrium. oem Figure 5.11 Combined bending and torsion6 Serviceability, Durability and Stability Requirements ‘The concept of serviceability Limit states has been introduced in chapter 2, and for reinforced conerete structures these states are often satisfied by observing empirical rules which affect the detailing only, In some circumstances, however, t may be desired {0 estimate the behaviour of a member under working conditions, and ‘mathematical methods of estimating deformations and cracking must be used. The design of water-retaining structures, and prestressed concrete, are both ased primarily on the avoidance or limitation of cracking and these are considered Separately in other chapters, ‘Where the foundations ofa structure are in contact with the ground, the pres: sures developed will influence the amoun’ of settlement that is likely t6 aeeur. To ensure that these movements are limited to acceptable values and are similar throughout a structure, the sizes of foundations necessary are based on the service loads for the structure Durability is necessery to ensure that a stcucture remains serviceable through: coat its lifetime, This requirement will involve aspects af design, such as concrete ‘mix selection and determination of cover to reinforcing bars, as well as selection of suitable msterials for the exposuce conditions which ate expected. Good con: struction procedures including adequate curing are also essential if reinforced concrete is to be durable. ‘Simplified rules governing the seleetion of cover, member dimensions, and rein- forcement detailing are given in section 6.1 and 6,2, while more rigorous procedures for calculation of actus) deflections and crack widths are described in sections 6.3, to 6.5, Durability and fire resistance are discussed in section 6.6. ‘The stability of a structure under sccidental loadings, although an ultimate Himlt state analysis, will usually tte the form of a check to ensure that empirical rules designed to give a reasonab¥e minimum resistance against misuse ot accident are satisfied. Like serviceability checks, this will often merely involve detailing of reinforcement and not affect the total quantity provided. Stability requirements are described in section 6.7, ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 113 6.1 Detailing Requirements ‘These are to ensure that a structure has satisfactory durability and serviceability, performance under normnal circurnstances. BS 8110 recommends simple rules con: ering the concrete mix and cover to reinforcement, minimum member dimen sions, and limits to reinforcement quantities and spacings which must be taken into aocount at the member sizing and reinforcement detailing stages. Reinforce: ‘meat detailing may also be affected by stability considerations as desecibed in section 6.7, as well as ules concerning anchorage and lapping of bars which have been discussed in sections 5.2 and 5.3 6.11 Minimum Concrete Mix and Cover {Exposure Conditions) ‘These requirements are interrelated, and BS 8110 specifies minimum combinations of thickness of cover and mix characteristics for various exposure conditions. The mixesare expressed in terms of minimum cement content, maximum water! cement ratio and corresponding minimum strength grade, These basic requirements are given in table 6.1 ‘The nominal cover is that to al steel, and allows for a maximum fixing toler- ance of + 5 mm, Adjustments must be made to cement contents if different aggregate sizes are used, and details of these and other posable modific givea In BS 8110, 6.1.2 Minimum Member Dimensions and Cover (Fire Resistance) BS 8 110 also provides tabulated values of minimum dimensions and nominal ‘covers for various types of concrete member which are necessary to permit the member to withstand fire for @ pacified period of time. These are summatised in tables 6.2 and 6.3. 6.1.3 Maximum Spacing of Reinforcement ‘The maximum clear spacings given in table 6.4 apply to bars in tension in heams when a maximum likely crack width of 0.3 mmis aeeptable and the cover te reinforcement does not exeeed 50 min It can be seen that the spacing is restricted according to the amount of moment ‘edistibution applied. Any bar of diameter less than 0.45 times that ofthe largest boar ina section must be ignored when applying these spacings. Bars adjacent 10 comers of beams must not be more than ore-alf ofthe clear distance given in table 6.4 from the comer. Rules for slabs permit greater spacings under specified conditions as follows {a) If < 200 mm with high yield steel (fy = 460 N/mm?) or (b) If -<250 mm with Mild steel (jy = 250.Nimm*) oF) E100 A fod © 03 per cent then the maximum clear spacing between bars should not exceed 750 mm o: 3d, whichever is smaller1s REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Table 6.1 Nominal cover and mix requirements for normal weight 20 mm ‘maximum size aggregate concrete Nominal cover to all reinforcement (mn) Environment classification Mild: for example, protected against ‘weather or aggressive conditions 23 2 2 2 Moderate: for example, sheltered from sovere rain and freezing while ‘wert; subject to condensation or ‘continuously under water; in contact ‘with non-aggressive soil, - 3 30 2820 Severe: for example, exposed 10 severe rain; alternate wetting and ‘drying; occasional freezing or severe condensation ~ = 493025 Very Severe: for example, exposed 10 sea water spray. de-icing sats, corrosive fumes or severe wet freezing © — = — = SO 40® 30 Extreme: for example, exposed to abrasive action (sea water and solids, flowing acid water, machinery or vehicles) - ~ oor 50 Maximum free water/cement ratio 065 060 055 050 04s Minimum cement content (kglm®) 275 300325350400 Lowest concrete grade GO G5 CHO CHS C50 "Epsrained ait requiced for wet feezing Table 6.2 Nominal cover for fire resistance Fire ‘Nominal cover to all reinforcement (mm) resistance (hours) Beams Floors Ribs —_ _- —— Columns SS com. SS. cont, $8, cont. 05 2 20 20 10 2 20 0 20 20 1s 2 2 % » 3 20 403035 Os a5" 35 30 Ce er) Sst ast 40 yos 50% 55% ase SS ‘Adulijonal measures necessry 19 reduce rik of paling SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 115 Table 6.3 Minimum dimensions of RC members for fire resistance (nominal cover requitements satistied) Minimum dimensions (mm) (ours) Exposed Wall thicknesses Beam Rib Floor column —-——_——_— with width thickness width 4 <0.4% > 10% 0s 200125 150 150 75 10 200135 200 150 B 15 200125 250 175 100 20 foo 128 500 100 3.0 240 150 400. 15 40 280175 500 180 ‘Table 6.4 Maxinum clear spacings (mm) for tension bars in beams % Moment redistribution ty 30 --200~«Wi ODD HO 250-0240 270300 300300300 460 11S, 1304S 160180195210 If none of these apply, the maximum spacing should be taken as that given in table 6.4, except that if the ratio 1004q/hd is less than 1.0, the values from table 644 should be divided by that ratio. f the emouat of moment redistribution is ‘unknown when usiag table 6.4 for slabs, zero should be assumed for span moments and —15 per cent for suppost moments. 6.14 Minimum Spocing of Reinforcement To permit conerete flow sround reinforcement during construction the minimum clear gap between bars, o groups of bars, should exceed (Iya * 5 mi) horizen- tally and 2gg/3) vertically, where ogy i the maximum sie of the coarse aggre gate. The gap Must also exceed the bar eiameter, or inthe case of “bundled bats the diameter of a bar of equivalent total cross-sectional area 6.1.5 Minimum Areas of Reinforcement For most purposes, thermal and shrinkage cracking may be controlled within acceptable limits by the use of minimum reinforsement quantities specified by 3S 8110, although requirements of water-retaining structures will Be more stn Bent (see chapter 11), The principal requirements are summatised in table 6.5, although other requirements include 0.15 per oznt tanstetse reinforcement in the tp surfaces of flanges in flanged beams and 0.25 per cent (High yield) or 0,30 per cent (Mild steel) ant-crac steel in plain walls (bar diameter <6 mm or116 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘one-quarter diameter of vertical compressive bars). Requirements for shear links and column binders are given in stetions 7.3 and 9.3 respectively, ‘Table 6.5 Minimum reinforcement areas High yield Mia stet steel (Gy =250 (f= 460 Nim?) Nimm#) Tension reinforcement (0) Pure tension WOOAvAe = 0.87 ose ©) Flexure (0) ectangale tion loo Je (both ways in solid slabs) ~ 0.24 7 (b) flanged — web in tension Sat “OLR bu /b 204 100A by bef <0.4 1OUyeu 032% = O.18% ~ flange in tension T-beam 1004 bgt 48% 026% beam 1004/4 136% 0.20% Compression reinforcement (1) General euee® 2) Reet. column oF wall eh oe (3) Flanged beam Oe OMe flange in compression 100A e/g ‘web in compression 1004.5/5,.4 (4) Rectangular beam 1O0As/AS i =02% 0.2% 6.1.6 Maximum Areas of Reinforcement ‘These are determined largely from the practical need to achieve adequate com paction of the conerete around teinforcement. The kits specified by BS 8110 eas follows. (@) For a Slab or Beam, Longitudinal Steel 1004, 1004 204s og 100d not greater than 4 per cent each, a OS ee Le ‘Where bars are lapped, the sum of the bar sizes n a layer must not be sreater than 40 per cent of the section breadth. (®) For Column 104 go gene thn pe ces cs vey rot greater than 8 per cent if cast horizontally not greater than 10 per cent at Japs in either case SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 117 6.1.7 Side Face Reinforcement in Beams Where beams exceed 750 mm in depth, longitudinal bars should be provided near side Faces a a spacing > 250 mm over a distance 2/3 from the tension face. “These bars, which may be used in calculating the morvent of resistance, must have a diameter > (5, b/f,) where sy isthe bar spacing and b the brosdth of the Section (07 $00 mim if es), as indicated in igure 6.1 > oase § = oy Required wee750, Figure 6.1. Side face reinforcement in bezms 6.2 Span-Effective Depth Ratios BS 8110 specifies a set of basic span-effective depth ratios to control deflections ‘which are given in table 6.6 for rectangular sections and for flanged beans with spans less than 10-m, Where the wob width of flanged beam éy > 0.36, linear interpolation should be used between the values for a flanged beam and a rectan- Bula: section. Ratios for spans > 10 m are factared as in example 6.1 Table 6.6 Besic span-effective depth ratios. Rectangular Flanged section (ew $038) Centilever 7 56 Simply supported 20 16.0 Continuous 26 208 The basie (@) The service sties in the tension steel and the value of M/bd, as shown, in table 6.7, which is also presented in the form of a chart in figure 8.4 (0) The area of compression steel as in table 6.8 ‘The area of tension reinforcement provided is related to the value of M/bd®, thus lower values of service stress and Mod? will result in smaller depths of neutral ‘xis x. This effect will reduce deflections due to creep, as there will be less of the given in table 6.6 are modified in partculr cases according to1s REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN’ ceaBILITY. DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 119 section subject to compressive stresses. Compression reinforcement rest van-eptctive cepit ratio (table 6.6) = 26. Aeflections in a similar menmer and also reduces the effects of shrinkage, i 10 co finishes, mocked rato = 26 x 7° = 21.7. Table 6.7 Tension reinforcement modification factors wkd damage i Reinforcement service stress (N/mm?) ne reinforcement modification factor: Mg MXIT a5 950075 10 15 20 30 40 56 a : 4 ja? 300% 600" 20.36 Ie atti 67 fr fy = 459N)mn?maietion itor = 08. }95 1.36 151 reson ceiaforcement modification factor: 168 150 138 121 y ona; _ 100 x 402 ‘Bd 300% 600 ‘The service stress in the reinforcement fj is ususlly 2 function of the yi fom table 6.8, modification factor = 1.07. stress fy, 28 indicated inthe table. The reinforcement areas Ay and Aj. modified span-effectve depth ratio is equal to athe centre of span, or at the support for & eantilever, and the value of aie GR =< S67 ‘with table 6 8 should include all bars located inthe compression zone, 21.7089 « L.07= 22, Table 6.8 Compression reinforcement ‘modification factors 1004, Ai Aaptor Factor bt 0.09 3.00 ois 15 te Lee ion of Defetions ta We al requirement is that neither the efisiency nor appearance ofa structure us 14 by ike deflections which wil occur durig isi. eflections must thas re 1 Sondre at wrioes ages The linatonsnesesary ro satity the req: 1s rn Mens wl vary considerabiy according fo the natne ofthe stretare and ie & as but er enfored concrete the following may be egsded a reasonable 25 tas 30 150 (1) The inal deecvon of horizontal members below the lvl of casting should not exceed span/250. (2) The detection aking place ater fang of partion o aplication of ‘cedures for making adjustments to the basic ratios to allow for other loadin * amp Sif Dt Rate Chck ae aya che ae ise ec ‘The use of these factors i illustrated by example 6.1. It should be no ‘rectangular continuous beam spens 12.m with @ mid-span ultimate mo 400 KN m. If the breadth is 300 mm, check the seceptability of an effec w 31600 na ten big ye elnforecment f= 60 Nimes wed. TD Bec oce cnn rb ates othe maleated emus ‘bars are located within the compressive zone. q ‘ions, which will have varying degrees of accuracy.120 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN (2) The precise loading and duration cennot be predicted and errors in dead loading may have significant effect. (3) A cracked member will behave differently to one that is uneracked — this may be a problem in lightly reinforoed members where the working load may be close to the cracking limits (4) The effects of floor screeds. finishes and partitions ate very difficult 10 assess, Frequently these are neglected despite their ‘stiffening” effect. tansy sometines be posible to allow fer these factors by averaging maxima and ainimm estimated effects, and provided that this is done thete area number of calculation methods avaiable which wil ge ressonable esos. The method adopted by BS 8110 i very comprehensive, andi based onthe caculetion of Curtatues of sections subjected to the appropiate moments, with llowance for creep and sivinage effec where nvesny. Deletions are then alle fom these covetres “The procedure for estimating deflections i ater lengthy and complex, vol ing the following tages which se stated in example 6.2. (1) Calculate the short-term curvature under total lead: Co. (2) Calculate the short-te deflection from (1), and ifthe long-term deflection is require: (8) Calculate the shoct-erm curvature due to permanent 1024s, C, pm (4) Calculate the long-term curvature due to permanent loads, (5) Calculate the curvature due to shvinkage. Cay {6) Estimate the otal long-term curvature Cas G= Corot ~ G.perm + G.perm * Ge (7) Calculate the long-term deflection using the value from (6). Ler ‘The curvatures in (1), (3) and (4) are taken a5 the larger value from considering the section as (a) cracked (b) uneracked. As the concrete may have cracked under the total load, the additional short-term curvature Comp due to the temporary loading is obtained from Caremp = Cerot ~ Caperm in past (6) of the procedure and is not caleulated direetly If deflections are assumed to be small, elastic bending theory is based on the expression 0) where My, isthe bending moment ata section distance x from the origin as shown § in figure 6.2 For small deflections the term d®y/dx® approximately equals the curvature, Which is the reciprocal of the radius of curvatures thus, SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 121 4 y Beam Sy Figure 6.2. Gurrcture ofa beam 62 where Ir, is the curvature atx. Integrating expression 6.1 twice will yield values of displacements y of the ‘member. thus if curvatures of a member are known, displacements can be deduced. ‘The analysis of deflections will use the partial factors of safety from tables 2.1 and 2.2. which effectively mean that materials properties are taken as the charac~ teristic values, and that loadings are true working loads. 6.3.1 Calculation of Curvanures — Short Term ‘The curvature of any section should be taken as the larger value obtained from considering the section to be either uncracked or cracked. & fe 7 £04 fq BONE stron sieass Figure 6.3. Cnermeked section ~ strain and sires distribution Uneracked Section ‘The assumed elastic strain and stress distributions are shown ia figure 6.3, and the "upper limit to concrete stress at the level of tension reinforcement should be noted.iba REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN From equation 6.2 1 rrvature ou 7 From the theory of bending hence where M_ = applied moment at section considered Eq instantaneous static modulus of elasticity of concrete (for short term deflections) J = second moment of area of section fe * maximum compressive stiess in the concrete X= depth of neutral axis, ‘The above expression gives the instantaneous curvature of the uncracked section, If this is found to be greater than for a cracked section, the tensile stress fig of the cconctete at the level of tension reinforcement must be checked o ‘ eas YONimm? short tare ce OSSNienm ong term Figure 6 Cracked section stain and sreseaisttbuston Ciacked Section ‘The recommended stress and strain distribution are given in figure 6.4 where the stiffemng effect of the cracked concrete is taken into account by the tensile stress block shown, Curvature 1 = fe ro XE. SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 123 Henoe itis necessary to analyse the section subjected to its applied moment BF to jbtain values of x and either fe ot fy. This caleulation is ideally suited to computer pplication, but if required to be solved manually must be performed on a tril and ertor basis ‘Considering the section equilibrium by taking morients about the centre of compression Me Ay (e- 3) + $b hfe 2) (62) and fiom the strain distribution ©. fe Bh 64) Fae i" fen sand equating tension and compression Forces A bxfe= fide +E5G fer (6.5) where fg *mmcmam tel sess alowed in the ene (ts (3) Ey. = 200 N/mm? 2, = instantaneous static modulus of elasticity of eonerete (For short-term defection) ‘The most convenient method of solving these expressions is to assume a neutral axis position; for this value of x evaluate f, from equation 6.3 and using this value obtain two values of fe from equations 6.4 and 6 5. This should be repeated for ‘wo farther trial volues of x.and a plot of f; from each expression js made against ‘x. The intersection of the two curves will yield values of x and f_ with sufficient sveuracy to permit the curvature to be calculated, This method is demonstrated in example 6.2. 6.3.2 Calculation of Curvatures — Long Term In calculating long-term curvatures itis necessary to take into account the effects of cteep and shrinkage in addition to the reduced tensile resistance of the cracked concrete as indicated in figure 6.4 Creep ‘This allowed for by reducing the effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete to Eye = Bei(I +6) where 6 i 4 creep coe! cient, equal Lo the catia of ereep Sirain to initial elastic strain ‘The valve of 6. while being affected by aggregate properties, mix design and curing conditions. i governed also by the age at first loading, the duzation of the load and the section dimensions. Figure 6.5 pives long-term values of 9, as suggested by BS 8110, and it may be assumed that about 40 per cent, 60 per cont and 80 pet cent of this will eccur within 1 month, 6 months and 30 months under load124 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN respectively for constant relative humidity. The effective section thickness is taken as Iwice the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter, but is taken as £600 mun if drying is prevented by sealing or immersion of the concrete in water 150 [ 300 cod yy as }20 S10 os foe Shrinkage Curvature due to shrinkage must be estimated and added to that due to applied ‘moments. such that 1 fee Se rs 7 where és is the fiee shrinkage strain Is the mnodular ratio &/Reye, and Ss the first moment of area of the reinforeement (5%) was ax 2% ite and a reduced Een ‘The effective section thickness equals twice cross sectional area _ 2x 700 x 300 perimeter 2(700 + 300) thus the value of @ feom figure 6.5 for loading at twenty-eight days with indoor exposure is approximately 2.75, Hence =210mm 6.93 kN/min? ‘Thus, using the same approacla as previously for the cracked analysis, it is found that when x= 300 mma then fey =4.$ N/mm®, fey =8.1 N/mm? 27 350mm fey = 8.6 Nmm®, fog = 7.1 Nim? X=370 mm fey = 7.7 Nimm?, fon =6.8 Nim? ‘Thus as can be seen from figure 6.9, the sotution lies at x = 360 mm when f.=1.0.Nimm*. Therefore Le 70 3.84 10-4fmm ry 3606.93 x 108 In this instance it isnot necessary to evaluate the uncracked ease since in part (¢) thas been established that the permanent loads yield the higher instantaneous curvature when the section is cracked. (@) Calculate Shrinkage Curvature where % 693 ‘And for a transformed eracked section (see figure 4.28) bet +02) taedeta ot io12 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN therefore with ! }60 mm From part (F) (1743.50 + 4.08) « 10? £8.75 «10? mit and Sy2 A, @-x) 2480 x 240 588 x 10° mm? From figure 6.6 for indoor exposure, the long-term value Gey 390 x 10% Thus 390 x 10- x 28.9 x 588 x 107 = B75 «10° $08 x 10-/mm (ha) Caleulate Total Lon Short-term curvature, non-permanent loads = Short-term curvature, total loads = Short-term curvature, permanent loads 5 x 10 1.8 x 10 setm Deflection = 1.0% 10-/mm Longeterm curvature, permanent loads = 2.8 x 10°4/mm ‘Shrinkage curvature = 08 x 10-4/a Therefore Total long-term curvature = 46x 10~/mm a ie hence estimated total, KL? fong-erm deflection” “7, 1.104 x 12? x 108 x 4.6.x 10* 8 mm 6.3.4 Basis of Span-Effective Depth Ratios The calculation of deflections has heen shown to be a tedious operation, however, for general use rules based on limiting the span-effective depth ratio of a member are adequate to ensure that the deflections are not excessive, The application of this method is described in section 6.2. "The relationship between the deflection ané the span-effective depth ratio of a ‘member ean be derived from equation 6.9; thus SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 133 ty t te H \ Fee Figure6.10. Curtanureand siren irribution deflectiona=K 1p % ‘and for small deflections it can be seen from figure 6,10 that for unit length, s 1 +m cs a where em = maximum compressive strain in the concrete - frm * tensile strain in the reinforcement K- =a factor which depends on the pattern of loading ‘Therefore LK Gat em) ‘The strains in the concrete and tensile reinforcement depend on the areas of rein- forcement provided and their stresses. Thus fora particular member ection and a pattern of loading, itis possible to determine a span-effective depth ratio to satisty 4 particular a/Z or éeflection/span limitation ‘The modified span-effective depth ratios obtained in section 6.2 are based on limiting the total deflection to span/250 for a uniformly distributed loading. For spans of less than 10 m this should also ensure that the limits of span/S0O oF 20 mm. after application of finishes are met but, for spans over 10 m where avoidance of damage to finishes may be important, the basic ratios of table 6.6 should be fectored by 10/span. For loading patterns other than uniformly distributed a revised ratio is given by changing the basic ratio in proportion to the relative values of K. as shown in ‘example 6.3, Similarly. for limiting the deflection to span/B reiedcnlon bat 22134 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Im cases where the basic ratio has been modified for spans greater than 10 m, maximum deflections are unlikely to exceed 20 mm after construction of partitions and finishes, When another deflection limit is required, the ratios given should be multiplied by af20 where ais the proposed maximum deflection. Example 6.3 Adjustment of Basie Span to Effective Depth Ratio Determine the appropriate basic ratio fora cantilever beam supporting 2 uniform Jad and a concentrated point load at its tip as shown in figure 6.11 20KN . TORN at p= FFigae 6.11. Point Joad on centilver example HHective span tc _,| Basic ratio from table 6.6= 7 fora ud. From table 6.9. K for cantilever with w.d 1, over full length K for cantilever with point load at tip = 0.33, ‘Thus, for the point load only, adjusted basic ratio equals 028 “033 ‘An adjusted basic ratio to account for both louds can be obtsined by factoring the ‘moment due to the point load by the ratio of the K values as fellows Mya =10XL/2=5L 7 253 Mootat = 201, Adjusted bas ato = Bs aio (Mt * Moin Ha Muar + Mpoine = (Saas) ¥20 #56 6.4 Flexural Cracking ‘Members subjected to bending generally exhibit a series of distributed flexural — cracks, even at working load. These cracks are unobtrusive and harmless unless the widths become excessive, in which case appearance and durability suffer as the reinforcement is exposed to corrosion. SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 135 ‘The actual width of eracks in @ reinforced concrete structure will vary between ‘wide limits, and cannot be precisely estimated, thus the limiting requirement to be Satisfied is that the probability of the maximum width exceeding a satisfactory ‘alue is small. The maximum acceptable value suggested by BS 8110 is 0.3 mm at iny position on the surface of the concrete in normal environments, althoug!s ome other codes of practice recommend lower values for important members. Requirements ‘or specialised cases such a8 water-etaining structures may be more stciagent and these are given in chapter 11. calculations to estimate maximum crack widths are performed. they are based on ‘Working’ loaus with 7 = 1.0 and material partial factors of safety of ‘Yq, = 10 for steel and concrete, BS 8110 secommends that the effective modulus Of elasticity of the concrete should be taken as half the instantaneous value as siven in table 1.1 to allow for creep effects Prestressed concrete members are designed primarily on the basis of satisfying limitations which are different from those for reinforced concrete, Eee —— cy Figure 6.12 Bending of length of beam 6.4.1 Mechanism of Flexural Cracking Tais can bo illustrated by considering the behaviour of s member subjected to 3 uniform moment. ‘Allength of beam as shown in figure 6.12 will initially behave elastically through- ‘out, as the applied uniform moment Af is inereased. When the Linuting tensile strain for the concrete is reached a crack will form. and the adjacent tensile gone will no Jonger be acted upon by direct tension forces. The curvature of the beam, however causes further direct lension stresses to develop at some distance from the original crack to maintain internal equilibrium, This in turn causes further cracks to form, ‘and the process continues until the distance becween eracks does not permit sufficient censle stresses to develop to cause further cracking. These initial cracks ate called “primary cracks’. and the average spacing in a region of constant ‘moment has been shown experimentally 10 be approximately 1.67 (fr —x)and will be largely independent of reinforcement detailing. ‘As the applied moment is increased beyond this point, the development of cracks is governed to a large extent by the reinforcement. Tensile stresses in the Concrete surrounding reinforcing bars are caused by bond as the strain in the rein forcement increases. These stresses inerease with distance feom the primary cracks and may eventually cause further cracks to form approximately nuidway between. the primary cracks, This action may continue with increasing moment until the136 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN bond between conerete and steel is incapable of developing sufficient tension in the conerete to cause further cracking in the length between existing cracks. Since the development of the tensile stresses is caused directly by the presence of the reinforcing bars. the spacing of cracks will be influenced by the spacings of the re- inforcement. If bars are sufficiently close for their ‘zones of influence’ to overlap, then secondary cracks will oin up across the member. while otherwise they will form only adjacent to the individual bars. It hes been confirmed experimentally that the avezage spacing of cracks along a line parallel to, and at a distance a from, main reinforcing bar depends on the efficiency of bond, and may be taken a8 1.674 for deformed bars. oF 2.Ode, for plain round bars Figure 6.13, Bening straine 6.4.2 Estimation of Crack Widths I the behaviour of the member in figute 6.13 is examined, it can be seen thet the ‘overal extension per unit length at depth y below the neutral axis is given by 2 « @-x%) ‘where &, is the average strain in the main reinforcement over the length considered, and may be assumed to be equal 10 f,jF, whore fis the steel stress at the cracked. sections. Hence assuming any tensile strain of concrete between cracks as small, singe full bond is never developed Js <3 —9 6 ‘whore Ew = sum of erack widths per unit Fongth at level». The actual wldth of individual cracks will depend on the numberof cracks in this unit iength, the axerage number bein given by length/average spacing where average spacing, sgy~ |.67q for deformed bars; as0 Syy © 1.67(H ~ x), the Spacing of psimary cracks, Thus brags ak wah ,g —_— 2 ay. number of cracks 1" ‘The designer is concerned however with the maximum crack wideh, and it has been shown experimentally that if this is taken as twice the average value, the ethance of this being exceeded is about 1 in 100, hence for deformed reinforcing SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 137 bors. the maximum likely crack width Wpax at any level defined by y in a mem ber will tus be given by wimax * 12S 13.33, Of Wma provided that the rot exceeded. ‘The positions on amember where the surface crack widths will be greatest, depend on the relative values of strain (¢,) and the distance to point of zero strain (2e,). Despite the effects of bond slip adjacent to cracks. and the steel strain across cracks, the crack width at the surface of a reinforcing bar is very small and may be assured to be zero. This may therefore be taken as a point of zero strain for the purposes of measuring a... The neutral axis of the beam will also have zero strain, and hence ace may also relate to this if appropriate. €13.33(h ~ x) based on the primary cracks is 3 2 position 9 Nee nd raintorermant) zr 2 Figure 6.14 Celta! crack postions Critical positions for maximum crack width will on 2 beam generally occur at the positions indicated in figure 6.14. These occur when the distance to points of 2z2r0 strain, that is. reinforcement surface or neutsal axis, ave as large as possible Positions | and 2 will have a maximum value of strain, while at position 3, although the strsin is sate, ais considerably larger. The expression for Wings at any Point may thus be expressed in the general form ‘maximum surface erack ‘width at a point = constant x distance to the surface of the nearest reinforcing bar or neutral axis x apparent tensile strain in the concrete at the level considered ‘The expression for meximum surface crack width given in BS 8110 is basically of this form. with the constant based on a probability of the calculated value being. ‘exoeoded of somewhat greater than ] in 100. The expression is given as 3erém ‘where ¢min isthe minmum cover 10 the main telnforcement and eq is the average Concrete strain and is sed on e, but allows for the stiffening effect of the cracked concrete in the tensioa zone. The value of em, is given by an empiries] expressionREINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN _ bi =x) a = 9) 364, -3) ‘where By isthe width of section at centroid of tensile steel and a the distance ftom ccompresive face to the point at which crack is calculated, This expression allows for variations of steel stess between cracks, and results in correspondingly reduced maximum crack width estimates. A negtlvevelue of indicates thatthe section fsuncracked, 6.4.3 Analysis of Section to Determine Crack Width ‘Whatever formula is used, it is necessary to consider the apparent concrete strain at the appropriate position. This must be done by elastie analysis of the cracked section using half the instantanzous value of £, to allow for creep effects as dseussed in section 6.4. ‘The methods discussed in section 4.10.1 should be used to find the neutral axis position x and hence f, the stress in the tensile reinforcement, Then Yh @-a hhence é_y may be obtained. JH lo ete 2°90 4omm bers (nin cover =50m) (©) Detail of Reiatercamant Position (a) Gross. Section Figure 6.15 Example 64 Calculation of Flexural Crock Widths Estimate the maximum flexural crack widths for the bear section shown in figure 6.18a when subjected to a moment of 650 KN m. Characteristic strengihs of concrete foy of steel fy Modulus of elasticity of steel £, = 200 kN/mm? ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 139 Caleulate Neutral Axis Position and Steel Stress From table 1-1, instantaneous modulus of elasticity = 26 kN/mm?, therefore cen 8 eran? ‘Then from seetion 4.10.1 the neutral axis position is given by Aw - 2 Aa=0 rea of three no. 40:mm bars = 3770 mm? fxt+ In this case A, = 1000 ~ (20 +50) = 930 mm thus 1.490 xx? + 29 4.3770 ~ 2 x 3770 x 930 3 B therefore sex _ 204 V(200" + 4 269 700) 2 394mm (Alternatively cherts may be used, as in figure 4.29 in which ease Ay, 20 3710 156 bd” 13 400% 930 taking A = 0, s/d = 0.42 from charts and hence x = 391 mm.) ‘The stress in the reinforcement ge 650 x 108 *” @—x/3)4g 798 3770 216 N/mm? thus ae PX 2.04 x 107% and tn =e, — = 2) G@' =x) m3 Bly (d —§) ‘The maximum crack width will occur either at position 1 or 2 indicated on figure 6.135 thus.140 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Position ¥ Ger ae xi0-* 1 606 470? + 707} — 1000 124 ° «a0? + 268%) — 20 652 ass Minimum eater, cin = 50min thus a position 1 a ( : ‘epg 50.03) dre 3 x 200 x 3770 (930 — 394) =112x 107 nnd we ieee (2 we BX79M 112x107 50 rae ) i000 — 398 and similar at position 2 [oss - ‘tora — sn (60298) ei? 3 x 200 x 3770 (930 — 394) =0.50 «10 = 0.24 mam thus = 34257 «0.50 « 10 Ml 2 = 0.23 mm (82) 606, ‘The maximum exack width of 0.24 mm is therefore likely to occur at the bottom. comers of the member, and the cracks are likely 1o be at an average spacing of 1.67a, = 1,67 x 79 © 130 ram at these positions. Cracks of similar width may coveur on side Faces at a spacing of approximately 1.67 x 257 = 430 mm. 6.4.4 Control of Crack Widths It is apparent from the expressions derived above that there are two fundamental ways in which surface crack widths may be reduced (1) Reduce the stress in the eeinforcement (/.) @) Reduce the distance to the nearest bar (ae) The uso of stol at reduced stresses is generally uneconomical, and although this approach is used in the design of water-etaining structures where cracking must often be avoided altogether. itis generally easier to limit the bar cover and spacing SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 141 and hence deg, Durability requirements limit the minimum value of cover: however bars should be es close to the conerete surface as is allowed. Reinforcement spacing may be reduced by keeping bar diameters as small a i reasonably possible. ‘Since the side face of a beam is often a critical erackwidth position it is good practice to consider the provision of longitudinal steel in the side faces of beams fof moderate depth. Recommendations regarding this, and spacing of main rein forcement, are given by BS 8110 and are discussed in section 6.1, If these recom ‘mendations are followed, itis not necessary to calculate crack widths except i unusual circumstances, Reinforcement detalling however. hss been shown to have ‘large effect or flexural cracking. and must in practice be a compromise between, the requirements of cracking, durability and constructional ease and costs b fe fe. 1 a Figure 6.16 Forces adjacent 10 @erack 6.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Cracking ‘Thermal and sivinkage effects. and the stresses developed prior to cracking of the concrete were ciscussed in chapter I. After cracking, the equilibrium of concrete adjacent to a erick is illustrated in figure 6.16. [Equsting tersion and compression forces Asha * Ache ~ Ashe or fam FE On So) ‘i the condition is considered when steel and concrete simultaneously seach thei limiting values in tension, tha is, fa = fan foe = fy = tensile strength of concrete A appropriate «ge — usualy taken as thee days: Then An fi i+ fee here ris she sel ratio. The vale of fg canbe calculated but is generally very small and may be taken 4 zero without introducing undue imaceuriey hence the cvitical vale of steel ratio fi £ spproximate 6.109" G55 E somoxiaey (6.107 IE the stel ratio is es than this value, the steel wil yield in tension cesulting in few wide cracks; however i is greater then move cracks wil be formed when the erieWe REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 143 tensile sivess eaused by bond between the steel and concrete exceeds the concrete nerete strain) x crack spacing with the maximum width corresponding to the tensile srength, that fs maxim Sp2cing Of Sng fosbus > he Wanax * (Coy + Tae ~ 26a) Snax 12) whore fy = average bond stress wae y= tinksee eats 1 = development length along » bar : Du, = sum of perimeteis of reinforcement, T= fallin temperature from hydretion peak For a round bar a, = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete — taken as ‘ (5 x the value for mature concrete. to allow for creep effects ® In practice, variations in restraints cause large variations within members and between otherwise similar members, with ‘full restraint seldom occurcing. The ‘behaviour depends considerably on this and temperatures atthe time of casting. Guidance concerning possible “restraint factors’ i given in Part 2 of BS 8110. Hence, since for similar bars then Example 6.5 Caleulation of Shrinkage and Thermal Crack Widths ‘A fully restrained seotion of seinfozoed concrete wall is 150 may thick, and drying ® slrinkage strain of 50 microstrain (eq) is anticipated together with a temperature dcop (7) of 20°C after setting, Determine the minimum horizontal reinforcement to conivol cracking snd estimate maximum crack widths and svorage spacing for a fe suitable reinforcement arrangement. me | Thuee-day ultinare tensile stength of concrete (f,) = ultimate average bond stress (fo) = 15 Nina Modulus of elasticity of eonerete (#:) = 10 kNjmnm? and thus "The maximum eck spacing istic thi ylu innmeditely prior to the formation Of anew rack, whan the development length on both sess ig, hat Is Coeficent of theymol expansion for mtu eoneret (a) Fn Ee any = 12 mictostrain°C ms Cack spacing nd hence width, therefor, s governed both by the reinforcement sieand quanti Zor tio above the rita alo, which shouldbe ‘aen ata Modul of elastic of seinfrcement (6) tninnu teguirement for conrad ercking Empirical values fr genera se ae Characteristic yield streagth of reinforcement (f,) = 460 N/mm? 200 kN/mm? 1s ven n section 6-1 Crit tel ratio =033 po cent f fay 033 933 150 1000 6.5.1 Gack Width Cteuaion 100 ‘The expressions fr erick spacing asume that the tte thermal and shvinkage 25 mn? strains are sufficient to cause cracking, although in practice itis found that pre dicted eracks may not always occur. Its possible to estimate however the maxi- rmurn erack width likely to occur by considering total concrete contraction in conjunction with the maximum likely crack spacing. For steel ratios greater than ‘This could be conveniently provided as 10 mm bars at 300 mm centres in each face f the member (524 mm! /m), FFor this reinforcement, the maximum erack spacing is given 2s the critical value, and when the total contraction exceeds the ultimate tensile hs fe 13x10 strain for the concrete (éyye. the tensile stress in the concrete increases from zero mes ee at acrack to maximum value at mid-distance between cracks. Hence the mean 24th ax Ae 130000 430 mm tensile strain in the uncracked length is eqy/2 when a new crack f just about 10 form, The crack width is thus given by crack width = (total unit movement —14a REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Since the minimum spacing is given by one-half of this valve, the average spacing. will be Syy = 0.79 x 1430 = 1072 mam. "The maximum crack width corresponds to ymax and is given by nn) 4s piven in equation 6.12 where ultimate tensile strsin for the concrete wna tax (0a 17 SE - 50 microstrain therefore 20x =0.14 mm 6.6 Other Serviceability Requirements ‘The two principal other serviceability considerations are those of durability and resistance to fire, although aecasionally a situation arises in which some other factor may be of importance to ensure the proper performance of a structural ‘member in service. This may include fatigue due to moving toads or machinery, ot specific thermal and sound insulation properties. The methods of dealing with such requirements may range from the use of reduced working stresses in the materials, to the use of special concretes, for example lightweight aggregates for good ther- smal resistance 6.6.1 Durability Deterioration will generally be associated with water permeating the concrete, and the opportunities for this to occur shouldbe minimised as far as possible by pro viding good architectural details with adequate drainage and protection to the conctete surface Peimeabilty isthe principal characteristic of the concrete which affects dur ability although in some situations iti necessary to consider also physical and chemical effects which may cause the concrete to decay For teinforeed concrete a further important aspect of durability isthe degree of protection which i given to the einforcement, Carbonation by the atmosphere will in ime. destioy the alkalinity of the surface zone concrete, endif this reaches the level ofthe reinforcement will render the steel vulnerable to corrosion in the presence of moisture and oxygen. If concrete is made with a sound inert aggregate, deterioration will nt occur in the absence of an external influence. Since concrete i highly alkaline materia SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 145, its sesistanee (0 other alkalis s good, but it is however very susceptible to attack by acids or substances which easily decompose to produce acids. Concrete made with Portland cement is thus not suitable for use in situations where it comes into contact with such materials, which include beer, milk and fats, Some neutral salts ‘may also attack concrete, the two most notable being calcium chloride and soluble sulphates. These react with 2 minor constituent of the hydration products in Giflerent ways. The chloride must be in concentrated solution, when it has a sel. vent effect on the concrete in addition to corrading the reinforcement, while sulphates need only be present in much smaller quantities to cause internal expan- sion of the conerete with consequent cracking and strength loss, Sulphates present the most commonly met chemical attack problem for eanerete since they may ‘cour in groundwater and sewage. In such cases cements containing reduced pro- portions of the vulnerable tricalcium aluminate, such as Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement ot Super Suiphated Cement, should be used. Te addition of ulvorised Fuel Ash (Pf) or ground granulated blest furnace slag (ggbf8) may’ also be beneficial. Table 6.10 indicates minimum concrete mix requirements for use in situations where sulphates are present, Both chlorides and sulphates are present in sea water, and because of this the chemical actions are different, resulting in reduced sulphate damogp, although if the concrete is of poor quality, serious damage may occur from reactions of soluble magnesium salts with the hydrated compounds, Well constructed Ordinary Portland cement structures have neverthe- less been found to endure for many years in sea water, Table 6.10 Concrete exposed to sulphate attack Concentration of sulphates Min, (803) total Mex Cas, "Cement type cement free Insoil Tn groundwater conteat water! (eotalso,) gil) (gi?) cement <0.2% <03 Any = 7 2 020005% — 931012 Any 330050 oPc/RHPC+ 25-40% Pha 310 oss or 70-90% egbts SRPC orSsC 2800.55 3 OSto1o% — 1.21025 OPC/RHPC 25-40% Pfa or «3804S 70-90% agbts SRPCorssC 3300.50 4 10t020% —25t050 —SRPCorssC_— 370s 5 >20% >5.0 SRPCorSSC_ 370.85 + protection Note: These values relate to dense concrete with 20 mam max. apgegate size.146 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Physical attack of the concrete must also be considered. This may come from abrasion or attrition as may be caused by’ sand or shingle, and by alternate wetting and drying. The later effect s particularly impostant in the case of marine struc- tures near the water surface, and causes stresses to develop ifthe movements produced ae restrained, Is also possible for crystal growth to oceur from drying. ‘out of sea water in cracks and pores, and this may cause further internal stresses, leading to cracking, Alternate freezing ané thawing is another major cause of physical damage. particularly in toad and runway slabs and other situations where water in pores and cracks can freeze and expand thus leading to spalling. It has ‘een found that the entrainment of a small percentage of arin the concsete in the form of small discrete bubbles offers the most effective protection against this f ‘of attack. Although this reduces the strength of the concrete, it i recommended that 4.5 £ 1.5 per cent by volume of entrained ait should be included in concrete subjected to regular wetting and drying combined with severe frost All these forms of attack may be minimised by the production of a dense, well compacted concrete with low permeability. thus restricting damage to the surface zone of the member. Aggregates which are likely to react with the alkali mattix ‘should be avoided, ss must those which exhibit unusually high shrinkoge character istics. IF this is done, then permeability. and hence durability, is affected by (2) aggregate type and density Q) water-cement ratio G) degree of hydration of cement (4) degree of compaction, A low water-cement ratio is nesessary to imi the voids du to hydration, which rst be well advanced with the assistance of good curing techniques. Coupled ‘ith thisis the need for non-porous aggregates which sre hard enough to resist any attrition, and for thorough compaction, Ii essential thatthe mix is designed to have adequate workability fr the situation in which tis tobe used thus the cement content ofthe mix must be rcsonably high 3S 8170 specifies minimura cement contents or various exposure condition, a well nim strength and maximm water cement rt, related to mine Thum cover requirements as described in section 6.1.1 “The consequences of thermal eifects on durability must not be overlooked, and very high ezment contents should ely be used in conjuneton witha detailed Cracking assessment. BS S110 suggests that 550 kg/m? cement content should be regarded as an upper limit for general use Provided thas such measures are takea, and that adequate cover of sound concrete is given to te reinforcement. deterioration of reinforced concrete is unlikely. Thus although the surface conerete may be affected, the reinforcing seo il remain protected by an alkaline concrete matrix which has not heen carbonated by the §tmosphete, Once ths cover breaks down and ster and possibly chomicas can reich the sec, rusting and consequent expansion lead rapidly to cracking and spalling oF the cover concrete and severe damage ~ visually and sometimes structurally SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 147 6.6.2 Fire Resistance Depending on the type of structure under consideration, it may be necessary to ‘considar the fie resis:ance of the individual concrete members. Three con ust be examined (1) effects on structural strength (2) flame penetration resistance | in the ease of dividing members (3) heat transmission properties [such as walls snd slabs ‘Concrete and stet in the form of reinforcement o prestrssing tendons exhibit reduced steength ater being subjected to high temperotutes. Although concrete hus low thermal conductivity, and thus good resistance to temperature rise, the strength begins to diop significantly at temaperatures above 300°C and i has a fendeney to spall at high temperatures. The extent of this spalling is governed by tne type of aggregate, with siloeous materials being particularly stsceptibie while caareous and ighteight aggregate concretes suffer very litle. Reinforcement Syl tain about 50 per cant of its normal strengtn aftr reaching about 550°C, ‘hile for prestressing tendons the corresponding temperature is nly 400°C “Thus as the teraperatue rises the heat is transferred to the interior of a con- elo member, with a thermal gradient established inthe concrete. This gradient wil be affected by the area and mass bf the member in addition tb the Uierml properti ofthe concrete, ané may lead to expansion and loss of strength, Dependent on the thickness and nature of cover, the stel will sein temperature and lose strength, this leading to deflections and eventual structural fire ofthe rember ifthe steel temperature Becomes excessive. Design must therefore be aimed at providing ard maintaining sound cover of concrete asa protection. thas {saying the temperature cise in the stel. The presence of plaster, sereeds and other non-combustible finishes assists the cover in protecting the reinforcement and may thus be alloved for in the design BS $110 givas tabulated values of minimum dimensions and nominal covers for various types of concrete member which are necessary to permit the member to withstand fire fora specified period of time. Although these values. which have teen summarised in tubles 6.2 and 6.3, €0 not take into account the influence of aggregate type, they may be considered adequate or most notmal purposes. Mote detailed information concerning design for fixe resistance is given in Part? of BS 8110 including concrete type, member type and details of finishes. The petiod that a member is required to survive, both in respect of strength in relation to Working loads and the containment of fire, will depend upon the type and usage of the structure - and minimum requirements are generally specified by building "egulstions. Prestressed concrate beams must be considered separately in view of the increased vulnerability of the prestrssing ste 62 Stability While it would be unreasonable to expect a structure to withstand extremes of accidental loading as may be caused by collision, explosion or similar happening, {tis important that resulting damage should not be disproportionate to the cause. [t follows therefore that a major structural collapse must not be allowed to be148 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘caused by a relatively minor mishap which may have a reasonably high probabillty. of happening in the anticipated litetime of the structure ‘The possibilities of « structure buckling or overturning under the “design” loads ‘ill have been considered 9s part of the ultimate limit state analysis. However, in some instances a structure will not have an adequate lateral strength even though it has been designed to sesist the specified combinations of wind load end vertical load. This could be the case if there is an explosion ora slight earth tremor, since ‘then the lateral loads are proportional to the mass of the structure. Therefore itis recommended that a structure should always be capable of resisting a lateral force not less than 1. per cent of the total eliaracteristic load acting through the centroid of the structure above any level considered, Damage and possible instability should also be guarded against wherever possi for example vulnerable load-bearing members should be protected from collision by protective features such as banks or barriers 6.7.1 Ties In addition to these precautions. the general stability and robustness of a butlding structure can be increased by providing reinforcement acting as tes, These ties should act both vertically between roof and foundations. and horizontally around, and across each floor, and all external vertical load-bearing members should be anchored to the floors and beams. Vertical Ties Verteal tes are not generally necessary in structures of less than five stozeys, but in higher buildings should be provided by reinforcoment, effectively continuous fom roof to foundation by means of proper laps, running through all vertical loade bearing members, This stel should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to {he maximm design ultimate load carried by the column or wall fom any one storey or the roof, In in siru concrete. this requirement is almost invariably sais: fed by a nonmal design, but joint detailing may be affected in precast work, Horizontal Ties Horizontal ties should be provided for all buildings, irrespective of height, in three ways (2) peripheral ties Q) internal ties G) column and wal ties. ‘The resistance of these ties when stressed to their characteristic strength is givea. terms ofa force F, where F; = 60 kN or (20+4 x aumber of storeys in struc KN. whichever is less. This expression takes into account the increased risk of an accident in a large building and the seriousness of the collapse ofa tall structure. G@) Peripheral Ties ‘The peripheral tie must be provided, by reinforcement which is effectively con- tinuous, around the perimeter of the building at each floor and roof level. This SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 149 ‘column thas. Peripheral tre std oe igure 6.17. Te forces reinforcement must le within 1.2 m from the outer edge and at its characteristic stress be capable of resisting a force of atleast F (b) Internal Ties Internat ties should also be provided at each floor in two perpendicular directions and be anchored at euch end either to the peripheral te of to the continuous column or wal ties, These ties must be effectively continuous and they may either be spread evenly actos floor. of grouped at beams of walls as convenient, Where walls ae used the tie tefnforcement must be concentrated in the bottom 0.5 m. ‘The resistance required is related to the span and loading. Internal ties must be capable of resisting a foree of F, KN per metre width o [Fy(gy + qx)/7.5] L/3 kN ber metre width if this is greater In this expression, is the greatest horizontal distance in the direction ofthe tie between the centres of vertical load-bearing ‘members. or if smaller. 5 x the clear storey height messused to underside of the beams. The loading (gy + q,) KN/m? isthe average characteristic load on unit ares of the Noor considered. Internal ties parallel to cross-walls eccurring in one dicec- tion only, on plan, need only resist the force F, KN pee metre width, (©) Column and Wall Ties Column snd wall ties must be sble to resist a force of atleast 3 per cent of the {otal vertical ultimate load for which the member has been designed. Additionslly, the resistance provided must not be less than the smaller of 2F; or Fylo/2.5 KN ‘where fais the floor to ceiling height in mettes. Wall ties are assessed on the basis Of the sbove forces acting per metre length of the wall, while column ties are eon: centrated within 1 m either side of the column centre line. Particular cate should be taken with comer columns to ensure they are tied in two perpendicular directions,180 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN In considering the structure subjected to accidental loading it is assurned that no other forces are acting. thus reinforcement provided for other purposes may also act as ties. Indeed, peripheral and internal ties may also be considered to be. acting as column or wall tis, Full ancroroge tangtn (in nenerage ne stress soe) f - ey 2s | a) ' 4 a) o> te Anenorage Reguiremants for Internal ‘ies Full anchorage trgin Hy oi toy I oy OF as (op ertey — Veg j Peripneral ne Anchorage Requirerants for Colum & Wall Ties Figure 6.18 Anchorage of tes ‘As with vertical ties, the provision of horizontal ties for situ construction will seldom affect the amount of reinforcement provided. Detailing of the rein- forcement may however be affected. and panticular attention must be paid to the ‘manner in which internal tes are anchored to peripheral ties. The requirements for ‘the full anchorage of ties are ilustrated in figure 6,18. If these are not met, then the assumed stresses in the tles must be reduced appropriately. Precast concrete construction however presents a more serious problem since: ‘the requitements of tie forces and simple easly constructed joints are not always compatible. Unless the required tie forees ean be provided with the bars anchored by hooks and bends in the case of columan and wall ties, an analysis of the structure rust be performed to assess the remaining stability after a specified degree of structural damage, ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 151 Example 6.6 Stability Ties Catoulate the stability ties required in an eight-storey building of plan area shown, in figure 6.19 Clear storey height under beams = 2.9 m Floor to ceiling height (lo) = 3.4m Characteristic dead load (gy) = 6 KNfas? Characteristic live load (qu) = 3 KNfa? ‘Characteristic stect strength (/,) = 460 N/mm? Fy=(20 + 4x number of storeys) = 2044 8=S2KN <6OKN ronsvarse Figure 6.19, () Periphera ties Force to be resisted = Fy = 52 KN Bor area required = 521° 2443 sum? 0 This could be provided by one T12 bar. (6) internat res = Fran) L Forse to be esisted = FBR 26) Ly por mete 1 St he KN per metre (1) Transverse direction Force = xD =s74enim> Fh 735 Force per bay =87.4 x 6.5 = 568.1 KN ‘Therefore, bar area required in each transverse interior beam is152 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 568.1 x 10° 460 This could be provided by 4120 bars. = 1235 mm? (2) Longitudinal direction 52(643) 65, 7S Force = 1.1 kN/m > F, ‘Therefore force along length of building = 81.1 x 7 = $67.7 KN, hence bar area required in each longitudinal bear is 567.7 x10 2x 460 This could be provided by 2120 bars. =617 mm? 8) Column ties Force to be designed for is by 3a) te) r= (34) 52-70. (4) @)= OT EN <2; : 4 75x 10" 163 mm? Area of ties requited = (©) Vertical tes Maximum column load from one storey is approximately equal to (1.6 x3 + 14x 6)x3.5 x 6.5 = 3003 KN ‘Therefore bar area required throughout each column is equal to 300.3 x 10° “460, ‘This would be provided by 4T16 bars. = 653 mm* SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 153 6.7.2 Analysis of ‘Damaged’ Structure ‘This aust be undertaken when @ structure has five or more storeys and does not comply with the veticaltie equizements, or whea every precast floor or roof unit {oes not have sufficient anchorage to resist a force equal to F, KN pat metre width Sting in the direction ofthe span. The analysis must show that each key load tearing member, its connections, and the horizontal members which provide lateral support are able to withstand a specified loading fzom any direction, If ‘his cannot e satisfied, then the analysis must demonstrate thatthe removal of any single vertical Toad-bearing element, ther than key members, at each storey in turn will not result in collapse ofa sigificant part ofthe structure ‘The minimum loading thet may act ftom any direction on a key member is recommended as 34 kN/mn* in BS 8110. The decision as to what loads should be considered acting is left to the engineer, but wil generally be on the basis of permanent and realistic live-oading estimates, depending on the building usage ‘This method is attempting therefore to asess quantitatively the effects of excep- tional loading such as explosion. The design ‘pressure’ must thus be regarded asa somewhat arbitrary value The ‘pressure’ method will generally be suitable for application to columns in precast framed structures; however, where precast load-bearing panel construction is being used an approach incorporaung the removal of individual elements may be more appropriate, In this case, vertical loadings should be assessed as described, and the structure investigated to determine whether it is able to remain standing bya different structural action. This action may include parts ofthe damaged structure behaving as a cantilever ora catenary, and it may aso be necessary to consider the strength of non-load-beering partitions or cladding Whichever approach is adopted, such analyses are tedious, and the provision of eifective tie forces within the structure should be regarded asthe preferred solu tion both from the point of view of design and performance Continuity reinforcement an¢ good detailing wil gretly enhance the overall fe resistance of a structure with respect to collapse. A fire-damaged structure ‘with reduced member strength may even be likened to a structure subjected to sccidental overload, end analysed accordingly.