Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Phenolic Compound in Fruit PDF
Phenolic Compound in Fruit PDF
Invited review
Phenolic compounds in fruits an overview
Charles W. I. Haminiuk,1* Giselle M. Maciel,2 Manuel S. V. Plata-Oviedo1 & Rosane M. Peralta2
1 Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Tecnologia de Alimentos (PPGTA), Universidade Tecnologica Federal do Parana, Campus Campo Mourao,
Parana, Brasil
2 Departamento de Bioqu mica, Laboratorio de Bioqu mica de Microorganismos, Universidade Estadual de Maringa, Maringa, Parana, Brasil
(Received 23 January 2012; Accepted in revised form 2 April 2012)
Summary
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites widely found in fruits, mostly represented by avonoids and
phenolic acids. The growing interest in these substances is mainly because of their antioxidant potential and
the association between their consumption and the prevention of some diseases. The health benets of these
phytochemicals are directly linked to a regular intake and their bioavailability. Studies have shown the
importance of the regular consumption of fruits, especially for preventing diseases associated with oxidative
stress. In the present review, the most recent articles dealing with polyphenols in fruits are reviewed, focusing
on their occurrence, main methods of extraction, quantication and antioxidant assays. In addition, the
health benets and bioaccessibility bioavailability of phenolic compounds in fruits are addressed.
Keywords
Bioaccessibility, bioavailability, extraction, fruits, health benets, high-performance liquid chromatography, phenolic com
pounds.
Introduction
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x
2012 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012 Institute of Food Science and Technology
2023
2024
phenolic compounds found in grapes. Proanthocyanidins, when in contact with salivary proteins, are responsible for the astringency of fruits (El Gharras, 2009).
Stilbenes are a group of phenylpropanoid-derived
compounds characterised by a 1,2-diphenylethylene
backbone (C6-C2-C6) (Goyal et al., 2012). Low quantities of stilbenes are present in the human diet, and their
main representative is resveratrol, mostly in the glycosylated form (Delmas et al., 2006; Ignat et al., 2011).
Resveratrol is a phytoalexin. This substance is mainly
produced in grapevines in response to injury and fungal
infection (Atanackovic et al., 2012), and the main
dietary source of resveratrol in fruits is found in red
grape skins. Several studies have indicated that resveratrol has the ability to prevent cancer and coronary,
neurological and degenerative diseases (Anekonda,
2006; Saiko et al., 2008; Das & Das, 2010; Gresele
et al., 2011). Resveratrol present in red wine is directly
linked to the French paradox, in which French
people suer a relatively low incidence of coronary
heart disease even though they have a diet relatively
rich in saturated fats (Ferrie`res, 2004). Furthermore, the
incidence of heart infarction in France is about 40%
lower than in the rest of Europe (Renaud & Delorgeril,
1992; Saiko et al., 2008). It is believed that the continuous and moderated ingestion of grape-derived products, especially red wine, plays a key role in preventing
heart disease.
The fth group of polyphenols comprises the lignans,
a large variety of individual structures mostly consisting
of two phenylpropanoid moieties connected via their
side chain C8 carbons (Davin & Lewis, 2003; Aehle
et al., 2011), usually occurring as glycosides. Lignans are
one of the major classes of phytoestrogens, which are
oestrogen-like chemicals. In the gastrointestinal tract,
these molecules are converted into compounds (enterodiol and enterolactone) that have both oestrogenic and
anti-oestrogenic properties (Meagher & Beecher, 2000).
Fruits are not the main dietary source of lignans in food
and low concentrations are found in strawberries and
cranberries (Meagher & Beecher, 2000). The highest
amount of these chemical compounds is found in
axseed. According to data from the Food Composition
Panel of the Spanish Ministry of Environment and
Rural and Marine Aairs, the average intake of lignans
from fruits and vegetables is estimated to be
233.6 lg day)1 (Moreno-Franco et al., 2011).
The composition of phenolic compounds in fruits
varies considerably. Fruits are a particularly rich source
of avonoids (especially avonols, avan-3-ols and
anthocyanins) and hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids. As previously stated, a large amount of
scientic evidence shows that the regular consumption
of fruit is directly linked to the prevention of various
diseases, and the majority of polyphenols that might
account for this are shown in Table 1.
2025
2026
Sub-class
Name
Phenolic
acids
Hydroxycinnamic
acids
Hydroxybenzoic
acids
Flavonoids
Flavonols
Chemical structure
Fruit material
References
p-Coumaric acid
Orange, Black
currant
Caffeic acid
Chlorogenic acid
Ferulic acid
Gallic acid
Vanillic acid
Avocado, Strawberry
Syringic acid
Quercetin
Kaempferol
Fig, Cambuci
Table 1 (Continued)
Main class
Sub-class
Flavanones
Flavan-3-ols
Flavones
Anthocyanins
Name
Chemical structure
Fruit material
References
Myricetin
Apple, Papaya
Rutin
Hesperetin
Grapefruit, Orange
Naringenin
Grapefruit, Orange
Epicatechin
Catechin
Apigenin
Luteolin
Delphinidin
Grapefruit, Blackcurrant,
Blueberry
2027
2028
Table 1 (Continued)
Main class
Stilbenes
Sub-class
Name
Chemical structure
Fruit material
References
Cyanidin
Raspberry, Pomegranate,
Acerola
Malvidin
Peonidin
Pelargonidin
Strawberry, Raspberry,
Mangosteen
Petunidin
Apple, Blueberry
Resveratrol
Extraction of polyphenols
2029
2030
Table 2 Summary of total phenolic compounds, avonoids and anthocyanins of different fruits as quantied by spectrophotometric measurements
Fruit material
Aca
Acerola
Banana
Blackberry
Cambuci
Fig
Grape
Kiwifruit
Mulberry
Orange
Plum
Raspberry
Strawberry
Uvaia
Sample
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Lyophilised powder
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Lyophilised powder
Fresh
Solvent
Methanol acetone
Methanol acetone
Acetone water acetic
Phosphate buffer
Ethanol
Methanol HCl
Methanol HCl
Acetone water acetic
Water
Acetone water acetic
Acetone water acetic
Phosphate buffer
Water
Ethanol
Total phenolics
Total flavonoids
acid
acid
acid
acid
454.00
1063.00a
475.00c
226.00a
3414.00e
463.00a
2348.00e
112.00c
1515.90a
243.00c
311.00c
267.00a
363.70a
373.40e
Total anthocyanins
b
0.70d
30.16d
45.60f
0.40d
250.10d
6.10d
3.00d
14.60d
58.72d
111.00
18.90b
0.00b
153.30b
19.44b
27.30b
99.08b
0.00b
0.00b
102.00b
197.20b
4.77b
References
Rufino et al. (2010)
Rufino et al. (2010)
Kevers et al. (2007)
Wang & Lin (2000)
Haminiuk et al. (2011)
Solomon et al. (2006)
Orak (2007)
Kevers et al. (2007)
Lin & Tang (2007)
Kevers et al. (2007)
Kevers et al. (2007)
Wang & Lin (2000)
Lin & Tang (2007)
Haminiuk et al. (2011)
Liquid chromatography is an important physical separation technique carried out in the liquid phase where a
mixture of compounds can be easily and rapidly
separated. Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) is the main method used for
the separation of phenolic compounds in plant-food
material, in which the stationary phase is less polar than
the mobile phase. The stationary phase is generally
made up of hydrophobic alkyl chains, where there are
three common chain lengths: C4, C8 and C18 (Guzzeta,
2011). Silica-bonded C18 columns are widely used to
separate phenolic compounds. In RP-HPLC, the retention time of phenolic compounds is higher for substances that are less polar (myricetin, quercetin,
kaempferol); meanwhile, polar molecules are eluted
more easily (gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, epigallocatechin).
Owing to their chemical complexity and similarity,
polyphenols in fruits are usually identied and quantied by RP-HPLC using a gradient elution instead of the
isocratic mode, where the mobile phase is generally a
binary system (Merken & Beecher, 2000; Kim & Lee,
2001). Usually, gradient elution is carried out with high
quality ultrapure acidied water (phosphoric, acetic,
formic acids) as the polar solvent; meanwhile, acetonitrile and methanol are usually used as less polar solvents
(Kim & Lee, 2001). A small quantity of acid is added to
the solvent system to suppress the ionisation of phenolic
and carboxylic groups, which will improve certain
parameters such as retention time and resolution
(Hakkinen, 2000).
Polyphenols have a maximum absorbance (kmax) in
either the ultraviolet or visible regions and, thus, determination of the optimum absorbance for each substance
plays an important role in the identication, quantication and accuracy of the analysis. The ultraviolet
2031
2032
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3 Maximum absorbance of (a) gallic acid 271.7 nm, (b) resveratrol 306.2 nm and (c) quercetin 370.6 nm.
Sweet cherry
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Grape skin
Guava
Bayberry juice
Apple juice
Strawberry
Kiwifruit
waste
Grape
pomace
Mango
Raspberry
Fruit material
278
210360
Wavelength (k) nm
Proanthocyanidins, (+)-catechin,
p-coumaric acid and pelargonidin
Chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid,
cinnamic acid
Table 3 Summary of the methodologies used for the separation and identication of phenolic compounds in fruits by RP-HPLC-DAD UV-Vis
References
2033
2034
test. The ORAC assay measures the ability of antioxidants to protect proteins from damage by free radicals
(Awika et al., 2003), and it is the only chemical method
that takes free radical action to completion (Wang et al.,
2004). Furthermore, owing to its biological relevance to
the in vivo antioxidant ecacy, the ORAC is the
preferred technique of some researchers (USDA,
2010). This methodology was originally introduced by
Glazer (1990) and it was modied by Cao et al. (1993).
In the original methodology, b-phycoerythrin is used as
an indicator protein, 2,2-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) as a peroxyl radical generator,
and trolox as a control standard, where the results are
expressed as micromolar of trolox equivalent per litre or
per gram of sample (Cao et al., 1993; Prior et al., 2005).
The ORAC was improved in 2001 because of limitations
of b-phycoerythrin, such as: inconsistency from lot to
lot, photobleaching and interactions with polyphenols
(Ou et al., 2001). The authors proposed the use of
uorescein as the uorescent probe. Water-soluble and
fat-soluble antioxidant compounds can also be assayed
by the method described by Prior et al. (2003) for
hydrophilic (H-ORAC) and lipophilic ORAC (LORAC), respectively. One disadvantage of the ORAC
method in comparison with other antioxidant tests is
that it requires expensive apparatus (Awika et al., 2003).
In a comprehensive study, over 100 dierent kinds of
foods were evaluated using the ORAC test (Wu et al.,
2004). Among the fruits assayed, the berries, plums and
some varieties of apples gave higher values in the ORAC
test; these data were also conrmed in the USDA database
for ORAC of selected foods (USDA, 2010). In this
database, higher values of micromolar of trolox equivalent
per gram of fruit were found for dierent berries and some
other fruits such as: chokeberry, elderberry, black raspberry juice, raisins, raspberry and rose hip.
Despite the great popularity of chemical tests, these
methodologies fail to eectively predict the antioxidant
capacity in vivo. A more relevant method called cellular
antioxidant activity (CAA) was recently proposed to
measure the cellular activity of antioxidants (Wolfe &
Liu, 2007). This methodology considers important
aspects such as uptake, metabolism and location of
antioxidant compounds within cells (Song et al., 2010),
which are not considered by traditional methods. This
technique is performed using a 2,7-dichlorouorescin
(DCFH) probe in human hepatocarcinoma cells
(HepG2), which uoresce when oxidised by peroxyl
radicals to 2,7-dichlorouorescein (Wolfe et al., 2008).
The CAA methodology was used to evaluate the
inhibition of peroxyl radical-induced DCFH oxidation
by selected pure phytochemical compounds and fruits
by measuring the EC50 values (Wolfe & Liu, 2007).
Quercetin showed the highest CAA value among the
pure compounds assayed, and blueberry was the most
eective in preventing peroxyl radical-induced DCFH
A considerable number of studies describing the presence of many dierent types of bioactive compounds
with antioxidant properties in fruits have been published
over the last few years. However, food scientists have
only recently begun to evaluate the actual contribution
of these bioactive compounds, such as active antioxidants, after their consumption.
2035
2036
2037
2038
Duthie, G.G., Pedersen, M.W., Gardner, P.T. et al. (1998). The eect
of whisky and wine consumption on total phenol content and
antioxidant capacity of plasma from healthy volunteers. European
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52, 733736.
van Duynhoven, J., Vaughan, E.E., Jacobs, D.M. et al. (2011).
Metabolic fate of polyphenols in the human superorganism.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 108, 45314538.
El Gharras, H. (2009). Polyphenols: food sources, properties and
applications a review. International Journal of Food Science and
Technology, 44, 25122518.
Everette, J.D., Bryant, Q.M., Green, A.M., Abbey, Y.A., Wangila,
G.W. & Walker, R.B. (2010). Thorough study of reactivity of
various compound classes toward the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58, 81398144.
Fanali, C., Dugo, L., DOrazio, G. et al. (2011). Analysis of
anthocyanins in commercial fruit juices by using nano-liquid
chromatography-electrospray-mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography with UV-vis detector. Journal of
Separation Science, 34, 150159.
Fang, Z., Zhang, Y., Lue, Y. et al. (2009). Phenolic compounds and
antioxidant capacities of bayberry juices. Food Chemistry, 113, 884
888.
Faulks, R.M. & Southon, S. (2005). Challenges to understanding and
measuring carotenoid bioavailability. Biochimica Et Biophysica
Acta-Molecular Basis of Disease, 1740, 95100.
Ferguson, P.J., Kurowska, E., Freeman, D.J., Chambers, A.F. &
Koropatnick, D.J. (2004). A avonoid fraction from cranberry
extract inhibits proliferation of human tumor cell lines. Journal of
Nutrition, 134, 15291535.
Ferrie`res, J. (2004). The French paradox: lessons for other countries.
Heart, 90, 107111.
Flamini, R. (2003). Mass spectrometry in grape and wine chemistry.
Part I: polyphenols. Mass Spectrometry Reviews, 22, 218250.
Fogliano, V., Corollaro, M.L., Vitaglione, P. et al. (2011). In vitro
bioaccessibility and gut biotransformation of polyphenols present in
the water-insoluble cocoa fraction. Molecular Nutrition & Food
Research, 55, S44S55.
Folin, O. & Ciocalteu, V. (1927). On tyrosine and trytophane
determinations in proteins. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 73,
627650.
Frazao, E. (1999). Americas eating habits: changes and consequences.
Agriculture Information Bulletin No. AIB750, 484 pp.
Fu, L., Xu, B.T., Xu, X.R. et al. (2011). Antioxidant capacities and
total phenolic contents of 62 fruits. Food Chemistry, 129, 345350.
Fuleki, T. & Francis, F.J. (1968). Quantitative methods for anthocyanins. 1. Extraction and determination of total anthocyanin in
cranberries. Journal of Food Science, 33, 7277.
Fuzfai, Z. & Molnar-Perl, I. (2007). Gas chromatographic-mass
spectrometric fragmentation study of avonoids as their trimethylsilyl derivatives: analysis of avonoids, sugars, carboxylic and amino
acids in model systems and in citrus fruits. Journal of Chromatography A, 1149, 88101.
Gavrilova, V., Kajdzanoska, M., Gjamovski, V. & Stefova, M. (2011).
Separation, characterization and quantication of phenolic compounds in blueberries and red and black currants by HPLC-DAD-ESIMS(n). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59, 40094018.
Genovese, M.I., Pinto, M.D.S., Goncalves, A. & Lajolo, F.M. (2008).
Bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of exotic fruits and
commercial frozen pulps from Brazil. Food Science and Technology
International, 14, 207214.
George, S.M., Park, Y., Leitzmann, M.F. et al. (2009). Fruit and
vegetable intake and risk of cancer: a prospective cohort study.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 347353.
Giusti, M.M. & Wrolstad, R.E. (2001). Characterization and measurement of anthocyanins by UV-visible spectroscopy. Current Protocols
in Food Analytical Chemistry. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
2039
2040
2041
2042
Sharma, O.P. & Bhat, T.K. (2009). DPPH antioxidant assay revisited.
Food Chemistry, 113, 12021205.
Shi, J. & Le Maguer, M. (2000). Lycopene in tomatoes: chemical and
physical properties aected by food processing. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition, 40, 142.
Silva, A.R., Pinheiro, A.M., Souza, C.S. et al. (2008). The avonoid
rutin induces astrocyte and microglia activation and regulates TNFalpha and NO release in primary glial cell cultures. Cell Biology and
Toxicology, 24, 7586.
Singleton, V.L. & Rossi, J.A. (1965). Colorimetry of total phenolics
with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagents. American
Journal of Enology Viticuture, 16, 144158.
Singleton, V.L., Orthofer, R. & Lamuela-Raventos, R.M. (1999).
Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and
antioxidants by means of folin-ciocalteu reagent. In: Methods in
Enzymology (edited by P. Lester). Pp. 152178. San Diego, CA,
USA: Academic Press.
Solomon, A., Golubowicz, S., Yablowicz, Z. et al. (2006). Antioxidant
activities and anthocyanin content of fresh fruits of common g
(Ficus carica L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54,
77177723.
Sondheimer, E. & Kertesz, Z.I. (1948). The anthocyanin of strawberries. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 70, 34763479.
Song, W., Derito, C.M., Liu, M.K., He, X., Dong, M. & Liu, R.H.
(2010). Cellular antioxidant activity of common vegetables. Journal
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58, 66216629.
Sturgeon, S.R. & Ronnenberg, A.G. (2010). Pomegranate and breast
cancer: possible mechanisms of prevention. Nutrition Reviews, 68,
122128.
Sun, L., Zhang, J., Lu, X., Zhang, L. & Zhang, Y. (2011). Evaluation
to the antioxidant activity of total avonoids extract from persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) leaves. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 49,
26892696.
Sun-Waterhouse, D., Wen, I., Wibisono, R., Melton, L.D. & Wadhwa,
S. (2009). Evaluation of the extraction eciency for polyphenol
extracts from by-products of green kiwifruit juicing. International
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 44, 26442652.
Szabo, M., Iditoiu, C., Chambre, D. & Lupea, A. (2007). Improved
DPPH determination for antioxidant activity spectrophotometric
assay. Chemical Papers, 61, 214216.
Tagliazucchi, D., Verzelloni, E., Bertolini, D. & Conte, A. (2010). In
vitro bio-accessibility and antioxidant activity of grape polyphenols.
Food Chemistry, 120, 599606.
Tamura, M., Nakagawa, H., Tsushida, T., Hirayama, K. & Itoh, K.
(2007). Eect of pectin enhancement on plasma quercetin and fecal ora
in rutin-supplemented mice. Journal of Food Science, 72, S648S651.
Terra, X., Montagut, G., Bustos, M. et al. (2009). Grape-seed
procyanidins prevent low-grade inammation by modulating cytokine expression in rats fed a high-fat diet. The Journal of Nutritional
Biochemistry, 20, 210218.
Terra, X., Pallares, V., Arde`vol, A. et al. (2011). Modulatory eect of
grape-seed procyanidins on local and systemic inammation in dietinduced obesity rats. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 22,
380387.
Theriault, M., Caillet, S., Kermasha, S. & Lacroix, M. (2006).
Antioxidant, antiradical and antimutagenic activities of phenolic
compounds present in maple products. Food Chemistry, 98, 490
501.
Thompson, H.J. (2010). Chapter 2 vegetable and fruit intake and the
development of cancer: a brief review and analysis. In: Bioactive
Foods in Promoting Health (edited by W. Ronald Ross & R.P.
Victor). Pp. 1936. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Thompson, R. & LoBrutto, R. (2006). Role of HPLC in process
development. HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists. Pp. 641677.
Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Torres, B., Tiwari, B.K., Patras, A. et al. (2011). Eect of ozone
processing on the colour, rheological properties and phenolic
content of apple juice. Food Chemistry, 124, 721726.
de Torres, C., Diaz-Maroto, M.C., Hermosin-Gutierrez, I. & PerezCoello, M.S. (2010). Eect of freeze-drying and oven-drying on
volatiles and phenolics composition of grape skin. Analytica Chimica
Acta, 660, 177182.
Tsao, R. & Yang, R. (2003). Optimization of a new mobile phase to
know the complex and real polyphenolic composition: towards a
total phenolic index using high-performance liquid chromatography.
Journal of Chromatography A, 1018, 2940.
Turkben, C., Sariburun, E., Demir, C. & Uylaser, V. (2010). Eect of
freezing and frozen storage on phenolic compounds of raspberry
and blackberry cultivars. Food Analytical Methods, 3, 144153.
USDA (2010). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Service. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) of Selected
Foods, Release 2. Beltsville, MD, USA: Nutrient Data Laboratory.
USDA (2011). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Service. Database for the Flavonoid Content of Selected Foods,
Release 3.0. Beltsville, MD, USA: Nutrient Data Laboratory.
Vallejo, F., Mar n, J.G. & Tomas-Barberan, F.A. (2012). Phenolic
compound content of fresh and dried gs (Ficus carica L.). Food
Chemistry, 130, 485492.
Vasco, C., Ruales, J. & Kamal-Eldin, A. (2008). Total phenolic
compounds and antioxidant capacities of major fruits from Ecuador. Food Chemistry, 111, 816823.
Vatai, T., Skerget, M. & Knez, Z. (2009). Extraction of phenolic
compounds from elder berry and dierent grape marc varieties using
organic solvents and or supercritical carbon dioxide. Journal of
Food Engineering, 90, 246254.
Vermerris, W. & Nicholson, R. (2006). Families of phenolic compounds and means of classication. Phenolic Compound Biochemistry. Pp. 134. Berlin: Springer.
Vidal, J.R.M.B., Sierakowski, M.-R., Haminiuk, C.W.I. & Masson, M.L.
(2006). Propriedades reologicas da polpa de manga (Mangifera indica
L. cv. Keitt) centrifugada. Ciencia e Agrotecnologia, 30, 955960.
Vitaglione, P., Napolitano, A. & Fogliano, V. (2008). Cereal dietary
bre: a natural functional ingredient to deliver phenolic compounds
into the gut. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 19, 451463.
Wallace, T.C. (2008). Anthocyanins in cardiovascular disease.
Advances in Nutrition, 2, 17.
Walle, T. (2004). Absorption and metabolism of avonoids. Free
Radical Biology and Medicine, 36, 829837.
Wang, S.Y. & Lin, H.S. (2000). Antioxidant activity in fruits and
leaves of blackberry, raspberry, and strawberry varies with cultivar
and developmental stage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 140146.
Wang, C. & Zuo, Y. (2011). Ultrasound-assisted hydrolysis and gas
chromatography-mass spectrometric determination of phenolic
compounds in cranberry products. Food Chemistry, 128, 562568.
Wang, C.C., Chu, C.Y., Chu, K.O. et al. (2004). Trolox-equivalent
antioxidant capacity assay versus oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay in plasma. Clinical Chemistry, 50, 952954.
Wang, J., Sun, B.G., Cao, Y.P., Tian, Y.A. & Li, X.H. (2008a).
Optimisation of ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from wheat bran. Food Chemistry, 106, 804810.
Wang, S.Y., Chen, C.T., Sciarappa, W., Wang, C.Y. & Camp, M.J.
(2008b). Fruit quality, antioxidant capacity, and avonoid content
of organically and conventionally grown blueberries. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56, 57885794.
Wang, L., Manson, J.E., Gaziano, J.M., Buring, J.E. & Sesso, H.D.
(2012). Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of hypertension in
middle-aged and older women. American Journal of Hypertension,
25, 180189.
Waterhouse, A.L. (2001). Determination of total phenolics. Current
Protocols in Food Analytical Chemistry. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
WHO (2003). Fruit and Vegetable Promotion Initiative. World Health
Organization. p. 29. Available at: http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/
fruit_and_vegetables/fruit_and_vegetable_report.pdf (accessed on
November 15, 2011).
2043
2044
Yahia, E.M. (2009). The contribution of fruit and vegetable consumption to human health. Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals. Pp. 351.
Ames, IA, USA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Yan, X.J., Murphy, B.T., Hammond, G.B., Vinson, J.A. & Neto, C.C.
(2002). Antioxidant activities and antitumor screening of extracts
from cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 58445849.
Yang, C.S., Sang, S., Lambert, J.D. & Lee, M.-J. (2008). Bioavailability issues in studying the health eects of plant polyphenolic
compounds. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 52, S139S151.
Yang, J., Martinson, T.E. & Liu, R.H. (2009). Phytochemical proles
and antioxidant activities of wine grapes. Food Chemistry, 116, 332
339.
Yang, B., Jiang, Y.M., Shi, J., Chen, F. & Ashraf, M. (2011).
Extraction and pharmacological properties of bioactive compounds
from longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) fruit a review. Food
Research International, 44, 18371842.
Zarena, A.S. & Udaya Sankar, K. (2012). Isolation and identication
of pelargonidin 3-glucoside in mangosteen pericarp. Food Chemistry,
130, 665670.
Zhang, M.X., Duan, C.Q., Zang, Y.Y., Huang, Z.W. & Liu, G.J.
(2011). The avonoid composition of avedo and juice from the
pummelo cultivar (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) and the grapefruit
cultivar (Citrus paradisi) from China. Food Chemistry, 129, 1530
1536.
Zhao, J., Lv, G.-P., Chen, Y.-W. & Li, S.-P. (2011). Advanced
development in analysis of phytochemicals from medicine and food
dual purposes plants used in China. Journal of Chromatography A,
1218, 74537475.
Zheng, H.-Z., Kim, Y.-I. & Chung, S.-K. (2012). A prole of
physicochemical and antioxidant changes during fruit growth for
the utilisation of unripe apples. Food Chemistry, 131, 106110.