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Aircraft Hardware SR
Aircraft Hardware SR
Student Resource
Subject B-6b:
Aircraft Hardware
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B-6b Aircraft Hardware
Part-66 Subject
CONTENTS
Definitions
Study Resources
Introduction
6.5-1
Springs
6.7-1
Bearings
6.8-1
Transmissions
6.9-1
Control Cables
6.10-1
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DEFINITIONS
Define x
qualities of.
x To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State x
Specify in words or
writing. x
To set forth
in words; declare.
Identify x
To establish the
identity of.
List
x Itemise.
Describe x
object or process.
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effect.
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STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen General
Jeppesen Airframe
AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined Aircraft Inspection and Repair
B-6b Student Handout
Dale Crane Aviation Mechanic Handbook
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to familiarise you with aircraft hardware, fastening
and locking devices, gears, bearing an transmissions..
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 6.5.1 Fasteners - Screw Threads
List types of standard screw threads used in aircraft and identify their
thread forms, dimensions and tolerances.
Describe measuring of screw threads.
Topic 6.5.2
Topic 6.5.3
Fasteners - Locking Devices
Identify and state the purpose of the following locking devices:
x tab and spring washers x
locking plates x split pins x
pal-nuts x wire locking x
quick release fasteners x
keys, circlips and cotter
pins.
Topic 6.7
Springs
Identify various types of springs and list materials used in their
construction.
State characteristics of springs and list their applications.
Topic 6.8
Bearings
Identify various bearings types and state their purpose.
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Topic 6.9
Transmissions
Identify gear types and list their application
State the purpose of the following x Gear
Ratios. x Reduction and multiplication
gear systems. x Driven and driving
gears. x Idler gears. x Mesh patterns.
Identify belts, pulleys, chains and sprockets and describe their application.
Topic 6.10
Control Cables
Identify cable types and define the purpose of the following associated components:
x End fittings, turnbuckles and compensation devises.
x Pulleys and cable systems
x Bowden cable and flexible control systems
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DESIGNATION CODES
An aircraft bolt is given a part code indicating its diameter in 1/16 inch
increments and its length in 1/8 inch increments. For example, an AN4-7
identifies a bolt that measures 4/16 or 1/4 inch in diameter and 7/8 inch in
length.
For bolts that are longer than 7/8 inch, the code changes. For example, a 1 inch
bolt is identified by a -10 representing 1 inch and no fraction. In other words,
there are no -8 or -9 lengths. Dash numbers go from -7 to -10, from -17 to -20,
and from -27 to - 30. Therefore, a
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Bolts are identified by their diameter and length. A diameter represents the
shank diameter while the length represents the distance from the bottom of
the head to the end of the bolt.
A bolts grip length is the length of the unthreaded portion as shown. If the grip
length is slightly longer than this thickness, washers must be added to ensure
that the nut can provide the proper amount of pressure when it is tightened. If
the grip length is substantially less than the thickness of the materials the bolts
threads will extend into the material, resulting in a weaker joint.
When joining two pieces of material, their combined thickness determines the
correct length of bolt to use.
3 = Diameter in
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3/4 inch long, and made of cadmium-plated nickel steel is identified by the
code AN4-6. However, if the same bolt is made of corrosion resistant steel it
carries the code AN4C6, whereas an aluminium alloy bolt would be AN4DD6.
In addition to the designation code, most aircraft bolts have a marking on their
head identifying what the bolt is made of and, in many cases, the
manufacturer. For example, AN standard steel bolts are marked with either a
raised dash or asterisk in the centre of its manufactured head, corrosionresistant steel is marked by a single dash, and AN aluminumalloy bolts are
marked with two raised dashes.
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The FAA forbids the use of aluminium alloy bolts and alloy steel bolts smaller
than AN3 on structural components. Furthermore, since repeated tightening
and loosening of aluminium alloy bolts eventually ruins their threads, they are
not used in areas where they must be removed and installed frequently.
Aluminium alloy nuts can be used with cadmium-plated steel bolts loaded in
shear, but only on land aircraft, not be used on seaplanes.
When hardware was first standardized, almost all nuts were locked onto a bolt
with a cotter pin and, therefore, all bolts had holes drilled near the end of their
shank to accommodate a cotter pin. However, when self-locking nuts became
popular, many standard AN bolts were made without a drilled shank. To help
you identify whether or not a bolt has a hole drilled through it, the letter A is
used in the part code.
For example, if an A appears immediately after the dash number the bolt
does not have a hole, However, the absence of an A indicates a hole exists in
the shank. As an example, an AN6C-12A bolt is 3/8 inch in diameter, made of
corrosion-resistant steel, 1 1/4 inches long, and has an undrilled shank.
Some AN bolts, such as those used to fasten a propeller into a flanged shaft,
must be safetied by passing safety wire through holes drilled through the bolts
head. A bolt drilled for this type of safetying has the letter H following the
number indicating its diameter. For example, the part number AN6H-34A
identifies a bolt that is 3/8 inch in diameter, made of nickel-steel, has a drilled
head, is 3 1/2 inches long, and has an undrilled shank.
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the thread.
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180,000 and a shear strength of 95,000 psi to 108,000 depending on the type
of bolt
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NUTS
All nuts used in aircraft construction must have some sort of locking device to
prevent them from loosening and falling off.
There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and non self-locking. As the
name implies, a self-locking nut locks onto a bolt on its own while a nonselflocking nut relies on either a cotter pin, check nut, or lock washer to hold it in
place.
SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Self-locking nuts, or lock nuts, employ a locking device in their design to keep
them from coming loose. The two general types of self-locking nuts used in
aviation are the fiber, or nylon type (Low Temperature), and the all metal type.
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A self-locking nut must be screwed onto a bolt until all of the chamfer on the
bolts end protrudes through the insert. If the bolt is not chamfered, at least
one thread but not more than three threads should protrude through the nut. If
more than three threads are exposed, you risk the danger of bottoming out
the nut and undertorqueing the assembly, thus creating a stress point that
could fail. If more than three threads are exposed, either replace the bolt with
one of the correct length or install a washer.
A self-locking nuts dash number specifies both diameter and number of
threads per inch. For example, a -524 represents a self-locking nut that fits a
5/16 inch fine thread bolt with 24 threads per inch.
LOW-TEMPERATURE SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Nylon self-locking nuts should not be used in any location where the
temperature could exceed 250F. However, you may use them on engines in
those locations specified by the engine manufacturer.
AN365 self-locking nuts are used on bolts and machine screws and are held in
position by a nylon insert above the threads. This insert has a hole slightly
smaller than the thread diameter on which it fits. The nuts Class 3 fit allows it
to run down on a bolts threads easily until the bolt enters the insert.
AN364 nuts resemble the AN365 self locking nut, but they are thin and are
approved only for shear loads, not to be used in tension. AN364 nuts are
typically made to be used on clevis bolts that do not have drilled shanks.
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and the slots swaged together. This gives the end of the nut a slightly smaller
diameter than its body allowing the threads to grip the bolt. Others have the
end of the nut squeezed into a slightly oval shape, and as the bolt screws up
through the threads it must make the hole round, creating a gripping action.
STANDARD NUTS
AN310 CASTLE NUT
These fine-thread nuts are designed to fit on a standard airframe bolt with a
Class 3 fit, and are used when the bolt is subjected to either shear or tensile
loads. The size of a nut is indicated in the part code by a dash number which
denotes the size of the bolt it fits. For example, an AN31O-6 nut fits an AN6
bolt which has a diameter of 3/8 inch.
Castle nuts are available in cadmium-plated nickel steel, corrosion-resistant
steel, and2024 aluminum alloy. Unless specified, a castle nut is made of
cadmium-plated nickel steel. A corrosion resistant nut, on the other hand, is
identified by the letter C inserted before the dash number in the part code.
Aluminum alloy nuts are identified by the letter U. For example, the part
code AN31OD-6 identifies an aluminum alloy nut that has an inside diameter
of6/16 (3/8) inch.
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The AN320 shear castle nut is made of the same material and has the same type of
as a AN31O nut. However, shear castle nuts are much thinner than standard castle nu
therefore, are used only for shear loads on clevis bolts. An AN320-6 nut is a shear cas
that is used on an AN26 clevis bolt. An aluminum alloy (2024) nut is identified as an A
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In some instances a plain nut is locked in place using a check nut. A check nut
is simply a second nut that is tightened against the primary nut so it cannot
turn off. An AN316 check nut is made of cadmium-plated steel and is available
in both right-and left-hand threads. An AN316-4R is a right-hand check nut that
fits a quarter-inch thread, while an AN316-4L has a left-hand thread.
AN340 AND AN345 (LIGHT HEX NUTS):
These nuts are used in non-structural applications requiring light tension.
Like theAN315 and AN335, they require a locking device to secure them.
AN355 SLO ENGINE NUT
This nut is designed for use on an aircraft engine and is not approved for
airframe use. It is made of heat-treated steel and has national fine threads that
produce a Class 3 fit. It is available in sizes from AN355-3 (3/16 inch) to AN35512 (3/4 inch) and has slots cut in it for a cotter pin.
AN360 PLAIN ENGINE NUT
This engine nut is similar to the AN355 in that it is approved for use on engines
only. However, an AN360 differs from an AN355 in that it does not have cotter
pin slots and has a black rustproof finish. An AN360-7 is a plain engine nut that
fits a 7/16 inch bolt.
AN350 WING NUT
Wing nuts are used when it is necessary to remove a part frequently without
the use of tools. Aircraft wing nuts are made of either cadmium-plated steel or
brass and are available in sizes to fit number (gauge) six machine screws up to
1/2 inch bolts. All of these nuts have national fine threads that produce a Class
2 fit. Nuts for machine screw sizes are designated by the series number.
However, nuts used on bolts have a bolt size given in 1/16 inch increments
followed by the number 16. For example, with an AN3SO-616 wing nut, the -6
indicates that the nut will fit a 3/8 (6/16) inch bolt.
ANCHOR NUT
Anchor nuts are permanently mounted nut plates that enable inspection plates
and access doors to be easily removed and installed. To make the installation
of an access door easier where there are a great number of screws, a floating
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anchor nut is often used. With a floating anchor nut the nut fits loosely into a
small bracket which is riveted to the skin.
Since the nut is free to move within the bracket it aligns itself with a screw. To
speed the production of aircraft, ganged anchor nuts are installed around
inspection plate openings.
These are floating-type anchor nuts that are installed in a channel that is
riveted to the structure. Each nut floats in the channel with enough play so
that a screw can move the nut enough to align it.
TINNERMAN NUTS
Tinnerman nuts are cost-economical nuts that are stamped out of sheet metal.
Because of their semirigid construction, tinnerman nuts can be adapted for use
in many situations. For example, tinnerman nuts are commonly used on light
aircraft to mount instruments to the instrument panel as well as attach
inspection panels and cowlings.
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RIVNUTS
Goodrich Rivnuts were developed by the BE Goodrich Company to attach
rubber de-icer boots to aircraft wing and tail surfaces. To install a rivnut, a hole
is drilled in the skin to accommodate the Rivnut, and a special cutter is used to
cut a small notch in the circumference of the hole. This notch locks the Rivnut
into the skin to prevent it from tuning when it is used as a nut. A Rivnut of the
proper grip length is then screwed onto the puller and inserted into the hole
with its key aligned with the keyway cut in the hole. When the handle of the
puller is squeezed, the hollow shank of the Rivnut upsets and grips the skin.
The tool is then unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded hole that
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accepts machine screws for attaching a de-icer boot. Rivnuts are now used in
many areas on aircraft and the automotive industry.
STUDS
A stud is a shaft that is threaded at both ends.
They have a short thread on one end and a long thread on the other. The short
thread is a coarse thread and a much tighter fit than the long thread so the
stud will remain in place when the nut on the long end is undone.
Where joints have to be broken frequently, studs are used in place of bolts or
screws to prevent damage to the tapped holes.
Aircraft maintenance manual will give methods of stud removal and
installation.
SCREWS
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft.
They differ from bolts in that they are generally made of lower strength
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materials but not always. Screws are typically installed with a loose-fitting
thread, and the head shapes are made to engage a screwdriver or wrench.
Some screws have a clearly defined grip length while others are threaded
along their entire length.
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Structural screws are made of alloy steel, are heat treated, and can be used as
structural bolts. They have a definite grip and the same shear strength as a
bolt of the same size. Shank tolerances are similar to AN hex-head bolts, and
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the threads are National Fine. Structural screws are available with fillister, flat,
or washer heads.
These head types are NOT interchangeable with each other. The correct
screwdriver must be used to avoid damage to the screw head, especially to
titanium screws.
Never use a Philips screwdriver on a Torq-set screw, nor a slotted screwdriver
on a HiTorque screw.
SELF-TAPPING SCREWS
Self-tapping screws have coarse-threads and are used to hold thin sheets of
metal, plastic, or plywood together. The type-A screw has a gimlet (sharp)
point, and the type B has a blunt point with threads that are slightly finer than
those of a type-A screw.
Truss
head,
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The truss-head is rounded, similar to the round head screw, but is considerably
thinner.
WASHERS
Washers provide a bearing surface area for nuts, and act as spacers or shims
to obtain the proper grip
PLAIN WASHERS
All AN washers are in the 900 series. AN960 plain washer provides a smooth
surface between a nut and the material being clamped These washers are
made of cadmium-plated steel, commercial brass (B), corrosion-resistant steel
(C), and 2024 aluminium alloy (D). They are available in sizes that range from
those that fit a number two machine screw to those that fit a one-inch bolt.
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If a thin washer is needed, a light series washer that is one-half the thickness
of a regular washer is available. An example of where a light series washer
should be used is if the castellations of an AN31O nut do not line up with a
cotter pin hole
when the nut is properly torqued. In this situation a light series washer can be
substituted for the regular washer to align the holes. A light series washer is
identified by the letter 1 added to the code. For example, the code ANO6OL
identifies a light series washer.
When working with wood or composite structures, washers with a large surface
area are used to spread the fastener load over a wider area. These large area
washers carry the code of AN970 and are all made of cadmium-plated steel
with inside diameters from 3116 to 1/2 inch.
LOCK WASHERS
In some instances it is not convenient to use self-locking nuts or cotter pins on
bolts. For these applications, a lock washer is often used between the nut and
joint surface if the joint is not structurally critical. Lock washers are made of
steel and are twisted so that when a nut is tightened against it, the spring
action of the washer creates a strong friction force between the bolt threads
and those in the nut.
Two types of lock washers are used in aircraft construction. The most common
is the AN935 split lockwasher. These washers are available in sizes that fit from
a number four machine screw to a 1/2 inch bolt. The second type of lock
washer is the thinner AN936 shakeproof lock washer which is available with
both internal and external teeth.
SPECIAL WASHERS
Some high-strength internal wrenching bolts have a radius between their shaft
and the underside of the bolt head. To provide a tight mating surface,
MS20002C countersunk washers are used under the heads of internal
wrenching bolts. These washers have a countersunk edge to accommodate the
radius on the bolt head. Countersunk washers are made of heat-treated steel
and are cadmium plated.
Finishing washers are often used in aircraft interiors to secure upholstery and
trim. These washers have a countersunk face to accommodate flush screws.
Finishing washers bear against a large area to avoid damaging fragile interior
components.
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Hollow dowels
Threaded dowels
Hollow dowels
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Fasteners-Locking Devices
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The AN935 lock washer may be used between the nut and the surface if the joint
is not structurally critical.
The AN936 shake proof washer is thinner than the AN935 lock washer and is
available with both internal and external teeth.
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LOCKWIRE
Because aircraft vibrate, there must be some provision for safetying or locking all
fasteners to keep them from vibrating loose. Self-locking nuts are used for the
vast majority of applications in modern aircraft construction, but there are still
places where lockwire or split pins are needed. For example, drilled-head bolts
are often used in vibration-prone areas and are safety wired together.
Lockwiring is a means of securing hardware and components and is a safety
method employed in aircraft maintenance procedures.
The type of lock wire most commonly used is made of stainless steel.
When installing lockwire, the wire should pull the bolt head in the direction of
tightening and should be twisted evenly to the next bolt. After the end of the wire
is passed through the head of the second bolt it is again twisted, this time for
about three or four turns. Once this is done, the excess is cut off and the ends of
the wire are bent back where they cannot cut anyone who passes their hand over
the bolts.
Fasteners-Locking Devices
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Lock wiring is often used in critical areas, where inspection intervals may be infrequen
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B-6b.5.3
They can twist wire in one direction only when the knob is pulled. To twist in the
other direction, lock the pliers and rotate manually.
PAL NUTS
Pal nuts are used with plain nuts to lock them in place
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GRUB SCREWS
Grub screws used as a method of locking two threaded components together
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Benefits:
x -Locking and unlocking the fastener only requires a quarter turn or a push.
x -Fasteners can be locked and unlocked in a matter of seconds - saving time
and reducing costs.
x -Vibration resistant - performs well in even the most intensive applications.
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ROLL Pin
Roll pins are often used to provide locking for a joint where the pin is not likely to
be removed or to lock something onto a shaft such as a handle or lever. A roll pin
is made of flat spring steel that is rolled into a cylinder but the two ends are not
Joined. This allows the pin to compress when it is pressed into a hole and create a
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spring action that holds the pin tight against the edge of the hole. To remove a
roll pin, it must be driven from a hole with a proper size pin punch.
SPLIT PINS
Castellated nuts are locked onto drilled bolts by passing a split pin through the
hole and nut castellations and then spreading the ends of the split pin. They are
made of either cadmiumplated carbon steel or corrosion-resistant steel.
There are two methods of securing split pins that are generally acceptable. In the
preferred method, one leg of the split pin is bent up over the end of the bolt, and
the other leg is bent down over one of the flats of the nut. With the second
method, the split pin is rotated 90 degrees and the legs wrapped
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KEYS
Keys are hardened pieces of metal that fit into cut outs (keyways) in wheels,
discs, sprockets
WOODRUFF KEY
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The advantage of a woodruff key is once it is placed in the part it won't move.
SQUARE KEY
Square Keys have a tendency to move out of their slot unless retained by a
locking device.
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AN (Airforce
MS (Military Standards) x
Corporation) x
FON (Fokker)
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Bolts and screws are similar in many ways. They are both used for fastening or
holding, and each has a head on one end and a screw thread on the other.
Regardless of these similarities, there are several distinct differences between the
two types of fasteners. The threaded end of a bolt is always blunt, while that of a
screw may be either blunt or pointed.
The threaded end of a bolt usually has a nut secured to it to complete the
assembly. The threaded end of a screw may fit into a female receptacle, or it
may fit directly into the material being secured. A bolt has a fairly short thread
section and a comparatively long grip length or unthreaded portion; whereas a
screw has a longer threaded section and may have a clearly defined grip length.
A bolt assembly is generally tightened by turning the nut on the bolt: the head of
the bolt may or may not be designed for turning. A screw is always tightened by
turning its head.
When it becomes necessary to replace aircraft fasteners, a duplicate of the
original fastener should always be used.
Classification of threads
Aircraft bolts, screws and nuts are threaded in either the:
American Standard
x
ANC
Coarse) x
(American
ANF
National
(American
National Fine)
x ANEF (American National Extra Fine)
Figure 5.1
ANP (American National Pipe
Unified Standard
x
Coarse) x
Fine) x
Extra Fine)
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Figure 5.2
British Standard
x
Whitworth) x
BSB (British
BSPT (British
Figure 5.3
SI Metric
The SI Metric system of threads is generally used on equipment manufactured in
Europe. All metric threads will have the thread form as illustrated
Figure 5.4
Class of fit
Threads are also designated by class of fit. The class of fit of a thread indicates
the tolerance allowed in manufacturing: x
Class 2 is
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a free fit. x
Class 5 is a
tight fit
NOTE:
Aircraft bolts are almost always manufactured in a Class 3, medium fit.
A Class 4 fit requires a wrench to turn a nut on to a bolt, whereas a Class 1 fit
can easily be turned with the fingers.
Generally, aircraft screws are manufactured with a Class 2 thread fit for ease of
assembly.
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Spring Steel
Spring Steel is a special classification of steel that has great hardness, strength
and elasticity Additional alloying elements are used in spring steel include:
x
Manganese x
Chromium
Silicon x
Vanadium x
Molybdenum
Common Applications of spring steel
include: x
x
Springs
washers x
Steel rules x
Measuring tapes x
Feeler gauges
Spring Varieties
The variety of spring configurations can be classified under five main types:
x
flat
or leaf x
helical x
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spiral
x
torsion x
disk.
Flat or leaf spring
A leaf spring is a flat beam designed to deflect under load; one end is usually
firmly anchored, while the other is linked by a moveable shackle to the moving
machine part. Loads can be applied in either tension or compression (push or
pull); this is one of the main advantages of the design, illustrated in Figure 7.1.
Another advantage is the relatively large amount of energy the spring can absorb
in a small space.
Figure 7.1
The leaf spring type is most commonly seen in automotive rear suspension, as
shown in
Figure 7.2. They are also seen as the undercarriage legs of some light aircraft.
The stress
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Figure 7.3
Helical spring
Sometimes termed a coil spring, this is probably the most common spring type; it
is what usually comes to mind when you talk of springs. Common applications
include automotive suspension (coil over shock), engine valve control and
supplying actuating force in a clutch. The spring is essentially a wire or bar
wound into a helix. The ends may be modified or ground flat so compression can
be evenly applied to the spring, or the ends could be shaped into hooks or eyes
so that tension can be applied. These can be seen in Figure 7.4. The coil spring
is designed to act under compression, or tension, rarely both, which would be
detrimental to the spring's life.
Figure 7.4
Compression spring
Compression springs fall into the following general categories based on their
overall shape:
x
Conical (Tapered) - Coil diameter decreases from one end of the spring
to other. These springs are often used when there is not enough room
for a cylindrical spring. They can be made so that the smaller coils
telescope down into the larger coils as the spring is compressed so that
the spring compression springs.
Barrel (Convex) - Tapered so that both ends are smaller than the
middle. These springs can have some of the same advantages as a
conical spring with the added advantage that they are symmetrical.
Hourglass or Concave - Tapered so that both ends are larger than the
middle. These springs can have some of the same advantages as a
conical spring with the added advantage that they are symmetrical.
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The enlarged end coils may also help keep the spring centred on a
larger diameter hole.
Figure 7.5
Spiral spring
Spiral springs are commonly seen in two main shapes, both shown in Figure 7.6.
The first is a flat spiral termed an Archimedes spiral, and the other is a conical
form which is a modification of the helical spring.
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Figure 7.6
The advantage of the spiral spring is its ability to be deflected in a combination
of ways. The flat spiral can absorb force at a tangent to its axis; that is, it can be
wound up to close the space between its coils. This is the spring providing
motive energy in clocks and clockwork engines. The conical form can be
compressed or stretched, and also reacts to forces at right angles to its axis.
Torsion bar
The torsion bar spring is essentially a shaft of uniform cross-section that stores
energy when twisted. Some cars use torsion bar suspension, or they are added
as after-market accessories to change the suspension characteristics. The
Torsion Bar torque wrench utilises this principle. The drive square in the torque
wrench acts as a torsion bar spring, which activates gears to show torque on a
dial indicator. Figure 7.7 illustrates a simple example of torsion bar.
Figure 7.7
Disk springs
This classification of springs includes a large family of similar spring types, such
as:
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x Single disk x
Multiple disk
x Bellville
spring x Lock
washer x
Diaphragm
Disk springs may be used where space is limited and large forces are present;
however, they tend to be difficult to design and manufacture. The single disk
handles small deflections. A stack or multiple disk spring, such as that illustrated
in Figure 7.8, is used for greater deflection.
Figure 7.8
Well-known disk spring applications include the diaphragm spring in the
automotive clutch, illustrated in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9
Another common disk spring variety are the finger washers, wave spring washers
and the shake proof washers shown in Figure 7.10, which provide light locking of
nuts and bolts.
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Figure 7.10
Construction
To understand spring construction, you need to understand some common terms.
These terms are listed below and are shown in Figure 7.11.
x Coils x
Free
length x Ground
section x
Inside diameter x
Length inside
hooks x Length
over coil x
Mean diameter x
Outside diameter
x Pitch x
Wire
diameter
Figure 7.11
AA Form T
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Compression springs can have closed and ground ends to sit square on surfaces
to apply pressure evenly, or the ends can be open as shown in Figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12
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ball bearings
roller bearings
Characteristics
A good bearing has two characteristics:
The parts must be held in position within very close tolerances to provide quiet
and efficient operation, and at the same time permit freedom of motion.
Design and selection of a bearing and the material of its composition depends on
the size of the forces acting on it, whether they are constant or intermittent
forces, the type of lubrication available and the environment in which it will
operate. When used in rotating parts, the forces the bearing may cope with are:
axial
radial
A Bearing is any surface that provides support for, or is supported by, another
surface. It is a part in which a journal, pivot, pin, shaft, or similar device turns,
revolves, or slides. The Bearings in aircraft components are designed to produce
a minimum of friction and a maximum of wear resistance.
Gears are used in conjunction with bearings and shafts to transmit power, change
drive directions, and increase or decrease rotational speed.
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Figure 8.1
Radial Loads
horizontal
shaft.
This
is
represented
in
Figure
8.2.
Figure 8.2
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Combination Loads
Figure 8.3
Bearing Supports
A bearing is mounted in a structure; obviously that structure must be adequate to
support the bearing rigidly and withstand all the loading the bearing itself is
subjected to. In many cases it also carries oil galleries to supply the bearing.
The machined seat in which the bearing is held must be cut precisely to hold the
bearing to the required tolerance of fit, and not place unnecessary stress on the
bearing by being out of round. In some cases the seat area may provide a
means of locating the bearing, such as a cutout for a tang on a bearing shell, as
shown in Figure 8.4, or a groove for a locating ring.
Figure 8.4
Bearing Types
Bearings are manufactured in many different forms, shapes and sizes to cater for
various loads and requirements. A car is a source of numerous bearing types,
from the plain bearings on the engine crankshaft, the ball bearings in
accessories, the rollers and needles in the gearbox, to taper bearings in the
wheel hubs. The bearing types that will be covered in this topic are:
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Plain Bearings
In a plain bearing, the most obvious motion between surfaces is one of sliding.
A plain bearing is a broad cylindrical component, of a material softer than the
journal of the shaft it supports. The softer material is often layered onto a steel
Figure 8.5
A plain bearing is usually designed to take radial loads, sometimes also called journal loads,
backing, or it may be machined into the parent metal of the supporting
component, as is the case with items like camshafts running in aluminium alloy
casings.
recall are those acting at right angles to the axis of the shaft, as shown in Figure
8.6.
Figure 8.6
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A split bearing is usually termed a shell bearing; the most common are the big
end bearings and crankshaft bearings of piston engines. These split bearings
may be of composite construction, to meet the requirements of a surface
material that will be self lubricating to take the load at start-up before oil is
pumped into the shell, and sufficiently rigid to stand high radial loads.
A lining material is superimposed onto a steel backing, as illustrated in Figure
8.8. The lining material could include metals such as:
white metal silver lead
Babbitt
Figure 8.10
Bushings
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like structure. Lubricant can be impregnated into the metal to make up almost
30% of its volume. Another impregnated metal bush variety has grooves and
channels cut in it, into which Teflon plastic, Poly-Tetra-Fluro-Ethylene (PTFE) is
packed. This is shown in Figure 8.11 (B).
Figure 8.11
Bushes may also be made entirely of PTFE which is self lubricating, for
applications where oil or grease is dangerous, such as in oxygen systems, or in
corrosive environments where PTFE is chemically stable.
In areas where the temperature is too high for conventional lubricants, a carbongraphite bush can be used, but they are brittle and easily chipped or broken.
They are used in gas turbine engine hot-ends or in food processing machinery
where non-toxic materials are essential.
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Figure 8.12
Diametrical clearance is minimal in aircraft bearings, and rarely exceeds 0.003
thousandths of an inch, dependent on bearing size and use.
Within the
clearance, a film of lubricant is maintained while the shaft is moving. The film is
designed to completely separate the moving surfaces to ensure friction is
reduced to only that present in the lubricant itself, and also to cushion shock
loadings.
During start-up of an engine, the journal surface may rest on the bearing metal
and friction will be relatively high. This should be the only time that wear occurs
in the bearing. Anti-friction Bearings
Commonly called rolling element bearings, roller and ball bearings are grouped
as antifriction bearings due to their ability to almost entirely eliminate friction.
These bearings are produced in a variety of forms for various uses. Rolling
element bearings offer a number of advantages over plain bearings as follows: x
they have very low starting friction x they carry heavy loads x they are suitable
where reversing or oscillating movements occur x they run cooler than plain
bearings
They create much less friction than a plain bearing.
Standard types of rolling element bearings you may expect to see on aircraft are:
x
roller
ball
These are pictured in Figure 8.13 (A) and (B) respectively.
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Figure 8.13
Ball Bearings
In this type of bearing, finely machined balls of surface hardened steel roll within
inner and outer rings. The clearance is closely controlled and a cage (retainer)
may be used to separate the balls.
As seen in Figure 8.14, the major components of a standard ball bearing are the:
x
outer ring, or
race x
inner
ring, or race
x rolling elements, in this case, balls
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
The outer ring may have an external groove for a snap-ring to retain it in its
installed position. The outer corners may be chamfered to aid installation. The
manufacturer will precisely machine the external faces if the bearing is to be
installed in a double, or duplex, situation as displayed in Figure 8.15.
Internally, the races may be especially deep grooved to take thrust/radial load
combinations. Shields, or seals, can be fitted to the races to retain lubricant and
protect the bearing from contamination. The races may also be machined in
such a way internally or externally to make them self-aligning.
With a wide variety of sizes, tolerances and features, it is vital that the correct
bearing for the application be used. Part numbers and other identifying marks
will usually be found ground or etched on the outer race face, as shown in Figure
8.16.
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Figure 8.16
B-6b Aircraft Hardware
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Angular contact ball bearings, depending on the angle, can handle high thrust
loads in
combination with moderate radial loads. These bearings can be mounted singly back-t
back, face-to-faced, or in tandem.
Figure 8.17
Roller Bearings
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Figure 8.18
Guiding lands or shoulders on the inner or outer races retain the rollers, and a
separating retainer keeps each roller apart from its neighbours. Figure 8.19
shows a typical cylindrical
Figure 8.19
Needle Roller Bearings
A type of roller bearing in which the rolling element has a length significantly
greater than its diameter is termed a needle roller bearing. An assembly is
pictured in Figure 8.20.
Figure 8.20
Needle roller bearings support heavy radial loads and occupy less space
diametrically than an equivalent roller bearing.
Needles have a slightly higher co-efficient of friction because of the number of
rolling surfaces, but are used where weight is undesirable and compactness
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Needle roller
Un-caged Needle rollers cannot run at high speeds. Because the rollers are not
separated, effective lubrication is difficult to achieve at high RPM allowing the
rollers to make metal to metal contact. commonly used in universal joints and
as hinge bearings.
Caged needle roller bearings can carry heavy radial loads and are used in
gearboxes, crankshaft main and con-rod bearings, heavy accessories and areas
requiring a heavy load capacity bearing with a diameter less than an equivalent
ball bearing. Caged needle roller bearings that are oil lubricated (either splash or
pressure fed) can be run at high speed. Caged needle roller bearings that are
lubricated with grease cannot be run at high speed, effective lubrication is
difficult to achieve at high RPM allowing the rollers to skid and make metal to
metal contact.
Figure 8.21
The outer race is known as a cup, the inner a cone. The ratio of thrust to radial
loading can be catered for by designing the bearing with a variation in the angle
of taper chosen.
For Example:
A heavy thrust load with little radial load requires a large taper angle. (Figure
8.22 A)
Slight thrust loads with heavier radial loading would require only a small taper
angle. (Figure 8.22 B)
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Figure 8.22
Purely radial loads are not supported by taper roller bearings as the rings would
tend to be forced apart. The internal clearance in these bearings is adjustable
during installation, making them tolerant to some minor misalignment.
Tapered roller bearings are used on car front wheels, aircraft wheels and
helicopter rotor masts. They may be fitted on their own or in pairs to take loads
in either direction, such as in the automotive differential in Figure 8.23.
Figure 8.23
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contr
ol rod joints. Figure 8.25 shows a cutaway control rod joint.
By making the rollers barrel-shaped or spherical, the inner race, rollers, and
retainer can be made self-aligning to the outer ring. It can be done in two ways;
with a convex roller curvature as shown in Figure 8.28 (A), or a concave roller
curve as in Figure 8.28 (B).
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Figure 8.28
As mentioned before, a self-aligning requirement is found in control rod end
bearings, Figure 8.29 shows two solutions.
Figure 8.29
Thrust Bearings
So far we have only considered bearings designed to support combination
radial/thrust loads such as deep groove ball and tapered rollers and flanged plain
bearings. We saw in plain bearings that a thrust washer is designed to take
purely thrust loads; rolling element bearings have a corresponding equivalent.
Ball, roller and needle bearings designed for purely thrust loads have the tracks
of their races aligned to bear the thrust loading along the axis, as is shown by the
roller bearing in Figure 8.30, and the ball bearing of Figure 8.31.
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Figure 8.30-
Figure 8.31
This type of bearing is often used mounted vertically to support heavy machinery
on work shop floors e.g. a radial arm drill press, or in variable pitch propellers
which employ them between the propeller hub barrel and the blade butt to bear
centrifugal force and permit the blade to swivel.
If radial loading is expected, a normal bearing must be mounted alongside the
thrust bearing.
A needle thrust bearing has a very high load capacity and can also take limited
radial loads, if the needle rollers are tapered as well as being spherically
contoured, as pictured in Figure 8.32.
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Diametrical Clearance
This is provided within very strict tolerances to allow for lubricant passage,
movement, and heat expansion, as well as to allow for fitting methods, which will
be explained later in this topic. Ball and roller bearings are often classified
according to their tolerance grouping.
Interference Fit
This is defined as a fit between two parts in which the part being put into a bore
is larger than the bore itself. A bush designed for a slight interference fit is
shown in Figure 8.34. In order to fit them together the bore can be expanded by
heating and/or the part shrunk by chilling. When the two components match
again in temperature they are tightly fitted together. No additional hardware is
required for fitting; however the area around the bore may be subject to tensile
stress.
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Figure 8.34
The turbine shaft of a gas turbine engine may use a bearing that is fitted after
immersion in a bath of heated oil where it expands, when at a specified
temperature it is removed from the oil bath and quickly slipped onto its shaft. As
it cools to shaft temperature it shrinks securely onto the shaft.
Heavy interference fits reduce the internal clearance of the bearing, which if not
designed for, will result in bearing failure. Loose fitting results in excess creep,
which may damage the housing, and also causes noisy operation.
Circlips
To prevent axial movement of the bearing in the housing, a circlip can be used. A
groove may be machined in the outer ring to locate the circlip, as shown in Figure
8.35.
Figure 8.35
Alternately, the circlip may be located in a groove in the housing bore itself, as
shown in Figure 8.36.
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Figure 8.36
Retaining Plates
A retaining plate is sometimes used if high strength axial location is required. A
plate is fitted over the bore in the housing in which the bearing is located, and is
secured by studs, nuts or bolts onto the housing. It in turn secures the bearing
against an internal shoulder in the
Figure 8.37
Advantages
The advantages of bearing retaining plates
are: x high axial retention capacity x
used
bearings
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of retaining plates are:
x housing requires bolt holes
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housing x
more space
Staking
Airframe and control bearings are retained by interference fits, but these may not
be sufficient to hold the bearing in place with significant axial loads and/or
vibration. There are a number of approved staking methods that may be used;
however these should never be used to compensate for poor interference fits.
Impression Staking
This consists of the deformation of the bearing housing using a staking punch (a
tool designed for the job). The metal is impressed around the circumference of
the bearing in such a way as to force it into the chamfer at the top of the bore in
the housing around the bearing outer race, as shown in Figure 8.38. In some
circumstances the shaft may be staked (Figure 8.39).
Figure 8.38
Figure 8.39
Figure 8.40 shows the staking method used on a flying control surface control
rod.
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Advantages
x
no added weight or
space x
easy
bearing
installation
Disadvantages
x
Swaging
A special roller tool rolls the metal circumference of the housing over the bearing
outer race edge; this is shown in Figure 8.41.
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Figure 8.41
Alternately a sleeve fitted between the bearing and housing may be swaged, as
shown in Figure 8.42.
Figure 8.42
The advantages and disadvantages of swaging are much the same as for
impression staking.
Approved staking tools must be used. Centre-punches,
chisels or screw-drivers will severely damage housings and bearings. The staking
process must be carried out in accordance with maintenance manual
instructions.
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Figure 9.1
The gear being driven, such as the propeller shaft in Figure 9.2, will rotate in the
opposite direction to the driving (crankshaft) gear.
Figure 9.3
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Single helical gears produce end thrust as they mesh, because the gear wants to
slide along the shaft in the direction of the tooth angle. The shaft on which they
are mounted requires thrust bearings, one of the applications for the bearing you
learned about in a previous topic. You may see double helical, or herringbone
gears designed to balance thrust forces and eliminate the need for thrust
bearings. As you can see in Figure 9.4, the V pattern of the gear teeth gives
the gear its name, supposedly resembling the skeletal remains of a herring. A
more appropriate description might compare them to the tread pattern of mud
gripping tyres.
Figure 9.4
Bevel Gears
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Hypoid Gears
Worm Gears
This type of gear connects non-intersecting shafts, usually but not always at
right angles. As shown in Figure 9.7, they use a worm-screw, shaped like a
thread cut on the shaft, to drive a worm-wheel which is very similar to a spur
gear. The speed ratio is calculated by dividing the number of thread starts on
the worm-screw into the number of teeth on the worm-wheel gear.
Worm gears offer high reductions in single steps, they are quiet and can carry
heavy loads, however they are inefficient compared to other gears due to the
large sliding movement of their teeth. At reductions over about 20:1, the gearwheel cannot drive the worm screw.
.
Figure 9.7
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Figure 9.8
Sector Gear
Figure 9.9
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Reduction gears are classified by the number of step used to bring about the
speed reduction. A single reduction gear is a gear mechanism consisting of a pair
of gears or a small drive gear (pinion), which directly drives a large (bull) gear.
For example, in a 2-to-1 single reduction gear, the number of teeth on the driven
gear is twice that of the driving pinion.
spur
planetary
bevel epicyclic
Spur planetary
Figure 9.10
This system is mostly used in reduction gearing assemblies.
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Bevel Epicyclic
Bevel gears are mounted on the spider (the branched shaft forming the
mounting axles of the small gears at either end).
The gear system is longer but of smaller diameter than a spur planetary.
Figure 9.11 shows a bevel epicyclic gear assembly. Again, varying ratios and
change in direction of rotation may be achieved if any of the sub-assemblies are
locked, or made to supply the input/output, during the design of the system.
output x
two outputs
x one input and one output with the other shaft fixed
Double input differential gears are used in some aircraft control systems and
instruments to either add two angular movements or find the difference between
them.
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Figure 9.13
The speed ratio of a car gearbox is given as the number of engine revolutions
(input) for one revolution of the tailshaft (output). Similarly the back axle ratio is
given as the number of revolutions of the tailshaft (input) for one revolution of
the driving wheels (output).
We know that with geared drives the relative speed of two meshed gears (rpm)
depends on the ratio of teeth on each gear. The convention for the gear ratio
of two meshed gears is:
number of teeth on driving gear
number of teeth on driven gear
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Therefore from Figure 9.11 if gear A is the driving gear and gear B is the driven
gear, the gear ratio is
24
12
= 2:1
However the speed ratio (rpm) is directly opposite and would therefore be 1: 2.
Idler Gears
These may also be termed intermediate gears.
other gears to either:
x
the input x
between them
The presence of an idler gear makes no difference to the ratio of speed between
the input and output. In the following diagram, Figure 9.14, gear (B) is an idler
gear, it is both a driven and a driving gear, however if (A) is the input and (C) the
output, the gear ratio is still 8/24 or 1: 3 (speed ratio 3: 1). The only part the
idler plays is to transfer the drive and make (C) rotate in the same direction as
(A).
Figure 9.14
However, we are often concerned with gear trains that have various
arrangements of large and small gears in sequence, as shown in Figure 9.15.
But nothing changes, if gear A is the driving and gear E is the driven, all the
gears in between (B,C,D) are idler gears and have no effect on the gear ratio (or
speed ratio/rpm) between A and E.
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Figure 9.15
Direction of Rotation
Notice the direction of rotation of gears in Figure 9.15. Direction of rotation can
be simply calculated by counting the number of gears between the driving gear,
and the gear in question. The following can then be applied:
x
for even numbers of gears from the input gear, rotation is opposite
Spur planetary
Figure 9.16
This system is mostly used in reduction gearing assemblies.
In figure 9.16 the ring gear is the drive and the sun gear is the driven, in this
instance the reduction ratio (speed ratio) would be as follows (note, we are not
talking about gear ratio):
Number of teeth on ring gear + number of teeth on sun gear
Number of teeth on ring gear
If the ring gear has 72 teeth and the sun gear has 36 teeth (note the planetary
gears are irrelevant), the reduction ratio (speed ratio) would be
72 + 36
= 1.5: 1
72
However reduction ratios are usually expressed in whole numbers and would
therefore be 3:
2.
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Reduction gears are classified by the number of steps used to bring about the
speed reduction. For example, a gear mechanism consisting of a pair of gears or
a small gear (pinion) driven by the engine shaft, which directly drives a large
(bull) gear on the propeller shaft, is called a single-reduction gear
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B-6b Aircraft Hardware
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Figure 9.17
Like bicycle chains, aircraft control chains are made up of multiple links and can
be joined together to make an endless loop. They can also be of a terminating
type a single length with a start and finish.
Aircraft chains, however, tend to be manufactured to closer tolerance and have
more rigorous inspection criteria They also have components such as chain
keepers, similar to cable guards, to stop the chain from coming off the sprockets
They have drive sprockets and idler sprockets and a method of re-tensioning the
assembly
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Figure 9.18
Aircraft control chains are usually of the roller type. Rollers are free to rotate
around bushes which hold the inner link plates together.
Pins are mounted in the outer plates, which are clamped together to join the
whole assembly.
Figure 9.19
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Figure 9.21
Like cables, chain guards can be fitted to sprockets to prevent the chain from
coming adrift when tension is reduced.
Stop pieces on the chain guard and non-interchangeable end connectors can
prevent the incorrect installation of non-reversible chains
Sprockets
Sprockets are used in many aircraft systems and in a variety of different
applications.
Figure 9.22
Sprockets (depending on their application) are usually
made from; x
Steel or, x
Alloy.
Hard fibre
material or, x
Plastic.
Their primary roll is to convert rotary motion into linier motion and/or linier
motion into rotary motion. Also where long chain systems are used they act as
support for the chain in the form of an idler sprocket.
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Idler Sprocket
An idler sprocket is a non-driving sprocket used to support the chain run.
Figure
DLER SPROCKET
9.23
Belts
Drive belts are used in a number of applications (example - found in helicopter
drive systems). They come in many different shapes and designs.
Figure 9.24
Belt drives carry less load than chain drives. However, they do not require
lubrication, are more shock resistant, and they are quieter and smoother in
operation All belts are a variation of two types :
x
Vee belts x
non-
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B-6b Aircraft Hardware
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Vee Belt
Toothed Belt
Figure 9.25
Belt drives can come in single or multiple belt and pulley systems.
Figure 9.26
Figure 9.27
B-6b Aircraft Hardware
Part-66 Subject
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B-6b Aircraft Hardware
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Figure 9.28
Gear backlash must be established in accordance with the relevant maintenance
manual. Excessive backlash can be caused by worn gear teeth or improper
meshing of teeth or bearings which do not support the gears properly. Some of
the effects of incorrect backlash are:
x Excessive backlash can result in severe impact on the gear teeth from sudden
stopping or reversal of load. In Figure 9.29, the gears are set too far apart
causing excessive backlash.
This will cause broken gear teeth, gear
bouncing and gear noise.
Figure 9.29
Figure 9.30
x A measurable amount of backlash can be detected by hand if one gear is held
and the other rocked. Usually this is minimal and a Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
is set up to measure it. A typical gear may have .003 to .004 inch backlash.
The correct backlash will be given in the maintenance publications which
must be followed.
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Screw Jacks
A screw thread that can be used to give high mechanical advantage is known as
a screw jack.
Screw jacks convert rotational movement into linear movement.
In some applications they are called screw jack actuators or linear
actuators There are 3 basic types :
1
Figure 9.32
3. The recirculating ball mechanism
Figure 9.33
This type is a low friction variation of the worm and nut mechanism. It is
sometimes known as a ball screw actuator. The closed pathway for the ball
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bearings allow them to continually circulate along the mating grooves of the
shaft and nut, to thus reduce friction when the mechanism is actuated. This form
of screw jack is most commonly used in aircraft for many applications in
particular the flap drive system.
Control Rods
Push-pull rods have many system applications. For example, the aileron and trim
tab mechanism above has at least three adjustable push-pull rods.
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The checknuts are loosened, enabling the rod to be turned without disturbing the
rod eye ends
Figure 9.37
The bellcrank pivots on bearings mounted on a shaft.
There is usually no adjustment possible to the bellcrank, although the push-pull
rods can be adjustable to enable correct system rigging.
Torque Tubes
This view of an aircraft rudder shows a torque tube and torque arm.
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Figure 9.38
The torque arm receives the linear motion input from the control system and
causes the torque tube to rotate. Thus the torque arm and torque tube can be
said to have converted linear motion to rotary motion.
A torque can transmit force across a long distance.
The torque tube is directly connected to the control surface and causes it to
move.
Torque tubes and torque arms are usually of fixed length, diameter and angle.
They are usually not adjustable.
Note - also the adjustable push-pull rods connecting the rudder balance lever to
the rudder balance tab.
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B: January 2008
Revision
Cable Guards
All cable pulleys should be fitted with guards to prevent the cable from jumping
out of the pulley groove if the cable tension drops off.
Figure 10.1
The two main types of cable guards or cable keepers are shown.
Care should be taken to ensure that the guard runs close, but does not contact the pulley
or cable.
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Figure 10.2
If the structure expands at a greater rate than the cables, the cables will tend to
tighten.
As cable tension increases past the value of the spring tension, the spring will
compress, allowing the quadrants to move with the cables.
When a control input is made, the cables are pulled from one side only.
links keep the whole unit rigid. The quadrants then turn in unison.
The
When rigging the cable system, a temperature scale on the tension regulator
makes allowance for ambient temperature.
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F igure 10.4
The steel cable can either be a push-pull type or can rotate, driving a screw jack.
The outer casing of the cables protect the inner cable from damage. If the outer
casing is bent, however, the inner cable will not travel freely.
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Likewise, if the outer casing is chafed through, the inner cable is likely to be
damaged.
Both these situations is cause for rejection of the assembly.
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