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UMM (Underground Mining Method)
UMM (Underground Mining Method)
GOPHERING
Gophering, used frequently in small mines, is really not a method, but consists of
following the high-grade ore wherever it goes. The miner uses only the support
necessary. It is very difficult to picture this system. Gophering frequently harms the
ore body for further mining because it causes zones of weakness in the ore,
particularly so if some systemized mining method is to be used later.
GLORY-HOLE
The glory-hole system, frequently used in the past, has been almost completely
replaced by the sublevel long-hole or open-pit type of mining. A glory-hole was just
a cavity in the earth continually enlarged by mining. Generally there was very little
system used, and the miners often worked under large exposures of back or roof.
The size of the cavity was often extended to the point where caving was started,
and the project was abandoned.
DRUM SHEARER
Drum shearer has two cutting wheels that can be positioned from the roof to the
floor of coal. The shearer moves on the tracks on the conveyor frame while the
wheels cut and load the coal on the conveyor, Fig. 5 & 19.
After the drum shearer has gone by a section of supports the positioning
cylinders are actuated, pushing the face conveyor the width of shearer cut closer to
the face. The supports are moved one at a time after the face conveyor is in its new
position.
The canopy of one support is lowered slightly from the roof, and the positioning
cylinder is actuated which pulls the support toward the conveyor. When in position,
the canopy is again raised and pressurized against the roof. The roof rock is allowed
to cave in the space left vacant by the support that was moved. Fig. B.
shuttle car (typically about 5 to 7 ton per load), which travels to a discharge point
where coal is unloaded onto a rail car or belt conveyor.
CONTINUOUS ROOM-AND-PILLAR MINING
In this method the excavating and loading operations are carried out by a single
machine.
Excavating of the coal is accomplished by a rotary or chain-driven cutter head,
eliminating the need for blasting at the face. Coal production rates per man shift are
typically about 20 % greater by the conventional mining system, and the manpower
requirements are reduced from about a 10-to 11-man crew at the face to 8 men.
Overall, these crews represent about one-third of the total work force required for all
phases of the mining operation. Relative to conventional mining, continuous mining
concentrates the required manpower and thus reduces the total man-hour exposure
at the working face.
LONG-WALL MINING
Long-wall mining differs from room-and pillar mining in that miner roof supported
hydraulically along the face and is then allowed to collapse after extraction. The
main entries are mined and supports are placed as shown in figure 3-5. The coal is
removed in slices perpendicular to the entries by a cutting machine riding on an
armoured face conveyor. After a mining pass the hydraulic supports are advanced
and the overburden in then allowed to collapse behind the face. The coal cutting
machine may either use a rotary cutter head (shearer) or may operate through a
plowing action (coal plow). The mined coal falls onto the armoured face conveyor
and is transported out of the mining panel on a conveyor system. In this system the
cutting, loading, haulage, and support functions are closely integrated. Ventilation is
provided by through the panel entries at either end of the mining face. Long-wall
faces may up to 1,000 feet in length.
Only long-wall mining has the inherent capability of providing significant
improvements in productivity. While mechanized long-wall mining accounts for 9o %
of common market coal production, only 3 % American production comes from this
system 20 years after its introduction in this country. This is mainly due to the fact
that capital requirements are much higher for long-wall mining than for
conventional or continuous mining operations. However, there are several
advantages of long-wall mining:
1. A productivity potential approximately twice that of conventional or continuous
mining operations.
2. Inherently safer conditions (few collapse-related accidents).
3. Lower material costs.
However, successful long-wall mining requires good seam continuity and a roof
which will cave (collapse) in the required manner.
SHORT-WALL MINING
The entry and face layout for short-wall mining is conceptually similar to that in
long-wall mining, but uses a shorter face length of 100-200 feet, and uses
continuous mining equipment similar to that used in room-and-pillar mining. Thus,
instead of the highly integrated system used in long-wall mining, coal cutting and
loading is achieved by a continuous mining machine, haulage is usually carried out
by shuttle cars, and face support is provided by hydraulic chocks, similar to the
props used in long-wall systems. This method has many of the advantages of longwall system, though it does not have the potential for such high productivity. A
major advantage is the use of similar equipment to room-and-pillar methods, thus
reducing the initial capital cost for initiating a short-wall face in a room-and pillar
mine.
Figure 3-4. The conventional and continuous methods of room-andpillar underground coal mining
As these headings are blind, i. e., not open to the level above, it is necessary to
break into the neighboring stopes for ventilation C. Air is circulated through the
stopes by fans in these connections.
The system shown is actually a combination of timber and pillar methods. Narrow
pillars separate the stopes, which would be called rooms if the deposit were
horizontal, but two or three rows of timber stulls in the stope help to support the
center until the stope is mined B, and C. These stope face can be 70 feet or more in
width, depending on the strength of the ground.
ANGGLE OF REPOSE
A question may arise as to how steep the stope must be for the ore to run by
itself. Theoretically, ore will run if the slope is steeper than the angle of repose of
the broken rock. The angle of repose is the angle (measured from the horizontal)
that the sides of a pile of the material assume naturally. For broken rock this angle
is close 40. Therefore, if the ore is hard, it should run of its own accord at angles
exceeding 40, but if it contains much clay, it may require steeper angle.
Production rates per man shift compare favourably with those of other
underground mining system; this is regarded as a low-cost underground method.
The basic requirement is firm strong walls, which will stand unsupported over large
spans.
Removing ore from a flat-lying stope by slushers pulling ore to a chute can be seen
on Plate 5-19.
entries are up to and sometimes over 500 feet apart, and the long wall face extends
between the entries. It is necessary to have an air circulation system in a coal mine
to dilute any explosive gases with fresh air to eliminate the explosion hazard.
BLOCK CAVING
Some ore caves readily, and if the ore body contains enough tonnage, the blockcaving method may be used. After the stope is developed, the ore breaks of its own
accord; it does not have to be drilled and blasted. Caving is a large-production lowcost method. If an opening is large enough, it will eventually cave, even in the
firmest and strongest rock, but a caving system of mining requires that the ore or
rock will cave over a small unsupported area.
SLUSHER DRIFTS
A common method of developing a block of ore for mining consists of first driving
a slusher drift in the ore A, and B. Slusher drifts are spaced at suitable intervals in
the block to produce efficient caving above the fingers and are usually spaced so
two or three cars in the ore train can be loaded at the same time. There may be as
many as five slusher drifts under each block. Slusher loading of cars is shown in
Plate 5-19 C, G
From the slusher drift, finger raises are driven to the undercut level C, and D. The
tops of the finger raises are connected by cross cuts and drifts E, and F, the
crosshatched portion in F represents the supporting pillars, which keep the overlying
ore from caving. The tops of the finger raises are drilled and blasted to a funnel
shape G and H. The supporting pillars are drilled and blasted when the raises are
enlarged or immediately afterward in sequence H, 1 to 11. As blasting of the raises
and pillars progresses, the stope begins to cave, see cross section, I, and J.
CAVING ACTION
When the broken ore is pulled from the back of the stope by drawing ore from
the raises, cracks form and the ore still in place tends to break by its own weight
and fall to the pile of broken ore. Because the ore increases in volume when broken
ore, when the broken ore will soon fill up to the back, which in turn gives support to
the back and thus stops the caving. The more rapid the rate of draw the more rapid
the caving action. Too rapid a draw of one finger may cause overlying waste to
come through the stope and into a finger. Therefore, all of the fingers must by
carefully draw to insure even caving action and to prevent overlying waste from
coming through the fingers before all of the ore is pulled out.
RILL OR INCLINED
CUT-AND-FILL STOPES
Efficiency in a horizontal cut-and-fill stope requires a slusher and scraper or other
type of ore mover. Before the widespread use of slushers and scrapers, the rill stope
was devised to use gravity to move the ore and to emplace the supporting waste
fill. This system is seldom used today, but in special situations in a small mine this
system could be used efficiency. Mining equipment may be at a premium in a small
operation, and slushers and scrapers may not be available.
THE RILL STOPE
The rill stope is developed either by driving a raise at each end or by utilizing the
raise of the previous stope A and driving a raise at the other end. The lower corners
of the stope are mined, and waste is brought down from the level to fill the corners
B. The waste flows in and stops at its angle of repose. When the ore is broken, it
slides down the top of the waste pile into drift or into a chute F.
In this system, a center 8-post raise is required, but it is usually brought up as
the stope is mined C. A cut is started in ore and is taken up from the center raise D.
The ore is held in by timber stops placed against the timbers of the raise. The
miners work from the pile of broken ore. After the cut is completed, left side D, the
ore stops in the center raise pulled out and the ore slide into the ore pass. When all
of the ore has been removed, the stops are permanently placed against the center
raise and waste is run into the stope from the level above E.
Common practice is to mine in one side of the stope while the other side is being
emptied of ore and filled with waste D, and E. After one has been filled with waste,
mining will start on that side, while the other side is being drawn of ore and filled
with waste.
The ore must be strong enough to support itself over the long opening. The walls
should stand over the unsupported height until fill can be placed. The ore should
run well at the angle of repose and should be free of sticky clay.
HORIZONTAL
CUT-AND-FILL STOPES
In a cut-and-fill stope, a cut of ore is mined and waste is brought in to support
the walls of the mined-out portion of the stope. Plate 8-12 shows this method
developed by lateral driven in the foot-wall and crosscuts driven into the ore zone at
interval A. From the crosscuts, raises are driven in ore to the level above. A drift is
driven in the ore to connect two crosscuts at the bottom haulage level. When the
drift connecting the two crosscuts is completed B, mining is started, and the mineout portion is filled with waste or mill tailings. A series of benches is drilled and
blasted across the stope C from one raise to the other, which completes a cut. The
broken ore is removed from the stope after each blast. After the cut across the
stope has been completed, the remaining broken ore is scraped out of the stope to
the ore pass on the left side of the sketch D. After the ore has been scraped out,
waste rock is dumped down the raise on the right from the level above. The waste is
scraped in to mine- out portion by the slusher E. The waste is not piled completely
to the back, as room is needed for expansion of blasted ore, mining of stope
progresses upward F.
The cut-and-fill method can be used only if the ore is fairly firm and the walls will
stand unsupported until waste fill is brought in.
SAND FILL BY SLURRY
Sand or mill tailings are now commonly used instead of waste for support in cutand-fill stopes. Sand can be brought into the stope as a. water slurry in pipe line.
This reduces the scraping required in the stope. The sand fills all voids and forms a
tight compact support after the water has drained away. Stopes of this type are
shown in Plate8-14 C, and D. It is also shown in Figure 6-7.
As a general rule, a floor is not built on top of the waste fill to keep the ore and
waste separated. Repeated building and removing of a floor would cost more than
the value of any ore lost in the waste fill.
To cut down on the amount of timber required, and to provide a better overhead
structure in recent years, cemented sand-fill has often been used. For narrow veins,
up to twelve feet wide, the system shown in B has been successfully used. Actually,
it is similar to the horizontal cut-and-fill technique, except that after the cut has
been completed, heavy caps or stulls are placed on the floor or the cleaned out cut.
They are wedged and pinned firmly in place. Commonly a foot of unbroken ore is
left on top of the cut as shown in B to protect the timber when the solid ore below is
blasted. These may be from three to eight feet apart, but usually 5 feet. Lagging or
wooden planks are installed on top of the heavy caps or stulls, and the zone is
prepared for filling. The rock bolts shown in B are usually installed as the cut is
being made to keep the hanging wall in place.
The bottom three feet or so of the sand fill is mixed with cement as the zone is
being filled. This tends to put a firm hard material over the timber, and the rest of
the zone is then filled with ordinary sand fill to the overlying cap and filled zone. The
method requires much more timber preparation than the ordinary un-timbered cutand-fill. But when ground gets unstable, timber frequently must be used with
conventional cut-and-fill for support. Even with timber, caves occur; consequently
some operators feel the underhand system has merit because caves are usually
eliminated or reduced.
WIDER UNDERHAND STOPES
When the pillar or ore zone is wider as shown in C, and D, the caps or stulls
required are too long for support. A special method for wider underhand stopes was
developed by the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO) and their system
is shown in C, and D. In this process the stope is started from the top, and as the
ore is mined out the space above is filled with cemented sand fill material. A scissor
set, developed by INCO, is shown D. In this method, hardened fill instead of loose
ore zone is overhead. Safety in these stopes has been good. When underhand
mining is resumed under a scissors mat, post are not required for support. The
absence of posts increases the efficiency of mucking equipment.
COMBINATION TIMBER AND SAND FILL
The Magma Copper Company in Arizona reports efficient mining of very weak ore
and wall rock by a combination of timber and sand fill method. The mining plan is
similar to a top slice stope, but instead of a timber mat, cemented sand fill is used
to fill in the void. The plan is to catch the overhead timber posts and stringers with
posts on the mining floor to keep them in place. After a mining cut has been
completed, it is filled with cemented sand about three feet thick, and the rest of the
cut is filled with ordinary hydraulic sand fill.
After a mine has been worked out it may be possible to flood it with solvent and
dissolve much of the remaining mineral. This practice has been done in copper
mines as shown in D.
DEPOSIT OR MATERIAL
Rock
Placers (sand, gravel)
Coal, soft rock
All bulk material
Diameter
Pressure
Flow Rate
Material
Country
In. (mm)
lb/in 2 (MPa)
gal/min
(m3/sec)
Bituminous coal
(0.16)
U.S.a
U.S.b
1.5-6 (38-152)
0.25-0.56 (6-14)
100 (0.7)
2500
4000 (27.6)
300
1700 (11.7)
1300
(0.02)
Canada
0.60-1.2 (15-30)
Germany
0.67 (17)
(0.08)
(0.03)
1300 (9.0)
480
UUSR
0.75-0.87 (19-22)
1500 (10.3)
1980
(0.13)
Anthracite coal
U.S.b
Sandstone, soft
U.S
(0.03)
Gilsonite
U.S
Hard rock
(0.01)
U.S.
a; hydraulicking
b; experimental only
0.40-0.46 (10-12)
0.62 (16)
0.02-0.10 (0.5-2.5)
5000 (34.5)
1000 (6.9)
2000 (13.8)
>25,000 (<170)
300 (0.02)
400
150
Advantages
1. Intrinsic safety from sparking and methane ignition
2. Healthy, dust-free environment
3. Large-size product with few fines
4. Opportunity to combine mining and transport in unified system (water can be
recycled)
5. Adaptable to adverse natural conditions (steep, thin deposit)
6. Low labour requirement and relatively high productivity
7. Higher recovery than with traditional methods
8. Long tool life, few breakdowns
Disadvantages
1. High water requirements, extensive piping needed
2. Inefficiency of energy transfer in breaking material; high power and energy
requirements
3. Difficulty of control of monitor; irregular shape of opening
4. Potential safety hazard with high jet pressure
5. Mineral must be insoluble in water
6. High atmospheric humidity a problem in hot mines
7. Applications limited to soft to medium-hard rock
UNDERGROUND GASIFICATION
Underground gasification involves the partial combustion of coal in place,
generally through boreholes, with the collection of gaseous by-products at the
surface. The objective is to extract thermal energy from the coal seam in form of
fuel gases to avoid conventional mining. An alternative, shown in figure 14.14, is to
use the gases as feed stock for the production of petrochemicals or synthetic fuels,
such as gasoline (Stephen, 1980).
Underground coal gasification involves three basic stages (Zvyaghintsev, 1982)
1. Drilling of vertical or inclined access holes from the surface through the coal
seam, in pairs, one hole serving as inlet for air and the other as the out let for
gaseous products. Occasionally, horizontal boreholes from old mine working have
been used.
2. Formation of reaction channels in the coal seam (linkages) between the injection
and production holes, permitting the coal to interact with the air in a moving
combustion front after ignition.
3. Gasification of the coal by supplying an air blast through the inlet hole and
removing the gaseous products through the outlet hole. The two boreholes and
interconnecting channel constitute and underground gasifier.
Figure 14.15 illustrates underground gasification using percolation, one of five
methods of preparing
a channel in a coal seam. Path linkage between the wells is accomplished by
injecting compressed air, by hydraulic fracturing or penetration, or by electro-linking
using high-voltage current. Air is then injected (oxygen and/or steam may be used
in addition to obtain a higher-quality product), ignition occurs (by electrode,
thermite bomb, or gas burner), and a combustion front is established. Two reaction
zones are formed a long the gasification channel; oxidation is followed by reduction.
A product with an enhanced heating value of about 450 Btu/ft 3 (16.8 MJ/m3) result
from injection oxygen and steam instead of air. Coal rank is not a critical parameter;
in fact, lignite and sub bituminous
are prepared to bituminous, because they have a lower swelling index and are
therefore easier to link and gasify (anthracite is considered unsuitable because of its
minimal chemical reactivity). Coal permeability, always low, it a limiting factor in
achieving linkage and enhance by the presence of a prominent cleat system. Other
design factors and considerations are discussed by Marsden and Lucas (1973).
Advantages
1. Replace traditional mining at a cost competitive with that of underground
methods (but not surface methods)
2. Less environmental impact
3. Applicable to low-grade coal deposits (thin, deep, pitching, low-rank, previously
worked, adverse geology, etc.), that are uneconomic to mine conventionally
4. Gas products can be used locally without enhancement but require upgrading for
pipe line shipment (>15-18 mi, or >25-30 km)
5. Very good health and safety conditions (miners not exposed underground)
6. Potential to increase recoverable U.S. coal resources by three to four times)
Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
COAL GASIFICATION
Source: Seymour Kaplan, Energy Economic
Coal gasification represents another pre treatment method of fuel technology. In
addition to other advantages, the method can removed most of the sulphur from
the coal, and the resulting gas is relatively clean. One common gasification method
is to convert coal to synthetic natural gas (SNG). Because this process is
commercially available and is likely to increase in use in the future, coal gasification,
as a means of meeting environmental standards, should be compared with other
methods.
In a typical SNG conversion process, the coal must first be prepared for
gasification by washing, crushing, and removal of unwanted material such as stone.
The prepared coal is then introduced into a chamber where it is gasified by steam
and pure oxygen. The resulting product is called raw gas and consists primarily of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This raw gas is then shifted to produce desired
hydrogen to carbon monoxide 3:1. Following the shifting step, certain undesirable
constituents of the raw gas, such tar, dust, and water, are removed. Next, sulphur
compounds are removed and elemental sulphur is recovered as a by-product. This
step is called acid-gas removal. The last step in the process is called methanation.
Heat is added to the product to cause the hydrogen and carbon monoxide to react
and produce SNG.
The environmental impact of coal gasification is not confined to the positive
aspect of sulphur removal. Unfortunately, there are undesirable results which occur
for the following reasons:
1. When the coal is first cleaned, the refuse material removed requires disposal,
how and where to dispose of these materials is an environmental as well as an
economic issue. (The same problem arises with the SRC technology when the coal is
first cleaned before being crushed and ground.)
2. During the gasification and shift step, high amounts of carbon dioxide are emitted
to the atmosphere. Some sulphur oxides also are emitted when sulphur is removed.
3. Many dissolved solid materials, including toxic trace elements, are discharged as
part of water effluents and can cause ground water pollution.
SUPPORT
Plate 5-11 shows the distortion of circular opening in solid rock under a vertical
force. This distortion causes the rock to break by tension overhead or in the back
and by shear at other points, as shown in B. This is a theoretical concept. Actual
distortion is difficult to observe because walls are not smooth, and some distortion
probably takes place as soon as the solid rock is broken.
Stopes need not be kept open as long as development headings. After a stope is
mined out, it is allowed to cave. In large stopes the stress effects may cause the
stope to collapse. Supports in stopes tend to keep the stress effects at a safe level.
See plate 5-9. If the ore occurs in narrow vein, timber stulls can be used for support,
as shown in G. If the ore is not high-grade, parts of it may be left as pillars to help
support the walls H. If the ore is too good to leave un mined, the mined out section
may be support by filling it with broken mine waste or san fill, as shown in I and J.
Square-set timber is used in high-grade stopes where the rock is weak K. L is an
isometric view of a stope timber set labelled to show the various parts.
Rock bolts are used in stopes to support the walls and back. Often a combination
system is used where rock bolts, timber and backfill are all used. In some cases the
stopes may be back filed and the pillar mined out at a later time.
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING
Drilling is a very important part of most mine exploration, development and
production operation. Small diameter holes, usually under one foot in diameter, are
used primarily for sampling a mineral deposit or for placing explosives in a rock
mass. Drill holes several feet in diameter are used directly as shafts, raises and
other types of development work. These are several different drilling system used in
industry.
HAND PERCUSSION DRILL
The hand percussion drill is illustrated in A. This was a common way to drill holes
in relatively hard rock in the early mining days. The steel had a sharpened end or
chisel bit, and the steel was struck with a hammer. This action drove the steel into
the rock a short distance, chipping off some of the rock as shown in A,a. The steel is
rotated about 1/8 of a turn, see A,b, as hammer is lifted so that when the steel is
struck again, it can chip off another portion of rock. This is a very laborious
procedure by hand; however, the modern rock drills, as illustrated in Plate 5-1 still
use this basic principle, except that the hammer or piston and the turning
mechanism are actuated by compressed air or high-pressure hydraulic fluid. Water
is forced through a hole in the steel to the bit where it keeps dust from forming.
SHOFT ROCK APPLICATION
Another type of drill that is used extensively in coal mines and mines where the
rock is relatively soft is shown in B. The steel frequently has a spiral configuration
similar to the ordinary steel or wood type drill. The drill steel is continually rotated
with a force applied to the steel which enables it to bear hard on the bit. The bit
peels off or breaks off small layers of the rock or coal thereby deepening the hole.
The
Cuttings are carried up the hole by spiral action of the rotating drill steel. Water is
also commonly used in the steel and bit to keep dust to a minimum.
DIAMOND-COREDRILL
The core-type diamond drill is primarily used for exploration work because it
produces a cylindrical core of rock which can be recovered from the hole and
examined and assayed for mineral content. A bit of this type is shown in C,a.
Occasionally a solid diamond bit is used to drill holes in a very hard rock or ore
formation for blast holes. The drill and steel are continually rotated, often with a
thrust or force applied, and the very hard diamonds wear away the rock particles.
Water is usually forced down the inside of the drill steel and the cuttings are carried
up the hole by the water as it flows around the drill steel and up the side of the
hole.
CHURN DRILL
Larger size holes, from 4 to 12 inches in diameter, are sometime drilled with a
churn drill. A churn drill bit is sketched in D. The bit weighs several hundred pounds,
and a rope or cable attached from the bit to drill alternately lifts and drops the
heavy bit. This action cut and spalls rock similar to the percussion drill shown in A. It
is necessary to rotate the bit back and forth which is often done by twisting or
rotating the cable in shallow holes. In deep holes, the natural twisting of the rope
usually causes enough rotation of the bit as it is alternatively raised and dropped.
Water is poured into the hole, and cuttings from a mud which are removed from the
hole with a bailer shown in D,c. The bit must be hoisted from the hole before the
bailer can be put in.
ROTATING TRICONE BIT
The rotating tri cone bit shown in E is used for oil and gas, blast hole, and
exploration drilling. The drill steel is rotated, and a heavy force or thrust is applied
which causes the sharp teeth to penetrate into and chip the rock. The cuttings are
removed by compressed air, water or mud. In some exploration drilling, water is
force down the hole on the outside of the steel, and the cuttings are returned
through the hollow drill steel. This is called reverse circulation.
Other miscellaneous drilling means are shown in F. The wash pipe shown in F,c is
often used to penetrate water bearing unconsolidated material to bed rock so that
some other type of drill can be used in the bed rock.
DRILLING ROUNDS
The fundamentals of drilling and blasting have been examined in Plate 5-1, and
5-2. Plate 5-2 explained the cratering and free face concept of explosives. A group
or pattern of drill holes is called a round, and Plate 5-4 shows various types of
rounds used in mining. Not only must the explosives be placed in drill holes for
proper rock or ore breakage, but the distance the holes are spaced and the firing
order are also very important.
Air operated drills are used extensively in underground drilling because they are
comparatively small, light in weight, and have high drilling rate. Because of lower
noise levels and higher penetration rates, hydraulic drills are being used more
frequently. Those drills are jumbo mounted. For drilling in open pits some churn
drills and wagon drills are used, but electric or diesel powered rotary drills are used
in larger numbers.
HOLE PATTERNS
As mentioned previously, the pattern of holes is important, and depends on the
type of drill being used to make the holes. For example, with a long feed drill being
used in a narrow drift, angle holes are difficult or impossible to drill. When solid rock
is broken, its bulk may become as much as 200 per cent greater than its original
volume. Unless this broken rock can move out of the way of the next hole to be
blasted, the effectiveness of the explosives is greatly reduced. Therefore, wherever
possible, holes are placed so that the rock broken by the explosives will be thrown
clear of the solid unbroken rock. Two free faces are desirable, and this situation
occurs mostly in stopes and open-pits B, C, and D.
In most development headings, the explosives can break rock toward only one
free face. The holes must be so placed that the explosives can break toward that
free face. Two general systems are in use. For long advances per blast, the most
common one is the burn-cut round. In the burn-cut round, the holes are drilled
parallel or nearly parallel to the direction of the heading, and the central or burn
holes are drilled close to one another. Not all of the holes are filled with explosives,
the theory being that the neigh-boring hole when blasted will break into the
unloaded hole. A full burn-cut round is shown in E, and various arrangements of
burn-cuts are shown in M, N, O, and P.
The burn-cut round is easily drilled whit long feed jumbo type drills shown in
Plate 5-5 D, E, F, and Plate 5-6, A, B, D, E and G.
The other system is the angle-cut round. The cut holes are drilled at angle with
the free face. Various patterns of angle cuts are in use. The draw cut is shown as
used in a drift F and in a shaft H. V-cuts are used in shafts and raises G. The various
patterns of angle cuts are shown in I, J, K, L.
ACTION OF EXPLOSIVES
Explosives are used extensively in mining to break and fragment solid rock and
ore so loading and haulage equipment can move the material.
In recent years, progress has been made in drill type, hammer type, and boring
or auger types of machines called continuous miners that also break the rock
without using explosives, such as drum shearer, road header. They have not,
however, replaced explosives in hard component ground except in a few
experimental cases. These developments are working well in weak rock but havent
been as successful in hard rock. However, progress is being made on these
machines, and undoubtedly the future will see more use of continuous mines in
hard ground.
Road header, a type of boring machine can break the rock without
using explosives,
Used in drilling or boring development headings
BLAST HOLES
In most mining operations, explosives are placed in blast holes. The action of
explosive action is shown in A. If the explosive is placed in a hole and detonated,
the result is usually a crater of varying size. The bottom of the cone is formed at the
free face. If the rock is resistant to breaking, sometimes hardly any cone is formed.
Conversely, if the material is easily broken, the cone may start at the bottom of the
hole.
Wherever possible, two free faces are provided for an explosive. It is always best
to have the hole filled with explosives parallel to one free face. The action of the
detonating hole is shown in B.
A free face sometimes has broken rock lying next to it as shown in C, and this
called a burdened free face or just a burden. It has been found that explosive
usually break well against a burdened face, and some mining method commonly
use this practice. Usually broken rock has considerable void space. The force of the
explosive must compress it slightly so the solid rock can expand and break. In fact,
it has been found that even though a free face does not exist, a detonating hole will
still break and fracture the rock to a certain extent around the hole. However, it
does not fragment it very well. This practice, call distressing, is often used in
relieving the high stresses in pillars of ore or other highly stressed zones so that
they not burst. See Plate 5-2.
TYPES OF ROUNDS
Two types of round, or hole sequence and spacing, are used in development
headings. One is the angle-cut type shown in D, a. It is usually difficult to break
ground with this type of round any deeper than the narrowest dimension (W) of the
opening. The other type is called the burn cut where two or more parallel holes are
drilled together and one of them is left unloaded so that the loaded hole can break
toward the unloaded hole. These types of rounds, if drilled properly, commonly
break much deeper than the narrowest dimension. Both types of rounds are
discussed in more detail.
DETONATING DEVICES
To detonate a hole filled with explosives it is necessary to use a primer or some
type of detonating device. Explosives generally are made safe so they can be
handled and transported with safety. The main bulk of the explosive is quite
insensitive to most shock. A detonator is used to provide the right shock so the bulk
will explode. A fuse detonator or cap is sensitive to fire, and a safety fuse allows a
fire to burn at a slow predictable rate. The fuse detonator or cap is slipped over the
fuse, crimped so it wont come off and possibly coated with waterproof material so
water will not interfere with the action. The fuse and cap are inserted in a stick or
bag of explosives as shown in E, e which makes the primer. An electric cap which
uses an electric current instead of a fuse to ignite the detonator is shown in E, d.
The placing of the primer is shown in f, a, b, and c. Some like to put the primer in
the bottom of the hole while others place it in some other part of the hole. If the
hole is very long detonating cord can run the entire length to ensure complete
explosion.
In surface mining, there are two blast hole models that are vertical and inclined
blast hole, such as shown in figure 7.3-1.
sequence valves. Since thee are no hot explosive gases, only air, the environment is
not harmed. This type of breaking is used frequently in gassy coal mines.
SHAFT-SINKING SEQUENCE
Shafts are of various sizes and shapes. The horizontal cross section can be
square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, or some special shape. For small mines, the
timbered rectangular shaft is the most popular. The shaft may be inclined or
vertical. Plate 6-1 shows a bench or sump type of blasting round in a vertical shaft.
Note that the holes are slanted so they will break toward a free face. The sump
round is popular because it provides a low place in the shaft for water to collect so
that the drill holes can be started or collared in the high rock bench above the water
level. Thus mud and dirt are kept out of the shot holes.
ELECTRIC BLASTING
Because electric blasting provides greater safety, the explosives in wet shaft
bottoms often are detonated by electric blasting caps. B shows the shaft bottom
drilled, loaded, wired, and ready for blasting. The blast usually piles the broken rock
as shown in C. After the fumes from the blast have been removed, the round is
mucked out. In one method, a small clamshell loads the rock into a sinking bucket
D. Notice that a small sump pump is installed in the lowest part of the shaft to
remove the water so that it will not interfere with operations.
SUPPORTING THE SHAFT
Supporting the shaft is the next problem. After the round is mucked out, or even
before it is all mucked out, the next set of timber is installed. The wall plates,
horizontal pieces along the long sides of the shaft, are brought down and suspended
by hanger bolt from the shaft set above E. The other pieces to set the set are then
lowered and put in their respective places; the whole timber set is aligned or
plumbed and then blocked or wedged into position F. After the timber is in position,
drilling is resumed and the cycle is repeated. A hand-held sinker drill is shown in F
drilling the cut holes for the next sump round.
Not all operators use the sump type of round when sinking shafts. The whole
bottom may be drilled with a V-cut or burn-cut type of round, see Plate 5-4 G.
7H2O
+ CO2 + 3N2
930 k.cal/kg
11H2O
X + Y = 1,
Y=
1- X
1.25 X = 21.60 (1-X)
1.25 X = 21.60 21.60 X
X = 0.945 = 94.5 %
Y = 0.055 = 5.5 %
An equation may also be written for oxygen-balance reaction for the following
explosives:
Nitroglycerine (NG)
18 %
Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
3%
Ammonium Nitrate (AN)
55 %
Sodium Nitrate
10 %
S pulp
12 %
Calcium Carbonate
2%
100 %
OB = O0 - 2C H - CaO - Na2O = 0
Ho
Ca
No
Oo
Co
Na
NG, C3H6(ONO2)3
18 %
3.964
2.37
7.133
2.378
3%
0.660
0.396
0.793
0.925
TNT, C6H2CH2(NO2)3
-
AN, NH4NO3
55 %
27.484
13.739 20.614
NaNO3
1.176
S: G pulp
-
CaCO3
0.200 0.200
-
10 %
12 %
7.560
2%
1.176
3.530
2.568
5.004
0.600
100 %
39.668 17.689 35.238
8.507
0.200 1.176
The calculation of oxygen balance of the explosive is:
OB = O0 - 2C H - CaO - Na2O = 0
= 35.238 -2 (8.507) - (39.668) - 0.200 (1.176) = - 2.398 g
atom/kg, that is not oxygen
balance. Since the explosive is slightly oxygen-deficient (fuel-rich),
reduce the fuel
content (NG, TNT) or increase the oxidant (AN).