Transducer As Input Elements to Instrumentation System

An Instrumentation System

Input signal Signal

(measurand) Input Output
electrical or Conditioning
Device Device
non-electrical Circuit

-amplifier -meter
? -filter -oscilloscope
-recorder

Input device receives the quantity under measurement and delivers a

proportional electrical signal to the signal-conditioning circuit.
 Definition

Transducer
¾ a device which, when actuated by energy in one system, supplies
energy in the same form or in another form to a second system.

Sensor (input transducer)

¾ a device converts the physical or non-physical signal which is to
be measured into an electrical signal which can be processed or
transmitted electronically.

Actuator (output transducer)

¾ a device converts the modified electrical signal into a non-
electrical signal.
 Classification

• Signal Type -Physical, Chemical or Biosensors

• Input Signal -Thermal, Radiation, Mechanical,

Magnetic, Chemical, Biological

• Function -Temperature, Pressure, Humidity

• Principle - Thermoelectric, elastoresistive

Basic Sensor Characteristics

Output (electrical quantity)

output (FSO)
Full scale

dy
Sensitivity =
dx

offset Measurand
Measurand range

Example of a Calibration Curve

Temperature Transducers
Resistance Temperature detector (RTD)
employ a pure metal wire such as pure platinum, copper, or nickel etc. to
provide a definite resistance value at each temperature

RT2 = Rref[1 + α(T2 - T1)]

α -Temperature coefficient of resistance
(Rather
Linear)
Material α (°C-1) at 0 °C
(Linear)
Nickel 6.7 × 10-3
Copper 4.3 × 10-3
Silver 4.1 × 10-3
Iron 4.0 × 10-3
Platinum (Pt100) 3.9 × 10-3
Mercury 9.9 × 10-3
Carbon -7.0 × 10-4
Pt 100 (-190 to +600 °C, 100 Ω at 0°C)
Resistance Temperature detector (RTD)
 Thermocouple

Seeback Whenever two dissimilar metals are in contact, a potential is developed

effect that is proportional to the temperature of the junction.

Reference
junction Reference junction 0ºC
Metal#1

Sensing
V
Junction

Metal#2
∆T

V = s∆T
s: Thermoelectric coefficient
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Copper Cu Cu +
Meter J1
DVM J1 J3

Constantan Cu
J2
Constantan -

V = VJ1 – VJ2 = s (TJ1 – TJ2)

It is necessary that the temperature of one of the junctions be known
and constant.

Cu
Thermopile
Reference
DVM J1 junction
Cu Metal#1
Constantan
Metal#2
J2
Ice
Bath V

If TJ2 = 0°C; V = s TJ1

Thermistor (Thermal resistor)

A device constructed of a metal oxide or of a semiconducting material with a

negative temperature coefficient of resistance which changes dramatically
with temperature. (ex R may change up to 6% per oC)

Operating temperature: -75 to +150°C

 Force transducer: Strain Gage
A resistive input transducer whose change in resistance is related
to changes in length.

The sensitivity of a strain gage: gage factor (K)

∆R / R ∆R / R where R = resistance
K= = L = length
∆L / L σ
σ = mechanical strain
For metallic strain gage K ~ 1.5-1.7

where E = Young’s modulus

Hooke’s law S = Eσ S = mechanical stress
 Strain Gage
Example A resistance strain gage with a gage factor of 2 is fastened to a steel member
subjected to a stress of 1,050 kg/cm2. Calculate the change in resistance, ∆R, of strain-gate
element due to the applied stress.

SOLUTION Hooke’s law gives:

∆L S 1,050 −4
σ= = = = 5 × 10
L E 2.1×106
The sensitivity of the strain gage K = 2. Therefore,

∆R
= Kσ = 2 × 5 ×10−4 = 10−3 or 0.1%
R

This example illustrates that the relatively high stress of 1,050 kg/cm2 results
in a very small resistance change of only 0.1%. Therefore, in practical, the
bridge circuit is often used to detect the small change in most resistive
sensors.
Measurement Circuit for resistive transducer
The major problem with resistive transducers, such as strain gage and RTD, the change of
resistance are very small. Example, the resistance of Pt RTD changes only 0.385% per oC
 R + ∆R R 
Vout =  −  Vs
 2 R + ∆ R 2 R 
 1 + ∆R / R 1   ∆R / R 
= −  Vs =   Vs
 2 + ∆R / R 2   4(1 + ∆R / 2 R) 
 ∆R 
If ∆R/R <<1 then V out ≈   Vs
 4R 
At normal condition; RA = 100 Ω
30
R=100 Ω 100 Ω Constant Temp.
20

10

Vout (mV)
V
Vs = 1.0 V 0

100 Ω -10
RA=R+∆R (Temp.
compensate) -20
RD -30
Strain 90 95 100 105 110
gauge
RA (Ω)
 Displacement Transducer
Force-Summing A mechanical element that are used to convert the applied
Device force into a displacement.

The displacement created by the action of the force-summing device is converted

into a change of some electrical parameter

Static
Capacitive Transducer Deflected
Diaphragm Plate

Aε 0ε r
C= Pressure
d

Dielectric
Piezoelectric Transducer
Certain crystalline materials (Rochelle salt, quartz) and ceramics
(barium titanate) generate a voltage when deformed
Compression Tension
∆V ∝ Sign and
∆V ∆V Magnitude
BT BT

Pressure
Port

Force-
summing
plunger

Output

Piezoelectric
crystal
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The basis structure consists of a single primary winding and two secondary
windings which are placed on either side of the primary winding.

Output
Voltage
Vout = emf1 – emf2
A
emf1 0 B Core
Vout Position

Vin

emf2
Core at 0
Core at A
(Null Position) Core at B

The position of the movable core determines the flux linkage between the ac-
excited primary winding and each of the two second windings.
 Light Transducers
Photoconductive cell
A device which exhibits a change in resistance when exposed to different
intensities of light.

Photoconductive
material
Metal Glass
case window

Ceramic
substrate Base pin

Spectral response of cadmium selenide (CuSe)

 Photodiode
p-type
Flow
-
n-type -
- hν

hν +
+ +
Flow
E
I
Spectral response of Si photodiode

V R
Anode
qV
I = I o (exp[ ] − 1) − I p Light
Symbol kT
intensity
Ip: photocurrent
Photodiode Solar cell
Cathode
Phototransistor

Base
Emitter - Collector
hν

+ -
hν

E +

V R
Collector
Collector

Symbol Equivalent
circuit

Emitter Emitter
Photomultiplier
Amplify photocurrent to detect extremely low light situations by impact ionization

Dynode 2 Dynode 4 Dynode 6

Photocathode

Dynode 1 Dynode 3 Dynode 5 Anode