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Compendium in Teaching Grammar
Compendium in Teaching Grammar
GRAMMAR
1
NOUN
I. According to Meaning
A. Proper Noun
E.g.:
Manila Hotel
Colgate
Filipinos
Mars
2
B. Common Noun
E.g.:
sign
town
miles
weather
C. Abstract Noun
E.g.:
Afterthought
Childhood
Justice
Schizophrenia
D. Count Noun
E.g.:
3
Table
Chair
Word
Remark
Non-count/ Mass noun
• a noun which does not have a plural form, and
which refers to something that you could (or
would) not usually count
E.g. :
Oxygen
Furniture
Gravel
Jewelry
E. Collective Noun
• An armory of aardvarks
• An abominable sight of monks
• An agenda of tasks
• An armada of ships
• An army of caterpillars
• An army of frogs
• An atlas of maps
• A bale of turtles
• A band of men
• A bank of circuits
4
• A bank of monitors
• A barren of mules
• A battery of tests
• A bed of clams
• A bed of oysters
• A bed of snakes
• A belt of asteroids
• A bestiary of mythological
creatures
• A bevy of beauties
• A bevy of quail
• A bevy of swans
• A bill of particulars
• A blessing of unicorns
• A bloat of hippopotami
• A boast of soldiers
• A boo of surprises
• A book of Mormons
• A bouquet of flowers
• A bridge of admirals
• A brigade of soldiers
• A broadside of (artillery) shells (on
water)
• A brood of hens
• A buffoonery of orangutans
• A bunch of grapes
• A bury of conies
• A business of ferrets
• A business of flies
• A cackle of hyenas
• A calendar of saints
• A cast of actors
• A cast of falcons
5
• A cast of hawks
• A cavalcade of horsemen
• A cavy of extra cowboy mounts
• A cete of badgers
• A chain of islands
• A charlotte of web pages
• A chorus of angels
• A circus of fighter
• A clank of tanks
• A class of students
• A click of (computer) mice
• A cloud of bats
• A cloud of gnats
• A cloud of grasshoppers
• A clowder of cats
• A cluster of alpha computers
• A cluster of grasshoppers
• A clutch of chicks
• A clutch of eggs
• A clutter of cats
• A clutter of starlings
• A college of electors
• A colony of ants
• A colony of beavers
• A colony of gulls
• A colony of penguins
• A colony of rabbits
• A company of parrots
• A company of soldiers
• A congregation of people
• A congregation of plovers
• A congregation of worshipers
• A conspiracy of ravens
6
• A constellation of stars
• A constituency of voters
• A convocation of eagles
• A corps of cadets
• A coven of witches
• A covey of pheasants (while on the
ground)
• A covey of quail
• A crash of rhinoceroses (in
contemporary use in Kenya Game
Reports)
• A crowd of onlookers
• A cruft of hackers
• A cry of hounds
• A cry of players
• A culture of bacteria
• A death row of turkeys
• A deck of sailors
• A descent of woodpeckers
• A dilation of pupils
• A dissimulation of birds
• A division of soldiers
• A dole of doves
• A donut of data
• A down of hares
• A draught of fish
• A dray of squirrels
• A drift of hogs
• A drift of swine
• A dropping of pigeons
• A drove of cattle
• A dule of doves
• A drumming of grouse
7
• An erst of bees
• An evensong of choirboys
• An exaltation of larks
• A fall of woodcocks
• A fidget of altar boys
• A field of racehorses
• A fistful of dollars
• A flap of nuns
• A fleet of ships
• A flight of cormorants
• A flight of doves
• A flight of stairs
• A flight of swallows
• A float of crocodiles
• A flock of sheep
• A flotilla of ships
• A fluther of jellyfish
• A gaggle of geese (wild or
domesticated)
• A galaxy of stars
• A galaxy of starlets
• A gang of hoodlums
• A glossolalia of Pentecostals
• A government of Episcopalians
• A grist of bees
• A grove of trees
• A hailstorm of gunships
• A hand of bananas
• A heap of trash
• A herd of elephants
• A herd of horses
• A herd of wrens
• A hill of beans
8
• A hive of bees
• A host of angels
• A host of sparrows
• A huddle of lawyers
• A huddle of players
• A hug of teddy bears
• A husk of hares
• An immersion of Baptists
• A kettle of hawks (riding a thermal )
• A kindle of kittens
• A labor of moles
• A leap of hares
• A leap of leopards
• A leash of foxes
• A mask of raccoons
• A mass of priests
• A maze of canyons
• A meeting of Quakers
• A membership of Presbyterians
• A mess of officers
• A mob of kangaroo
• A muscle of marines
• A muster of peacocks
• A muster of soldiers
• A muster of storks
• A nest of mice
• A nest of rabbits
• A nest of vipers
• A nest of wasps
• A network of computers (linked
together )
• An observance of hermits
• An orchestra of musicians
9
• A pack of hounds
• A pack of wolves
• A pad of (sheets of) paper
• A paddling of ducks (while
swimming)
• A pantheon of gods
• A parade of penguins
• A parliament of owls
• A parliament of rooks
• A party of jays
• A passel of brats
• A patch of flowers
• A patter of footsteps
• A peal of bells
• A peep of chickens
• A piddle of puppies
• A pile of dung
• A piteousness of doves
• A pitying of turtledoves
• A plague of locusts
• A platoon of soldiers
• A plump of waterfowl
• A pod of seals
• A pod of whales
• A pomposity of professors
• A pontificality of prelates
• A prattle of parrots
• A prickle of hedgehogs
• A prickle of porcupines
• A pride of lions
• A radiance of cardinals
• A raft of canvass-back ducks
• A raft of ducks (while idle in water)
10
• A raft of widgeon
• A rafter of turkeys
• A range of mountains
• A ring of keys (linked physically)
• A rope of pearls
• A round of drinks
• A route of wolves
• A rumble of artillery
• A rumpus of baboons
• A run of poultry
• A salt substrate of potato chips
• A salt substrate of pretzels
• A salt substrate of saltines
• A salvo of [artillery] shells
• A school of fish
• A sedge of cranes
• A sea of bishops
• A sheaf of wheat (stalks of grain
tied together)
• A shoal of bass
• A shoal of shad
• A shock of corn (pile of stalks)
• A shrewdness of apes
• A siege of herons
• A singular of boars
• A skein of geese (in flight)
• A skulk of foxes
• A slate of candidates
• A slew of homework
• A sloth of bears
• A smack of jellyfish
• A sneak of weasels
• A sounder of swine
11
• A squad of soldiers
• A stable of prostitutes
• A staff of employees
• A stand of flamingo
• A stand of trees
• A stash of weed (when hidden)
• A stench of skunks
• A storm of paratroops
• A streak of tigers
• A string of ponies
• A superfluity of nuns
• A swarm of bees
• A tangle of tricksters
• A team of athletes
• A team of ducks (while flying)
• A team of horses
• A team of oxen
• A tick tock of clocks
• A totter of giraffes
• A tribe of goats
• A tribe of monkeys
• A tribe of natives
• A trip of dotterel
• A trip of goats
• A troop of kangaroo
• A troupe of performers
• A ubiquity of sparrows
• An unkindness of ravens
• A visit of Jehovah’s witnesses
• A wake of vultures
• A walk of snipe
• A wealth of information
• A wedge of geese (flying in a "V")
12
• A wedge of swans (flying in a "V")
• A wing of (fighter) aircraft
• A wisdom of owls
• A wisp of snipe
A. Gender
1. Masculine
E.g.:
Actor
Prince
Waiter
Widower
2. Feminine
E.g.:
Actress
Princess
Waitress
Widow
3. Common
13
• refers to a member of species which can be a
male or a female
E.g.:
Child
Student
Applicant
Candidate
4. Neuter
E.g.:
Chair
Table
Tree
Star
14
Man Woman
Husband Wife
Prince Princess
Bull Cow
Rooster Hen
Stag Doe
Drake Duck
Fox Vixen
Gander Goose
Lion Lioness
Ram Ewe
Bachelor Spinster/bachelorette/maid
Bullock Heifer
Dog Bitch
Drone Bee
Horse Mare
Jew Jewess
Wizard Witch
Heir Heiress
Manager Manageress
Poet Poetess
Shepherd Shepherdess
Benefactor Benefactress
Hunter Huntress
Emperor Empress
Traitor Traitress
Ox Cow
Mayor Mayoress
Tiger Tigress
Monk Nun
Gentleman Lady
Duke Duchess
Abbot Abbess
Adulterer Adulteress
Author Authoress
Monitor Monitress
Baron Baroness
Murderer Murderess
Enchanter Enchantress
Prophet Prophetess
God Goddess
15
Host Hostess
Sorcerer Sorceress
Host Hostess
Canon Canoness
Patron Patroness
Count Countess
Peer Peeress
Dauphin Dauphiness
Poet Poetess
Deaconess Deaconess
Proprietor Proprietress
Prior Prioress
Giant Giantess
Heir Heiress
Shepherd Shepherdess
Hunter Huntress
Priest Priestess
Songster Songstress
Instructor Instructress
Inventor Inventress
Executor Executrix
Testator Testatrix
Administrator Administratrix
Hero Heroine
Landgrave Landgravine
Margrave Margravine
Don Donna
Infant Infanta
Signor Signora
Sultan Sultana
B. Number
1. Regular
16
• follows the normal plural rule of adding –es or –s
to form a plural, or changing –y to –I and adding –
es
E.g.:
-s -es
2. Irregular
E.g.
17
Half Halves
Leaf Leaves
Calf Calves
Wolf Wolves
Thief Thieves
Life Lives
Shelf Shelves
Self Selves
Loaf Loaves
Elf Elves
Sheaf Sheaves
Scarf Scarves
Hoof hooves
• Some nouns change the vowel sound in
becoming plural:
E.g.:
singular plural
fireman firemen
foot feet
goose geese
louse lice
man men
mouse mice
tooth teeth
woman women
E.g.:
singular plural
child children
ox oxen
18
• Some nouns ending in -o take -s as the
plural, while others take -es.
E.g.:
19
• Some nouns ending in -o take either -s or
-es:
E.g.:
singular plural
buffalo buffalos/buffaloes
cargo cargos/cargoes
halo halos/haloes
mosquito mosquitos/mosquitoes
motto mottos/mottoes
no nos/noes
tornado tornados/tornadoes
volcano volcanos/volcanoes
zero zeros/zeroes
E.g.:
20
singular plural
cod* cod*
deer deer
fish* fish*
offspring offspring
perch* perch*
sheep sheep
trout* trout*
*Notice that these are names of fish. Many fish have irregular plural
forms. Salmon, pike, halibut and tuna are further examples, but
one shark becomes two sharks.
E.g.:
singular plural
barracks barracks
crossroads crossroads
dice/die dice
gallows gallows
headquarters headquarters
means means
series series
species species
21
E.g.:
E.g.:
singular plural
corpus corpora
genus genera
E.g.:
22
bacillus bacilli
cactus cacti cactuses
focus foci
fungus fungi funguses
nucleus nuclei
octopus octopi octopuses
radius radii
stimulus stimuli
syllabus syllabi syllabuses
termini
terminus
singular Foreign plural English plural in use
addendum addenda
bacterium bacteria
curriculum curricula curriculums
datum data
erratum errata
medium media
memorandum memoranda memorandums
ovum ova
stratum strata
symposium symposia symposiums
E.g.:
23
plural use
apex apices apexes
appendix appendices appendixes
cervix cervices cervixes
index indices indexes
matrix matrices matrixes
vortex vortices
singular plural
analysis analyses
axis axes
basis bases
crisis crises
diagnosis diagnoses
emphasis emphases
hypothesis hypotheses
neurosis neuroses
oasis oases
parenthesis parentheses
synopsis synopses
thesis theses
24
E.g.:
singular plural
libretto libretti
Italian tempo tempi
virtuoso virtuosi
cherub cherubim
Hebrew
seraph seraphim
Greek schema schemata
3. Compound
• can be:
- One word
E.g.:
Shoelace
singular plural
criterion criteria
phenomenon phenomena
automaton automata
Keyboard
Flashlight
Applesauce
25
Notebook
Bedroom
- Hyphenated:
Sky-scraper
Boy-friend
Baby-sitter
Editor-in-chief
Great-grandfather
- Two words:
Police officer
Seat belt
High school
Word processor
Post office
C. Cases
1. Nominative/ Subjective
E.g.:
26
My sister walks.
2. Objective
E.g.:
3. Dative
E.g.:
4. Possessive
27
• all singular nouns form the possessive form
by adding apostrophe and –s
E.g.:
Ria’s shoes
Singer’s microphone
E.g.:
Charles’s book
Charles’ book
E.g.:
E.g.:
28
The geese's food supply was
endangered.
E.g.:
E.g.:
E.g.:
Joe is a gourmet.
29
B. Object of the Preposition
E.g.:
C. Direct Object
E.g.:
E.g.:
My grandfather is a farmer.
30
• directly follow and modify the direct object
E.g.:
F. Indirect Object
E.g.:
G. Appositive
E.g.:
31
it is called nonrestrictive appositive and
it should be set off from the rest of the
sentence with commas (dashes, colons and
parentheses can also be used).
E.g.:
32
PRONOUN
Types of Pronoun:
Personal Pronouns
Possessive* my, our, ours thy, thine your, your, his, their, whose
mine yours yours hers, its theirs
33
Intensive herself, s
itself
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
Who
34
• Used as the direct object of a verb, the indirect object of
a verb or the object of the preposition.
• The objective personal pronouns are the following:
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
Them
35
Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Its
Ours
Theirs
Demonstrative Pronouns
Near Far
Singular This That
Plural Thes those
e
36
• In the following sentences, the highlighted words are the
demonstrative pronouns.
That is beautiful.
Relative Pronouns
37
Relative Which That No relative
pronoun pronoun
Subject
Object
38
subject after something and anything, but less
commonly:
39
sometimes used instead of which, but some
people think that this is incorrect:
Indefinite Pronoun
singular
40
many as
needed
neither not one and I keep telling Jack and Jill but
not the other neither believes me.
of two people
or things
41
from one
already
mentioned
plural
42
several more than two They all complained
but not many and several left the meeting.
singular or plural
43
unspecified
number of
people or
things
Reflexive Pronoun
• to indicate that the person who realizes the action of the verb
is the same person who receives the action
Subjec
Reflexive
t
I myself
You yourself
Singular He himself
She herself
It itself
We ourselves
Plural You yourselves
They themselves
For example:
44
I cut my hair myself.
* In this example "I" does the action of cutting the hair
and at the same time "I" gets the action of the hair
being cut.
We defended ourselves brilliantly.
* In this example the reflexive pronoun "ourselves"
refers back to the subject of the sentence.
John talks to himself when he is nervous.
* In this example "Himself" refers to John.
• For example:
• For example:
45
Nor is she shy about
giving herself credit for it.
We gave ourselves a second chance
to complete the course.
Did they lock themselves out of the
house again?
Give yourselves a pat on the back for
a job well done.
• For example:
I did it myself.
* I want to emphasize the fact that I did
it.
• Examples:
He washed himself.
She looked at herself in the mirror.
Diabetics give themselves insulin
shots several times a day.
After the party, I asked myself why I
had faxed invitations to everyone in my
office building.
Richard usually remembered to send
a copy of his e-mail to himself.
Intensive Pronouns
46
• used when the subject isn't performing the action
• usually next to the subject
Intensive Pronouns
Myself I
Ourselves We
Themselves Them
Yourselves You
Herself She
Himself He
• Examples:
undergraduate class.
47
VERB
I. Types of Verb:
A. Action Verbs
E.g.:
Muskrats swim in marshes.
B. Linking Verbs
48
List of Most Common Linking Verbs:
C. Auxiliary Verbs
E.g.:
II. Forms
1. Regular Verbs
49
If a verb is regular, the past simple and past
E.g.:
Clean: cleaned
finish: finished
use: used
paint: painted
stop: stopped
carry: carried
2. Irregular Verbs
50
become became become
51
cast cast cast
do did done
52
drive drove driven
53
forsake forsook forsaken
go went gone
54
inlay inlaid inlaid
55
lie lay lain
56
misspend misspent misspent
57
outride outrode outridden
58
overcome overcame overcome
59
overthink overthought overthought
60
read read (sounds like read (sounds like
"red") "red")
61
relearn relearned / relearnt relearned / relearnt
62
rewin rewon rewon
63
shed shed shed
64
speak spoke spoken
65
strive strove / strived striven / strived
66
typecast typecast typecast
67
unlearn unlearned / unlearned / unlearnt
unlearnt
68
win won won
B. Gerund
Breathing is necessary.
69
Driving a car requires good vision.
C. Participle
70
E.g.:
The cars produced in Japan are nice.
I saw the man coming to the shop.
Going to Texas they expected a
better job.
D. Infinitive
• form which follows "to"
E.g.:
He claimed to be an expert.
I managed to reach the top of the
hill.
Do not pretend that you know the
answer.
She failed to explain the problem
clearly.
The customs man demanded to
search our luggage.
I cannot afford to go out tonight.
Aspect
s
Perfect
simple perfect progressive
progressive
Tenses
have + en
O have + en be + ing
be + ing
71
sung singing singing
72
3. To express present action or state of being:
Christine is absent.
4. Permanent condition:
Zamboanga is in Mindanao
The President lives in Malacanang.
Tokyo is the capital of Japan.
The past tense denotes past action. A regular verb forms its
past tense by adding -d or –ed. An irregular verb forms its past
tense in some other way than by adding –d or –ed.
-The storm caused much damage.
73
-Carlos bought a new car last week.
6. Social distancing:
Did you want to sit down and stay a while?
74
-We will cover the first half of the book this term.
Future tense can be applied in:
1. An action to take place at some definite future time
I shall meet my high school classmates this summer.
2. A future habitual action or state:
After September, Nicole will ride a bus to Quezon City every
day.
3. A situation that may obtain the present and will obtain in the
future but with some future termination in sight.
Denice will live in Japan until she improves her Japanese.
4. In the main (result) clause of future conditional:
If you go, you will be sorry.
PERFECT ASPECT
• Present perfect
75
3. A very recently completed action (often with just):
Abigail has just finished his homework.
4. An action that occurred over a prior time and that is
completed at the moment of speaking.
5. With verbs in subordinate clauses of time or condition:
If you have done your homework, you can surf the net.
• Past perfect
• Future perfect
76
At the end of the March, my parents will have been married
for 21 years.
PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS
• Present progressive
Shows continuing action, something going on now. It may also
show something will happen in the future.
Formed by combining the present tense of the verb to be with
the present participle of another verb.
Uses of present progressive:
1. Activity in progress:
He is attending a meeting now.
2. Extended present (action will end and therefore lacks the
permanence of the simple present tense:
I’m studying English in Philippine Normal University.
3. A temporary situation:
Gracelle is living with her foster parents.
4. Repetition or iteration in a series of similar ongoing actions.
Henry is kicking the soccer ball around the backyard.
5. Expresses future:
My aunt with her husband is coming this summer.
6. Emotional comment on present habit:
He is always delivering in a clutch situation.
7. A change in progress:
She is becoming more and more like her mother.
• Past progressive
77
Formed by combining the past tense of the verb to be with the
present participle of another verb.
Uses of the past progressive:
1. An action in progress at a specific point of time in the past:
She was walking to school at 6:45 this morning.
2. Past action simultaneous with some other event that is
usually stated in the simple past:
Richelle is reading the book when the phone rang.
3. Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action:
My mother was coughing all night long.
4. Social distance:
I was hoping you could lend me 130 pesos.
• Future progressive
78
This aspect implies the sense of prior of the perfect with the
meaning of incompleteness inherent in the progressive aspect.
79
1. An action or habit taking place over a period of time in the
past prior to some other past event or time:
Ate Luisa had been trying to finish her degree that year.
A. Active Voice
• In sentences written in active voice, the subject
performs the action expressed in the verb; the
subject acts.
80
Example:
B. Passive Voice
81
(agent performing action has been
omitted.)
With passive voice, the verb acts upon the subject. What
would be the subject in a sentence using an active verb
becomes the object.
82
Unnecessary shift in voice Revised
83
your judgment, or ask another human being for
their opinion about which sentence sounds best.
C. Verb Moods
• Types of Moods:
1. Indicative Mood
E.g.:
2. Imperative Mood
Be careful!
3. Subjunctive Mood
84
• Speakers signal the subjunctive by
beginning subordinate clauses with an
auxiliary or by if.
• The subjunctive for the present tense third
person singular drops the -s or -es so that it
looks and sounds like the present tense for
everything else.
• The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is
be in the present tense and were in the
past tense, regardless of what the subject is.
E.g.:
85
Incorrect: He recommended that each
driver reports his tips.
Correct: He recommended that each
driver report his tips.
4. Interrogative Mood
• Indicates a state of questioning
• starts with an auxiliary verb or an
interrogative pronoun
E.g.:
Will you leave me alone?
Can Liz do that?
V. Verb Usage
A. Using Forms of Be
Example:
Be Verbs
Present Past
Am -
is was
86
are were
The verbs am and is are singular and used only with singular
subjects. The verb are is used with plural subjects and with the
pronoun you.
Example:
I am very happy.
A. Introduction
Andrea Chi.
Pronouns with Be
Pronoun Verb Be
I am
87
He
She is
It
You
We are
They
Contractions of Be
Pronoun +
Be
Be
Cont
racti
on
I am I’m
He is He’s
She is She’s
It is It’s
We are We’re
Affirmative Negative
Contractions
88
not.
In the present tense, the verbs have and has are used.
The verb has is used in singular subject. The verb have is
used in plural subjects or with I and you. In the past tense,
89
only the verb had is used whether the subject is singular or
plural.
Contractions of Have
Has + not Hasn’t
Have + Haven’t
not I’ve
I + have They’ve
They +
have
Had + not Hadn’t
C. Using Forms of Do
Forms
DO / DOES DID
Used in simple present question Used in simple past question and
and negative forms: negative forms:
Example: Example:
What time does he get up? When did they arrive yesterday?
They don't drive to work. They He didn't finish his homework
take the bus. last week.
90
The form did is used with all singular and plural
subjects.
D. Uses of Modals
91
permission “Yes, of course you can”
may as describes the only thing left I’m so bored; I may as well
well/ to do, something which the do some housework.
might as speaker is not enthusiastic
well
92
about
93
English)
94
later.
request (can and could are Will you go to the shop for
more common) me?
“I will!”
request (can and could are Would you go to the shop for
would
more common) me?
95
person wouldn’t she?
E.g.:
96
E.g.:
E.g.:
E.g.:
E.g.:
97
We have sat here long enough.
E.g.:
6. Rise or raise? Rise means “to go up” or “to get up.” Its
principal parts are rise, rising, rose, (have) risen. (The
verb rise never requires an object.)
E.g.:
98
E.g.:
7. Lie or lay? Lie means “to recline.” Its principal parts are
lie, lying, lay, (have) lain. (The verb lie never requires an
object.)
E.g.:
E.g.:
99
We are laying new carpet in the den.
(Carpet is the object)
E.g.:
E.g.:
E.g.:
100
E.g.:
E.g.:
6. Do not use want in, want out, want on, want off, or want
through.
E.g.:
101
Not consistent: Chuck caught the ball and throws it
over the first baseman’s head.
102
pictures change when exact verbs are substituted for
the word went.
E.g.:
ADVERB
103
In this sentence, the adverb "beautifully" modifies the verb "sang"
and indicates in what manner the PNU Chorale sang the Philippine
National Anthem.
A. Adverbs of Time
E.g.:
104
Goldilocks went to the Bears'
house yesterday.
I am going to tidy my room tomorrow.
My mother lived in France for a year.
E.g.:
C. Adverbs of Place
E.g.:
D. Adverbs of Manner
E.g.:
105
She walked slowly.
John drove carefully.
The soldiers fought bravely.
E.g.:
She does not quite know what she will
do after university.
They are completely exhausted from
the trip.
I am too tired to go out tonight.
E.g.:
G. Adverbs of Reason
• Indicates reason
E.g.:
Therefore he left.
Hence we agreed.
H. Adverbs of Interrogation
106
• used in asking questions
E.g.:
I. Adverbs of Relation
E.g.:
Examples:
107
We cheered happily.
b. Irregular adverbs
Some adverbs of the types that do not end in-ly are always, in,
later, once, away, up, often, and ever.
Examples:
He is in.
You are often absent.
You go up.
He will come later.
They went out.
I met her once.
Examples: Compare
Adjective Adverb
Examples:
109
an adjective.
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
110
An example of a sentence using a conjunctive adverb to join two
discrete elements is:
Example:
Examples:
2. with adjectives:
How tall are you?
How old is your house?
111
4. with other adverbs:
How quickly can you read this?
How often do you go to London?
Examples:
Examples:
112
The adverb sadly modifies the entire sentence that follows.
V. Functions of Adverbs
a. Intensifier
• Emphasizers:
• Amplifiers:
• Downtoners:
113
His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
We can improve on this to some extent.
The boss almost quit after that.
The school was all but ruined by the storm.
b. Adjuncts
c. Disjuncts
When the adverb does not fit into the flow of the clause, it is called
a disjunct or a conjunct and is often set off by a comma or set of
commas. A disjunct frequently acts as a kind of evaluation of the
rest of the sentence. Although it usually modifies the verb, we could
say that it modifies the entire clause, too. Notice how "too" is a
disjunct in the sentence immediately before this one; that same
word can also serve as an adjunct adverbial modifier: It's too hot to
play outside. Here are two more disjunctive adverbs:
d. Conjuncts
114
Conjuncts, on the other hand, serve a connector function
within the flow of the text, signaling a transition between ideas.
Examples;
If they start smoking those awful cigars, then I'm not staying.
We've told the landlord about this ceiling again and again, and
yet he's done nothing to fix it.
ADJECTIVE
115
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
Forms
Adjectives related to nouns and verbs
116
-ant fragrant -less useless -y misty
Words which are not adjectives can also have these endings.
We can attach non-, pro- and anti- to the beginning of some nouns,
and –like and –friendly to the end to create adjective forms, e.g. a
pro-/anti-democracy movement, a business-like manner, a user-
friendly computer manual.
Participle Forms
In the following examples boring and bored are parts of the verb
(to) bore.
Multiword Adjectives
117
noun and past participle: feather-brained, self-centered,
people-oriented
His two-piece birds-eye suit is impressive; his blue shirt with its
rounded collar immaculate, his thin, faintly European slip-on shoes
is impeccable.
Comparative-Superlative Forms
Examples:
118
pretty prettier prettiest
Examples
Examples:
119
Types
Possessive Adjectives
120
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``our'' modifies ``way''
and the noun phrase ``our way'' is the direct object of the
compound verb ``have lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form
``ours'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
Demonstrative Adjectives
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of
books.
121
Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this
apartment'' is the subject of the sentence.
Interrogative Adjectives
122
Indefinite Adjectives
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to
Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the
noun phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb
``will send.''
Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title
is a subject complement.
123
Preposition
124
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was
defeated.
125
• among
• anti
• around
• as
• at
• before
• behind
• below
• beneath
• beside
• besides
• between
• beyond
• but
• by
• concerning
• considering
• despite
• down
• during
• except
• excepting
• excluding
• following
• for
• from
• in
• inside
126
• into
• like
• minus
• near
• of
• off
• on
• onto
• opposite
• outside
• over
• past
• per
• plus
• regarding
• round
• save
• since
• than
• through
• to
• toward
• towards
• under
• underneath
• unlike
• until
127
• up
• upon
• versus
• via
• with
• within
• without
When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to"
marks a verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose.
The preposition may occur alone or in the phrase in order.
128
2. The other two prepositions of direction are compounds
formed by adding "to" to the corresponding
prepositions of location.
("To" is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean
about the same thing.)
(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is
why "to" is inside parentheses in the title of the handout, showing
that it is somewhat optional with the compound prepositions. Thus,
the following sentences are roughly synonymous:
129
(4) Tai-shing jumped in/into the
pool.
Completio Position
n of an of
Action Subject
130
(8) Susumu Susumu
dived in(to) is in the
the water. water.
Uses of "to"
1. verb + to + infinitive
131
Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as
to. However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific destination,
while "toward" suggests movement in a general direction, without
necessarily arriving at a destination:
Uses of "onto"
132
1. Onto can generally be replaced by on with verbs of
motion.
Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto,
with the latter being preferred by some speakers.
(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not
onto the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.
(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.
133
Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so
perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise,
scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.
(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.
(27) We're adding on a wing at the back of the building.
(28) We're adding a porch onto the house.
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple
preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important and general
rule:
(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang,
which takes both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The
meanings of these combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are
given in parentheses.
• Hang on(to the rope)! ('continue to grasp tightly')
• carry on ('resume what you were doing')
• sail on ('resume or continue sailing')
• dream on ('continue dreaming'; a humorous way of saying
'that is an unattainable goal')
• lead on ('resume or continue leading us')
• rock on ('continue playing rock music')
134
Uses of "into"
135
(37) The doctor is in his office.
This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and
(29).
136
Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds:
prepositions of location and prepositions of direction. Both kinds
may be either positive or negative. Prepositions of location appear
with verbs describing states or conditions, especially be;
prepositions of direction appear with verbs of motion.
Point
Surface
Area/Volume
137
at ....... point
on ....... surface
in .......
area/vol
ume
1) My car is at
the house.
2) There is a
new roof on the
house.
3) The house is
in Tippecanoe
county.
138
fireplace in the
living room.
“Using "at"
location
destination
Direction
139
7a) The policeman leaped at the
assailant.
140
Three players are
practicing on the field.
(surface)
141
Three players are on the
soccer field. (not enclosed)
3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two
follow the general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom
that must be learned as a unit.
142
Street: it doesn't mean that the street is a surface on which the
house sits. Because the street is understood as a line next to which
the house is situated, on functions much like at in its normal use: it
locates the house in relation to the street but does not specify the
exact address. For that purpose, at is used because the address is
like a particular point on the line. Compare: "Our house is at 323
Third Street." In c) out on the street is an idiom meaning "poor" or
"destitute."
143
in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train
on the ship
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
My plane leaves at noon.
The movie starts at 6 p.m.
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
He likes to read in the afternoon.
The days are long in August.
144
The book was published in 1999.
The flowers will bloom in spring.
Extended time
Place
145
Higher than a point
To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: over, above.
To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below.
Close to a point
146
To introduce objects of verbs
147
I'm looking for my keys.
We'll wait for her here.
You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.
ahead
The girl is ahead of the boy.
of
148
behind The boy is behind the girl.
betwee
She is between two trees.
n
In front
The girl is in front of the boy.
of
149
off His hat is off.
CONJUNCTION
150
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the
following example:
Coordinating Conjunctions
You use a coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so,"
or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note
that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a coordinating
conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops
and swallowing goldfish.
151
Subordinating Conjunctions
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother
and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are
exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the
subordinating conjunction "because."
152
Correlative Conjunctions
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello
salad" and "a potato scallop."
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive
phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring
pub.
153
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the
two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct
objects.
DETERMINERS
154
Determiners are words that are used with nouns to clarify the noun. They
can clarify:
Articles
The use of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any
member of a group, or to a specific member of a group:
155
Definite article: THE
"THE" is used before singular and plural nouns that refer to a particular
member of a group.
The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a
limiting modifying phrase or clause:
156
d. names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group
of lakes like the Great Lakes
e. names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of
mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual
f. names like the Matterhorn
g. names of continents (Asia, Europe)
h. names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island
chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Indefinite articles: A / AN
Example:
157
• an + singular noun beginning with voiceless “h” (ex. hour, honor,
honest, etc )
a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with
consonant 'y' sound)
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate
membership in a profession, nation, or religion.
I am a teacher.
Leo is an Australian.
Yuko is a practicing Shintoist.
Demonstratives are words that are use to indicate which entities a speaker
refers to, and distinguishes those entities from others.
The demonstratives in English are this, that, these, and those, possibly
followed by one(s) in case of pronouns
Demonstratives
• "This" is used for singular nouns that are close to the speaker.
• "That" is used for singular nouns that are far from the speaker.
• "These" is used for plural nouns that are close to the speaker.
158
• "Those" is used for plural nouns that are far from the speaker.
David: Could you give me that book on the table over there?
Frank: Do you mean this book here?
David: Yes, that book.
Frank: Here you are. Oh, could you give me those magazines on the table
over there?
David: These? Sure, here you are.
159
We use "these" for
We use "those" for more
more than one object
than one object (plural)
(plural) that are here
that are there. Example:
(near to us). Example:
Those are his toys over
These are my friends
there.
next to me.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something
without stating the actually number.
Quantifiers can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.
Quantifiers must agree with the noun. There are 3 main types of quantifiers;
quantifiers that are used with countable nouns, quantifiers that are used with
uncountable nouns and quantifiers that are used with either countable nouns
or uncountable nouns.
160
The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees
The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing
In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather
than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.
161
There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with
non-count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words).
If I say that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that
although Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and
that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that
Tashonda has little experience in management that means that she doesn't
have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin
American literature that means that he has some books — not a lot of books,
but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books
on Latin American literature that means he doesn't have enough for our
purposes and we'd better go to the library.
Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions
and negative statements:
Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the
when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun:
"most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water
has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not
referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:
Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
162
Many an apple has fallen by October.
163
INTERJECTION
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!
164
PUNCTUATION
The following sections will help you understand and use different types
of punctuation more effectively in your writing. This chapter begins with
the comma, the punctuation mark which usually causes writers the most
trouble, before turning to other types of punctuation.
The Comma
For instance, the use of a comma before the "and" in a series is usually
optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no
danger of misreading:
Comma Usage
165
She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary
with short clauses)
From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet.
(after introductory prepositional phrase)
In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no
comma with short, closely related phrase)
166
A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of
what it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence.
You should not set off restrictive elements with commas:
Note that you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive
elements or other parenthetical information: parentheses and dashes.
Enclosing parenthetical information in parentheses reduces the importance
of that information:
Mr. Grundy's driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary.
Superfluous Commas
167
• Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject
complement, or a preposition from its object:
[WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of
my dog Benji.
She travelled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup
tent and a camera.
[RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the
noise and paid it no attention.
• Do not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially
introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly
so:
[WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton.
[RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.
168
• Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a
series:
[WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume
jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if
you want to improve in the martial arts.
[RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if you
want to improve in the martial arts.
The Semicolon
You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not
joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those
independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been
adopted so far.
[WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but
some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
[RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some
signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
It may be useful to remember that, for the most part, you should use a
semicolon only where you could also use a period.
The Colon
Writers often confuse the colon with the semicolon, but their uses are
entirely different.
170
When to Use a Colon
He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint
John and Moncton.
Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly
defeated.
You should not place a colon between a verb and its object or subject
complement, or between a preposition and its object:
[WRONG] His neighbor lent him a pup tent, a wooden canoe, and a
slightly battered Coleman stove. (colon between verb and objects)
[RIGHT] His neighbor lent him a pup tent, a wooden canoe, and a
slightly battered Coleman stove.
[WRONG] Her three goals are: to improve her public speaking skills, to
increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques.
(colon between verb and subject complement)
[RIGHT] Her three goals are to find a job, to buy a house and to go to
grad school.
171
[WRONG] We travelled to: Japan, China and Korea. (colon between
preposition and objects)
End Punctuation
The punctuation marks that signal the end of a sentence are the
period, the question mark and the exclamation mark.
You use the period, by far the most common of the end punctuation
marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use
periods with imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or
excitement attached:
Without a doubt, Lady Emily was much happier after her divorce.
When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you
may end your imperative sentences and statements with an exclamation
mark:
I hate him!
Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly,
if at all.
172
You should use the question mark at the end of a direct question:
Who's on first?
Quotation Marks
The exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly from language to
language and even from country to country within the English-speaking
world. In North American usage, you should place double quotation marks (")
before and after directly quoted material and words of dialogue:
One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the
best film ever made about potato farming."
You also use quotation marks are used to set off certain titles, usually
those of minor or short works -- essays, short stories, short poems, songs,
articles in periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate
publications, you should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available).
Use italics for titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films,
plays, long poems, long musical works, and television and radio programs.
173
Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy
Flower," which was later made into a movie entitled Flower Child,
starring Tiny Tim.
Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically
referred to as terms, though some publishers prefer italics:
I know you like the word "unique," but do you really have to use it ten
times in one essay?
One question that frequently arises with quotation marks is where to place
other punctuation marks in relation to them. Again, these rules vary from
region to region, but North American usage is quite simple:
I know you are fond of the story "Children of the Corn," but is it an
appropriate subject for your essay?
"At last," said the old woman, "I can say I am truly happy."
She never liked the poem "Dover Beach"; in fact, it was her least
favourite piece of Victorian literature.
174
3. Question marks, exclamation marks, and dashes go inside quotation
marks when they are part of the quotation, and outside when they do
not.
Where is your copy of "The Raven"?
Note that in North American usage, you should use single quotation marks (')
only to set off quoted material (or a minor title) inside a quotation.
"I think she said `I will try,' not `I won't try,'" explained Sandy.
The Apostrophe
175
Possessive pronouns such as "hers," "yours," and "theirs" do not take
apostrophes. This is the case for the possessive pronoun "its" as well. When
you write "it's" with an apostrophe, you are writing a contraction for "it is."
The spaceship landed hard, damaging its radar receiver. ("its" is the
possessive pronoun)
It's your mother on the phone. ("it's" is the contraction of "it is")
The Dash
I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse - the one with
the blue pattern -- or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption)
You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward
one point.
Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter -- all go into this fabulously
rich dessert.
176
We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering,
Menu du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers --
and rejected them all.
MODIFIERS
177
A modifier can be an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase or clause
acting as an adjective or adverb In every case, the basic principle is the
same: the modifier adds information to another element in the sentence.
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and
sometimes clauses and whole sentences. Adjectives are words that modify
nouns and pronouns. Be careful not to use an adjective where you need an
adverb. Consider the following sentences, for instance:
[WRONG] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the
classroom.
[RIGHT] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the
classroom.
178
Using "good," "bad," "well," and "badly."
You might also note the distinctions between "good" and "bad" (which are
adjectives) and "well" and "badly" (which are adverbs):
The actor's performance was good even though he felt bad that night.
In the same vein, remember that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Do
not mistakenly use an adverb to modify these parts of speech.
For example, after a linking verb you may be tempted to use an adverb
instead of an adjective. You will recall that the linking verb is a special kind
of verb because it links its subject to a subject complement. A subject
complement can be either a noun (renaming the subject) or a modifier
(describing the subject). When it is a modifier it must be an adjective
because it describes the subject (always a noun or pronoun). It does not
modify the linking verb itself and should therefore not be an adverb:
Of the two designs, the architect is convinced that the city will select
the more experimental one. (comparing two designs)
Now that it is March, the days are getting longer. (longer now than
before)
You should use the superlative form to compare three or more things. You
can form the superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the modifier (for some
short words) or by using the word "most" with the modifier:
Note: if you are not certain, you should check a dictionary to see which
words take use "more" and "most" and which words take the suffixes "-er"
and "-est".
180
Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative
There are certain modifiers which you cannot logically use in the
comparative and superlative forms. Adjectives like "perfect" and "unique,"
for instance, express absolute conditions and do not allow for degrees of
comparison. Something cannot be more perfect than another thing: it is
either perfect or not perfect.
You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is, using both a
suffix and an adverb to indicate the comparative or superlative:
[RIGHT] Laurel and Hardy are the funniest slapstick comedians in film
history.
181
[RIGHT] We decided there wasn't any point in pursuing our research
further. OR We decided there was no point in pursuing our research
further.
Double negatives involving "not" and "no" are fairly easy to spot and
fix. However, some other adverbs -- for example, "hardly," "scarcely,"
"barely" -- imply the negative, and you should not use them with another
negative:
[WRONG] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does
not have hardly any friends there.
[RIGHT] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has
hardly any friends there. OR Even though he has lived in Toronto for
four years, he does not have many friends there.
In fact, you can improve your writing quite a bit by paying attention to basic
problems like misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
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Misplaced Words
[WRONG] Randy has nearly annoyed every professor he has had. (he
hasn't "nearly annoyed" them)
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Misplaced Phrases and Clauses
[WRONG] By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the
eye.
[WRONG] After the wedding, Ian told us at his stag party that he
would start behaving like a responsible adult.
[RIGHT] By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger.
[RIGHT] Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like a
responsible adult after the wedding.
Squinting Modifiers
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Split Infinitives
The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word "to" followed by the
base form of the verb: "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. Inserting a word or
words between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known
as a split infinitive. Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin grammar
better than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an error, but now
it is growing increasingly acceptable even in formal writing. Nevertheless,
some careful writers still prefer to avoid splitting infinitives altogether.
[WRONG] The marketing team voted to, before they launched the
new software, run an anticipatory ad campaign. (disruptive -- the
infinitive should not be split)
Dangling Modifiers
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sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word. Consider the following
example:
For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the
sea. (the phrase no longer functions as an adjective)
Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase functions
as an adjective but now automatically modifies "I," a logical connection)
A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause
improperly:
Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were worried
about our sick cat.
The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although nearly finished"
illogically modifies "we," the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy
way to rectify the problem is to re-insert the subject and verb that are
understood in the elliptical clause:
Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were
worried about our sick cat.
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Building Phrases
The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words
have no grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly, the group "bay
the across" is not a phrase.
You use a phrase to add information to a sentence and it can perform the
functions of a subject, an object, a subject complement or object
complement, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
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PHRASES
Verb Phrases
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for;
therefore, he decided to make something else.
Noun Phrases
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Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or
verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition,
as in the following examples:
Subject
Object of a verb
Object of a preposition
Subject complement
Object complement
Since some verbals -- in particular, the gerund and the infinitive -- can act as
nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase:
However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also take direct
objects and can be modified by adverbs. A gerund phrase or infinitive
phrase, then, is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal, its modifiers (both
adjectives and adverbs), and its objects:
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Running a marathon in the summer is thirsty work.
Adjective Phrases
Similarly in this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts
as an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."
In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle" modifies the
noun phrase "the records."
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Adverb Phrases
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb "went."
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky" functions as a
adverb modifying the verb "flashed."
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts as an adverb
modifying the verb phrase "will meet."
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's feet" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb phrase "were capering."
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CLAUSES
Building Clauses
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one
or more clauses.
Recognizing Clauses
Consider these examples:
Clause
This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows" and the
predicate "eat grass."
Phrase
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This noun phrase could be a subject, but it has no predicate attached to it:
the adjective phrase "eating grass" show which cows the writer is referring
to, but there is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning cows in
the first place.
Clause
This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass" and the
predicate "are visible from the highway" make up a complete thought.
Clause
Run!
Independent
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Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they
are dependent clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same
clause with the subordinating conjunction "because" added to the beginning:
Dependent
In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the
conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing an explanation
for something else. Since this dependent clause answers the question
"when," just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or
simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent
clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the
following examples:
Adverb
Adverb clause
Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for
adjectives.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another
clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of
a verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or
"what?" Consider the following examples:
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Noun
I know Latin.
Noun clause
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb
"know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct
object.
Noun
Noun clause
The question "Where are they going?" with a slight change in word order,
becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit. Like the noun
"destination," the clause is the subject of the verb "is."
This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the
question "about what."
This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers
the question "who will have to pay."
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The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question
"what do the fans hope."
Adjective Clauses
Adjective
Adjective clause
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I
bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note
that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an
adjective usually comes before.
Informal
Formal
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The books that people read were mainly religious.
Informal
Formal
This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question "which
meat."
This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question "which
movie."
They are searching for the one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question "which
one."
The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question "which
author."
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Adverb Clauses
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:
Adverb
Adverb clause
Independent clause
The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the second
cannot. The reader will ask what happened "after they left the locker room".
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the
relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:
Cause
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Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered
Hamlet's father.
Effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would
be avenged.
Time
The adverb clause answers the question "when." Note the change in word
order. An adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part
of the sentence.
Place
Condition
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SENTENCE
The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how
people construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct
correspondence between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech --
the subject of a sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or even
an entire phrase or clause. Like the parts of speech, however, the parts of
the sentence form part of the basic vocabulary of grammar, and it is
important that you take some time to learn and understand them.
Judy {runs}.
To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make
a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled
popcorn.
The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The
audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate
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(which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the
subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn
wrappings and spilled popcorn."
Unusual Sentences
Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to
be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the
true subject will soon follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this
morning.
If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is
"three stray kittens," the correct subject.
Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when
stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject.
Consider the following example:
The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the
subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the
simple subject.
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Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always
the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just
considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb
of the sentence.
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and
admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.
Objects
Direct Object
Direct Object
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The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect
object (which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense,
the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect
object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what?
after it. The answer is the indirect object.
Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following
sentences:
Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed
by objects are called intransitive verbs.
Direct Object
No Direct Object
Did we win?
Subject Complements
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third
kind of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a
linking verb is called not an object, but a subject complement.
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The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become,"
"seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound,"
among others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs,
sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on
how you use them:
Object Complements
In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun
"driver," which is the subject of the sentence.
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Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following
example:
In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but
the adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.
Paint it black.
In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a
sentence of its own using a subject complement: "it is black," "she is out of
order," "the Prime Minister is sleeping."
Building Sentences
You could write an entire essay using only simple sentences like these:
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It is not likely, however, that your essay would receive a passing grade. This
chapter helps you learn to recognise different types of sentences and to use
them effectively in your own writing.
If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will become
much more interesting and your ideas, much clearer. This complex sentence
develops a major, central idea and provides structured background
information:
Since it involves the death not only of the title character but of the entire
royal court, Hamlet is the most extreme of the tragedies written by the
Elizabethan playwrite William Shakespeare.
Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses different types
of sentences in different situations:
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• a periodic sentence will leave the reader in suspense until the very
end;
• a declarative sentence will avoid any special emotional impact;
• an exclamatory sentence, used sparingly, will jolt the reader;
• an interrogative sentence will force the reader to think about what you
are writing;
• an imperative sentence will make it clear that you want the reader to
act right away.
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains
only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word.
E.g.
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both
the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are
simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
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The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts
quickly under the warm March sun.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to
connect them to the surrounding sentences.
E.g.
Simple Simple
= Compound
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Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it
to the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured
pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...
E.g.
There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to
note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a coordinating
conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence
and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-
complex sentence.
1. Compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could
check the contents.
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The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two
originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon
instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:
Simple
Compound
Complex
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In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My
friend invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example
joins them together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction
"but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are
entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the
third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first
clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete,
or a dependent clause.
When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point in
the middle; instead, use one of the positions of emphasis at the beginning
or end of the sentence.
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The Loose Sentence
If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are
writing a loose sentence.
Loose
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada, and the writer makes the point at the very beginning: everything
which follows is simply extra information. When the readers read about the
free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the
comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will already
know that these are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be
more likely to understand the sentence on a first reading.
Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost
always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers
tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. While
a periodic sentence can be useful for making an important point or for a
special dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often
requires readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand
the main point.
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The Periodic Sentence
If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a
periodic sentence.
Periodic
Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime
rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I
am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of
living in Canada.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada. At the beginning of this sentence, the reader does not know what
point the writer is going to make: what about the free health care, cheap
tuition fees, low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and wonderful
winters? The reader has to read all of this information without knowing what
the conclusion will be.
The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing
over the past hundred years, and it has never been common in informal
spoken English (outside of bad political speeches). Still, it is a powerful
rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but
persuasive: even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will
read your evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with
hostile readers, the readers will probably close their minds before
considering any of your evidence.
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The Purpose of a Sentence
E.g.
Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes
me.
Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which path
leads back to the lodge." An indirect question does not make a sentence into
an interrogative sentence -- only a direct question can do that.
E.g.
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Who can read this and not be moved?
Direct/Interrogative
Indirect/Declarative
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The Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is simply a more forceful
version of a declarative sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation
mark.
E.g.
The butler did it!
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please"
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Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic
writing. When you do use an imperative sentence, it should usually contain
only a mild command, and thus, end with a period.
E.g.
PARAGRAPH
Writing Paragraphs
Start with an Outline
A brief outline will make it easier to develop topic sentences and to arrange
your paragraphs in the most effective order.
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You should begin your outline by stating the thesis of your paper.
Next, list the topic sentences for each of the paragraphs (or sections) of the
paper.
You might notice that the topic sentences derive directly from the thesis, and
explain, prove, or expand on each of the thesis' claims.
Once you have an outline at hand, you can follow three steps to help you
write your paragraphs effectively:
1. Use your thesis to help you organise the rest of your paper.
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2. Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that they show how the
material in each paragraph is related to your thesis.
3. Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis and topic
sentences.
A thesis statement:
• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject
matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to
expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an
interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The
subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a
thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that
presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body
of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the
reader of the logic of your interpretation.
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1. A strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand.
Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject.
For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be
asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two
thesis statements:
This is a weak thesis statement. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the
phrase negative and positive aspects is vague.
This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.
Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is
to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example,
you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:
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marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended
family.
Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your
thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse
your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the
paper is about marketing on the Internet or Web pages. To revise the thesis,
the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One
way to revise the thesis would be to write:
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint:
a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like
because, since, so, although, unless, and however.
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4. A strong thesis statement is specific.
A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and
will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you're
writing a seven-to-ten page paper on hunger, you might say:
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, world hunger
can’t be discussed thoroughly in seven to ten pages. Second, many causes
and effects is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and
effects. A revised thesis might look like this:
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Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special
ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.
If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the
paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":
Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on
the menu.
This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the
composition of "forget sauce."
After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any
nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a
disagreeable experience.
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Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic
sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a
special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.
Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis
statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis
statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be
the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis
statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which
follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences
make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.
Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic
sentence itself:
This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the
sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.
These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements
and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus
for the writing which follows.
Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence
makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove
it in some way.
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Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those
preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic
sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.
Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.
Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act
rather like tiny thesis statements.
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Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before
they can work successfully.
Being sedentary seems to inspire others.
Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some
students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets.
Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can
sit and not rise until their task is completed.
Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot
produce anything without much dust and heat.
When these sentences simply combined they would yield nothing but a long
list of facts, not obviously related to one another, except that they all refer to
students and the way we study. There is too much information here to
include in one paragraph. The solution is to develop two topic sentences
under which all (or most) of the above information will fit.
Topic Sentence:
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scrub all surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters
before the distraction of dirt disappears. Some eat or pace while
they work. Some work with deep concentration, others more
fitfully. Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare
blankly at walls or at computer screens.
The rest of the sentences are more specific. They concern the distribution of
individual time, space and effort, and relate the rituals involved in study to
those less commonly associated with school. A possible topic sentence for
the rest of the sentences is underlined in the paragraph below:
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Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs
There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs.
This section will discuss three of the most common types of paragraph
structure: development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process.
Finally, it will suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of
development strategies.
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8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun
rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than
others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is
completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while
others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.
The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be
associated only with school. The rest of the sentences provide various
illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three
categories, “environment, activities, and schedules," enumerated in the topic
sentence. The details provide the concrete examples which your reader will
use to evaluate the credibility of your topic sentence.
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time within the current day. In my home town in New Brunswick,
finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted speed
limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup
trucks, which together account for most vehicles on the road. In
fact, were any observant Canadian dropped from an alien space
vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land,
he or she could almost certainly orient him-or-herself according
to the surrounding traffic patterns.
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into the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The
forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies its own
firmness against the thumb, which should be along the upper
side of the handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. (from
Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly Casting")
The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph
to describe the process of establishing the "grip of the hand on the rod," and
this is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction.
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This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison
and contrast of contemporary notions of "manliness" and "womanliness" with
an extended list of examples.
DICTION
To a friend
"a screw-up"
To a child
"a mistake"
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To the police
"an accident"
To an employer
"an oversight"
All of these expressions mean the same thing. That is, they have the
same denotation -- but you would not likely switch one for the other in any of
these three situations: a police officer or employer would take "screw-up" as
an insult, while your friends at the bar after a hockey game would take
"oversight" as an affectation.
Catch Phrases
When all is said and done, even a little aid can go a long way in a
country suffering from famine.
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A particularly stale catch phrase -- especially one which was once
particularly clever -- is a cliché. In the example given above, the phrase "a
little aid can go a long way" fits into the formula "a little *** can go a long
way," seriously lowers the quality of the writing. Essentially, a cliché is a
catch phrase which can make people groan out loud, but the difference
between the two is not that important. Just remember that neither usually
belongs in your writing.
Here are some more sample clichés and catch phrases from students'
essays:
starving students
in today's world
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There is no simple formula that you can apply to decide what is a
cliché or a catch phrase, but the more you read, the better your sense of
judgement will become. Remember, though if you think that a phrase in your
writing is clever, and you know that someone has used the phrase before,
then you are best rewriting it into your own words.
On the other hand, catch phrases are not appropriate in less technical
areas. Journalists, especially, are under a pressure to produce a large
amount of writing quickly, and those who are less talented or unable to meet
the pressure will often end up writing entire articles made up of over-used
catch phrases like "war-torn Bosnia," "grieving parents," or "besieged
capital."
denotation
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• a literal meaning of the word
connotation
For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation "adult female"
in North American society, but "chick" has somewhat negative connotations,
while "woman" is neutral.
negative
neutral
There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.
positive
All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but they will
invoke different associations in the reader's mind: a "vagrant" is a public
nuisance while a "homeless" person is a worthy object of pity and charity.
Presumably, someone writing an editorial in support of a new shelter would
use the positive form, while someone writing an editorial in support of anti-
loitering laws would use the negative form.
In this case, the dry legal expression "with no fixed address" quite
deliberately avoids most of the positive or negative associations of the other
two terms -- a legal specialist will try to avoid connotative language
altogether when writing legislation, often resorting to archaic Latin or French
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terms which are not a part of ordinary spoken English, and thus, relatively
free of strong emotional associations.
Many of the most obvious changes in the English language over the past few
decades have had to do with the connotations of words which refer to groups
of people. Since the 1950's, words like "Negro" and "crippled" have acquired
strong negative connotations, and have been replaced either by words with
neutral connotations (ie "black," "handicapped") or by words with
deliberately positive connotations (ie "African-Canadian," "differently-able)
SPELLING
Spell checkers will catch some kinds of errors, but not all. For example,
they tend to miss homonyms -- words which are pronounced the same way
but spelled differently, such as site/ sight, there/ their/ they're, and its/ it's.
Most spell-checkers, for example, would report no error in the following
sentence, despite the fact that there are three serious spelling mistakes:
Their looking for a new sight when the gopher can build it's home.
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American spelling for others (connection, tire), and to allow either for yet
more (programme/ program, labour/ labor, neighbour/ neighbor). The
important thing to remember is to be consistent in usage and to follow a
regular pattern when you spell. Don't mix neighbour with labor, for example.
Choose one or the other pattern, and follow it closely. The best way to avoid
problems with mixed British and American spelling is to keep a dictionary
handy that shows Canadian usage.
When the sound is a long "e" (as in feed), write "i" before "e", except after
"c". After "c" reverse the spelling ("ei"):
After c
The problem with this rule is that it works only when "ei"/"ie" sounds like the
"ee" in feet. If it has any other sound, you should write "ei" even after letters
other than "c":
foreign
vein
freight
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Spelling final "y" before a suffix
However, if the suffix already begins with "i", keep the "y" (except before the
suffix "-ize"):
When the ending "y" is preceded by a vowel ("a" "e" "i" "o" or "u"), "y" does
not change to "i":
If a word ends in a consonant followed by a silent "e", drop the "e" before
endings beginning with a vowel, but keep the "e" before endings beginning
with a consonant:
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engage becomes engaging but engagement
Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel if both of
the following are true: the consonant ends a stressed syllable or a one-
syllable word, and the consonant is preceded by a single vowel:
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MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Word Formation
The basic part of any word is the root; to it, you can add a prefix at
the beginning and/or a suffix at the end to change the meaning. For
example, in the word "unflattering," the root is simply "flatter," while the
prefix "un-" makes the word negative, and the suffix "-ing" changes it from a
verb into an adjective (specifically, a participle).
English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many
English words come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can
use the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively. For
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example, the words "prefix," "suffix," and "affix" themselves are all formed
from "fix" by the used of prefixes:
Note that both the "-d" of "ad" and the "-b" of "sub" change the last letter.
Latin
prefix Basic meaning Example words
nonessential, nonmetallic,
non- not nonresident, nonviolence, nonskid,
nonstop
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subhuman, substandard
Latin
suffix Basic meaning Example words
Greek
prefix Basic meaning Example words
opposite;
anti-, ant- anticrime, antipollution, antacid
opposing
life, living
bio-, bi- biology, biophysics, biotechnology, biopsy
organism
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geography, geomagnetism, geophysics,
geo- Earth; geography
geopolitics
excessive,
hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hypersensitive
excessively
thermo-,
heat thermal, thermometer, thermostat
therm-
Greek
suffix Basic meaning Example words
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or recording
-logue,
speech, discourse; to speak monologue, dialogue, travelogue
-log
Apposition
When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the
same part of the sentence, they are in apposition and are called
appositives.
Subject Complement
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My brother is a research associate.
Appositive
Subject Complement
Appositive
Subject
You use the subject case for a noun or pronoun which stands alone, is the
subject of a clause, is the subject complement, or stands in apposition to any
of these.
Object
You use the object case for the object of a preposition, a verb, or a verbal,
or for any noun or pronoun which stands in apposition to one of these.
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Possessive
You use the possessive case for any noun or pronoun which acts an an
adjective, implicitly or explicitly modifying another element in the sentence.
Nouns always take the same form in the subject case and the object case,
while pronouns often change their form. Both nouns and pronouns usually
change their form for the possessive case:
Subject Case
He travelled to Newfoundland.
Object Case
Possessive Case
Singular
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She is concerned about this issue.
Plural
There was a time when you could use the masculine gender by default
when you did not know a person's natural gender, but very few people
accept this usage any longer.
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There are, moreover, a few tricky points. First, you may refer to all animals in
the neuter gender, or you may refer to them by their natural gender:
Neuter
Natural Gender
God is great. God is good. Let us thank her for our food.
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