Methods for Detection and Characterization of Reservoir Rock, Deep Basin Gas Area, Western Canada Robert M. Sneider,* SPE, Sneider and Meckel Assocs. Inc Howard R. King, Canadian Hunter Exploration Lid H. Earl Hawkes, Canadian Hunter Explocation Lid ‘Thomas B. Davis, Canadian Hunter Exploration Lid Summary Major gas reserves have been discovered in the past 5 years in Cretaceous sandstones and conglomerates at depths of 3,000 to 10,000 ft (915 to 3045 m) within Alberta and British Columbia, Canada. Discovery of these new reserves resulted from a joint geological/ petrophysical/reservoir engineering effort that utilized ock/fluid data from cuttings, cores, well logs, and drillstem and production tests. A key element in the ex- ploration search was the rapid detection and characterization of reservoir-rock properties from well cuttings, especially of the low-permeability rocks (1 md to a few microdarcies). The methods used to establish and to characterize the reservoir potential of thick, multi- ple sandstone and conglomerate intervals are illustrated, Rock studies of > 10,000 ft (3045 m) of conventional cores integrated with petrophysical studies of well logs and core analyses, which in tum were compared with drillstem tests (DTS's) and production tests in more than 200 wells, provide the basis for establishing reservoir- rock potential. Porous rocks are subdivided into three categories. Type I rocks are capable of gas production without natural and/or artificial fracturing. ‘Type II rocks are capable of gas production when terbedded with Type I rocks or with natural and/or ar- tificial fracturing. ‘Now wi Reet M, Soci Explorton ine. ‘ores. 24s87030081.0072800 25 (Copyright 1983 Socery of Patleum Enginers ok AME 192, Type III rocks are too tight to produce at commercial ‘fates even with natural or artificial fracturing. Type I rocks are subdivided into four classes, with four air-permeability range A" (> 100 md), “B™ (10 to 100 md), “C" (I to 10 md), and “D" (40.5 to 1 md), Criteria to identify a rock's reservoir potential from well cuttings or conventional and sidewall cores are based on examination of dry, freshly broken fragments with a binocular microscope at 20x magnification. A rock's reservoir potential is established on the basis of estimates of (1) size, volume, and distribution of visible ores, (2) particle size and distribution, and (3) type and amount of cements and pore-filling material and degree ‘of consolidation (the way fragments break). Geologists and engineers can make rapid, accurate estimates of Teservoit-rock potential of unknown porous intervals with the help of a number of visual aids. These aids in- clude (1) plastic trays of cuttings-size rock chips crushed from conventional cores of known rock/pore types. Porosities, and permeabilities; (2) color photographs of freshly broken surfaces of these rock/pore types taken at 20x magnification; and (3) thin-section microphoto- Braphs and scanning electron microscope (SEM) Photographs (at 100 to 5,000x magnification) of the tock chips and their pore casts, Methods and Procedures described in this Paper con- tinue to be used in western Canada as well as the U.S. for delineation of exploration opportunities, identifica: tion of bypassed pays in old wells, interpretation of well logs, and evaluation of intervals for ‘completion.TABLE 1—PORE-TYPE CLA ens SSIFICATION AND DEEP BASIN, CANADA. oe ald Characters of ry Fs Brokon Rock Surecos at” 20% Magoteaton hemars wy Visibie ¢—very abundent dant to Pinpoint every abundant ta” common Pore interconnection i visible on many pores Nesdle probe can easily cislodge some grains from rock surtaes reveal pors. as and Type Vibe «—scatered Ppa abundant commen. a probe con ony ossasonal Gsiotge a yam Won ek sen Type Ith Visibie 6—none to very isolated. Pinpoint @—None to fow, scattered pores, Usually very well consolidated andor pore filed with clays or other pore- filing material. “é=porety, t= parmeahiny. Introduction Integrated geological/petrophysical/reservoir engineer- ing studies have resulted in the discovery of significant volumes of natural gas in Cretaceous sandstones and conglomerates in the Alberta Basin, Canada.'? Although the exact size of the reserves must await defini- tion by continued exploration and development, the more than 400 wells drilled in the past 5 years in the 26,000-sq-mile (67 000-km*) area called the “Deep Basin"’ indicate that ultimate gas reserves will be many times larger than the several trillion cubic feet of gas ac- cepted now as proved reserves. ‘The Cretaceous gas-bearing reservoirs have varied and ‘complex lithology and pore systems. Most of the rocks are cemented and compacted and contain varying amounts of the clay minerals kaolinite, illite. chlorite, ‘and smectite. Because of these clay minerals, some reservoir rock is highly sensitive to drilling and comple- tion fluids. In addition. the pore system of most reservoir rocks is complex because of altered primary macropores, micropores in clays or chert, and secondary pores Geveloped through leaching. Commercial production is from rocks that range in porosity from 5 to 15% and in Permeability from a few microdarcies to more than 10 darcies, The reservoirs are usuaily stimulated artificially {0 obtain oF to improve gas production. Before discovery of the Deep Basin gas reserves in 1975, approximately 95 wells had been drilled complete- ly or partially through the objective Cretaceous section: 193 Reser quality rock fr gas without natural anc areal fracturing (i thick enough). Ay ad “ > 100 1010 100 Ic 11010 0 £05101 Capable of gas production it interlayered with Type | rock, of has natural, open fractures dior is aiicially ractured and is thick enough. kis > $0.07 100.5 101.0 md (Gepending on particle size, Sorting, and clay-mineral content. Usually too tight to produce at ‘commercial rate with natural or artfcial fractures or when lerlayeced with Type | rock. In the search for hydrocarbons, we studied almost all the ‘cores, cuttings, well logs, and DST’s and production tests of these older wells and integrated the rock/Muid data from these studies into regional stratigraphic studies. We found that a thorough understanding of the basic reservoir-rock parameters is a must for correct analysis of the well logs and fluid-flow tests as well as for identifying reservoir rock. A key element in our ex- ploration search is the rapid detection and characteriza~ tion of reservoir-rock properties from well cuttings. The concepts and methods used by Canadian Hunter Ex- ploration Ltd. to detail and to characterize the reservoir potential of thick, multiple sandstone and conglomerates are presented in this paper. General Considerations of Reservoir Rocks ‘The initial porosity, permeability, and pore geometry (pore size, shape, and orientation) of sands are con- tolled in large part by grain-size distribution, Other tex- tural properties such as grain shape, grain onentation, and packing have minor influence on initial porosity and, permeability? Work by Beard and Weyl* and Pryor> hhas shown that initial porosity is dependent almost en- tirely om sorting and is independent of grain size, and that initial permeability is a function of both grain size and sorting, Studies of subsurface reservoir rocks show that cementation, compaction, leaching, and fracturing alter the initial pore space, sometimes drastically. In most subsurface sandstones (¢.g., Elk City field, OK®),TABLE 2—CONSOLIDATION CLASSIFICATION FOR SILICATE-RICH CLASTIC ROCKS: ‘Sample Description _ vidual ‘Sample disaggregates into individ panicles before or after hydrocarbons are removed. ‘Sample easily disaggregates or crumbles Secs Mrate ard into individual particles when rubbed terwcon ngs Moxerate consolidated Sample duaggregats ony ater tubbed vigorously between tinge camps wit pet isaggregate when rubbed vigorously between fingers. FOreePe 0” 12S grote wi cieaggregate te sample into ndwiel partes and smaor Pecos contanng sever! pariles. sample aaaggregates wih gret acu, a amalor proces containing several partis when forcope or so probe is tea Sample wil not disaggregate wih forceps er coe’ A hammer aeaggregates ne Moderately well consolidated Well consolidated Very well consolidated ‘sample into small piece: pieces break across particles, ‘we have found that the grain size and sorting still have a significant control on the porosity, permeability, and ore geometry of the reservoir rocks even though the rocks are cemented and compacted. In socks with low porosity (< 12 to 15%) and low permeability (< 10.0 20 md), detailed petrographic studies by other workers have shown the importance of clays and other fines?" and secondary porosity '* in determining porosity, permeability, pore geometry. fluid saturation, and pro- ductivity. The tighter rocks have pore geometnes that approach the complexities that are typical of carbonate reservoir rocks. !9"!7 In our studies of the geological and petrophysical properties of sandstones and conglomerates in rocks of all ages, at all depths, in most of the hydrocarbon- bearing basins in North America, we find that the con- cepts outlined by Archie! and Teodorovich2® forcar- bbonate rocks are extremely Valuable in interrelating rock and pote properties and physical-chemical properties of clastics. Studies of reservoir rocks by the senior author the past 25 years have shown that most petrophysical properties of sandstones and conglomerates. can be related to (1) grain size and sorting, (2) degree of rock consolidation, (3) volume percent of clays, cements, and other pore-flling materials, and (4) sizes of pores and pore interconnections. ‘We have found that there are a finite number of rock types and corresponding pore geometries (pore types) ‘when considering the pore-space parameters that control fluid flow. We recognize the complexities of size, shape ‘orientation, and continuity of pores in sandstones; however, our experience shows that we can usually make a good estimate of the important petrophysical properties of clastic rocks from the parameters listed here. Pore-Type Classification for Clastic Rocks The simple pore-type classification (Table 1) we use is designed primarily for the wellsite geologist or engineer who looks at rocks in cores and cuttings with a binocular 194 microscope. We divide rocks into three classes (I, Il, and IID on the basis of the type, amount, and distribution of visible and small (pinpoint) pores visible on freshly broken, dry rock surfaces with a binocular microscope at 20 magnification and on the way the rock breaks. In deciding on the pore type(s), we pay particular attention to estimating particle size and sorting, the way the rock breaks apart (consolidation), which is an indication of the degree of a rock's cementation and compaction (see Table 2), the amount (volume) of cements and pore- filling materials and an estimate of visible pores, and the size and distribution of pore throats. We make the estimates of grain size and sorting using standard size- sorting comparators and we estimate volume percentages using the Terry-Chilinger chats made for volume estimates. Consolidation is an arbitrary, but practical scheme (Table 2). Our observations are recorded on a data sheet similar to that in Fig. 1 Figs. 2 and 3 show SEM photographs of typical Pore Types I, Il, and III. We find that in many reservoirs (see Fig. 4) the pore types grade into one another or that more than one pore type is present in a sample. We record the relative percentage of each pore type in the samples described. ‘As demonstrated in the next section, we can usually ‘make reasonably good guesses of permeability of most rocks and therefore have subdivided Type 1 rocks into four subgroups according to air-permeability ranges (1) IA—> 100 md, (2) IB~10 to 100 md, (3) IC—I to 10 md, and (4) ID—+0.5 to 1 md. We cannot overemphasize that all our work involves observing freshly broken, dry rock surfaces (cores, cut- tings, outcrop samples) at 20x magnification. Most of the key rock-pore properties we use are not observable at 10 to 12%, the usual magnification of many binocular microscopes. In practice, the observations we make at 20% are usually confirmed with a ‘quick view" of the Tock at 40 to 60% magnification Methods and aids used to recognize and classify pore types and to estimate permeability are discussed in the next section,SAMPLE DESCRIPTION SHEET FORMATION es Pore | Pantici — FIELD ber] trees | PARTCYE [omrmgieOnsox] kee é WATION| — CEMENTS/PORE FuuNGs | POBOS jnemaRKS 1 mm oPSomuSZ3s5,9 3| cara | suica | cuay lorner r APHEE215 2015 20 5 ale 15. 20 ia TT] TH TT SaRRRRGRae | TT TYTTY HH LL Tt | | ! DESCRIPTION DETAILS Fig. 1—Sample description sheet for cuttings and cores. Aids To Recognize Pore Type and To Estimate Permeability ‘The key to our ability to recognize and classify pore types and estimate permeability is detail studies of a variety of different reservoir rocks made with thin- sections, the SEM, and X-ray diffraction. These rocks ‘ae from conventional core. We compare the rock-pore description derived from these studies with detailed Petrophysical studies and with our binocular microscope description (at 20 to 60x). Fig. 5 shows some of the tests made on whole and plug-size core samples and the steps taken in preparing and calibrating the pore-type ‘comparators. The primary observations made with the binocular microscope (at 20x) on the core samples are grain Size Sorting, consolidation, and volume and distribution of cements, pore-filling material, visible pores, and pore throats. We compare these with observations from thin- Sections, photomicrographs of thin-sections, SEM Photographs (at magnifications up to 5.000%) of the eck itself, and plastic replicas (pore casts) of the pore Spice. Next, we compare all these rock-pore observ ons with the various petrophysical analyses. especially Porosity and permeability (measured unstressed and der stress). The calibration of pore ark Betrophysical parameters on the same samples is of fan. 'ntal importance in learning how {0 ‘estimate pore 'Ypes and permeability from chips or plugs of rock. 195 We have established a reference collection of rock- pore petrophysical properties for typical reservoir rocks for the Alberta Deep formations. In new basins or forma- tions where we have no core—that is, where there are on- ly cuttings, we examine the cutting, decide what rock and pore type may be present, and pick reference rocks from basins where we think we have similar rock-pore types. For example, when we first studied the Cretaceous Falher sandstones and conglomerates in the area that now contains the giant Elmworth field, we used the Pennsylvanian sandstones and conglomerates from the Anadarko basin, OK,® for calibration until cores were cut in the Falher. Fig. 4 shows a crossplot of porosity vs. permeability (corrected for Klinkenberg ef- fect) for these sandstones and conglomerates. In this giant Oklahoma oil field, we found that porosity, permeability, and pore geometry are related to grain size and sorting, cementation and compaction, consolidation and the amount of pore-filling clays. To set up our rock-pore type calibration for the 15 Cretaceous reservoir units in the Alberta basin, we ex- amined more than 10,000 ft (3045 m) of conventional core in more than 200 wells. Over half the core was specifically taken by Hunter to obtain new petrophysical parameters, as well as t0 provide stratigraphic and depositional environmental information to define plays and prospects and for development drilling. To deter- ‘mine the characteristics of the pore types of intervals thatTe gst ey e127 md re onion Hats Fig. 2—SEM photographs of Pore Types 1A. 18,1, and 1 will or will not produce, the critical step is to compare (i) the rock properties observed with a binocular {icroscope (at 20%) aided with petrographic and SEM Studies with (2) petrophysical properties established from well logs and cores, which in turn are compared with (3) drillstem and production tests of the intervals of interest, It is essential to know why a rock (pore) type ‘will or will not produce and what stimulation techniques ‘might be useful to obtain of to improve productivity Useful Visual Aids With some practice and the use of aids described in this section, geologists and engineers can make rapid. ac- curate estimates of reservoir-rock potential of “unknown’” intervals from the binocular examination of cuttings. Permeability-plug-size core samples are cut for a variety of petrophysical tests from whole cores of known porosity and permeability (see Fig. 5). The end pieces of these plugs are used for thin-section, SEM, and X-ray alysis to study texture, mineralogy. and pore structure. Representative permeability plugs of typical rock-pore types are then selected and crushed and sieved to obtain “simulated cuttings.”* These cuttings are examined, and samples that represent the desired pore types are hand- picked and mounted into comparator trays (Fig. 6). In addition, for most comparators we have a calibration set (see Fig. iy tat the geologist and engineer can ex- amine simulated cuttings as well as a polished and freshly broken surface of the original vod BY combin- bn oer ee calibration sets or com- th photographs of the rock-pore type t (1) freshly broken rock surface at 30%. @) tht a at 32 (also at 125%), (3) the rock surface with the ‘SEM at 100 to 5,000x, and (4) replicas of the pores (pore casts), one can leam to estimate pore types. By comparing unknown cuttings with similar pore types of known porosity and permeability in appropriate com- Parators, one can estimate the permeability of the unknowns. With reasonable practice, one can become very proficient in estimating both porosity and permeability of rock chips. Fig. 8 is a sample page for fer soa 01 op Fig. 3-SEM photographs of Pore Types 10,1, and an PENNSYLVANIA aa SANDSTONES “ : ‘AND S 1000; 100) 10| 1.0) 04 GAS PERMEABILITY ~ MILLIDARCIES 0.01) Fig. 4—Porosityipermeability crossplot showing pore 09% ‘of Pennsylvanian sandstones and conglomersis Elk City field, OK.WHOLE CORE ANALYSES POROSITY (¢), PERMEABILITY (k), SATURATION (5), JMODULUS TESTS CONVENTIONAL PLUG ANALYSES (PLUG CUT FROM WHOLE CORE) |, k (STRESSED AND UNSTRESSED), |CAPILLARY PRESSURE, FORMATION FACTOR, CATION EXCHANGE, RELATIVE PERM, ACOUSTIC TESTS, | WATER SENSITIVITY PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSES THIN SECTIONS, X-RAY AND ROX, ‘SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE COMPARATOR PREPARATION PLUGS SELECTED & CRUSHED, PARTICLES SIEVED, PORE-TYPE SAMPLES SELECTED, ‘SAMPLES MOUNTED i Y QO Fig. 5—Laboratory tests, measurements, and procedures for preparing and calibrating pore type comparators IA Ia ma MW 6 1% Fig. 8—Pore-type 1380 2710 41.3 16.6 2.29 1 16.9 12-6 1937 comparators for heee Alberta basin producing formations. 197 RISRATINAWEVve1-3 1B KISKATINAW $211.0% k= 47.7 md FRESHLY ‘BROKEN. SURFACE SEM, PHOTO 00x Fig. 7—Pore-rock-type calibration sample, Kiskatinaw forma- tion, Alberta the rock-pore type comparator set shown in Fig. 7 and Pore Type IB of the topmost comparator in Fig. 6. As many workers’“!213:18122 have found previously. we have found the SEM examination of rock surfaces and plastic replicas of the pores (pore casts) invaluable in understanding pore geometry and the type and distribu- tion of clays and other pore-filling material Special Pore Type Problems When working with cuttings, we find that three rock types present difficult evaluation problems. These are conglomerates, very shaly or clay-mineral rich sand- stones, and rocks with abundant microporosity within clay-mineral aggregates or microporous chert. Fragments of gravel-size particles develop as the rillbit cuts through a conglomerate. The cuttings that result rarely show any pores. Careful attention must be as lesen eae par- 300, 09, micRONS MiERONS Fig. 8-Photographs ilustrating pore structure of a Kiskatinaw 16 pore type: (A) freshly broken surface at 20X, (B) thin-section, (C) SEM view, and (0) SEM view of pore cast. A and B are color photographs, raph of pore cast showing Kiskatinaw sandstone, Elmvo:tSAMPLE, LOG AND DST/PRODUCTION TEST "1058 OST ©: RECOVERED 200 FT SLIGNTLY GAS CUT MUO] 19 = 366 Po orsie= eer’ SAMPLES: ‘S.LP, INDICATED SOME CLEANING UP 40-60% TYPE MMGF/D (AFTER ACID-FRAC)) Fig. 10—Logs, sample data, and DST's and production tests, Example 1, Alberta basin, Canada. with careful study. Putting fresh water on cuttings and seeing how the clays respond helps us to evaluate the in- fluence of clays on the pore system and thus arrive at some basis for assigning a pore type. Most clay-rich, fine-grained sandstones usually are Type II rocks. “Microporosity of cherts and clay aggregates (Fig. 9) is, another evaluation problem.”° We believe that using 20x magnification enables us to “‘see’* a lot of particles that have secondary porosity. Using binocular microscopes that can view rocks with 40 to 60x magnification, we believe we can make reasonable estimates of the volume of secondary pores. Study of pore casts (Fig. 9) helps us to recognize and evaluate microporosity better. Tn cuttings samples composed mostly of loose grains, one is faced with the decision of whether or not the loose grains represent (1) unconsolidated or loosely con- solidated sands or sandstones (Type 1), (2) rocks that have abundant clays that full apart when exposed to drill- ing fluids, or (3) rocks that “‘explode’’ apart when ‘brought to or near the surface. We know of no easy way to tell consistently why a sample contains loose grains. Examination of grain surfaces sometimes is a clue to the origin of loose “‘grain’” cuttings. Applications ‘Three examples illustrate the use of the concepts and methods discussed here. Example 1 Well c-69-J, 94-B-16 is a dry hole examined in our regional hydrocarbon search in 1975. This well (Fig. 10), originally drilled in 1958, was drillstem tested through the Halfway zone that was also partially cored. The DST recovered only 200 ft (61 m) of gas-cut mud, and the buildup and the shut-in pressures indicated little permeability or extreme formation damage. Analysis of. the conventional core of the zone showed relatively low porosity and permeability. However, sample examina- tion of the cuttings of the entire zone showed some ID Cd EE EURE mous commenss ‘18 Day eLivenasuiTy Test! (Arter $0,000 L2 SAND FRAC) | Skim Fig. 11—Loge, sample data, and ST's and prosucton 199 ‘wat RATE = 100,000 ERGG Sinan G73 mse 3? ‘SAMPLE, LOG, AND DST/PRODUCTION DATA DRILLING BREAK: $18 ET) Peron TYPE LWITH 9 = 14% / 220s THe MTH'§ = 10% mar ai bag nate: 2045.n2/0,(101 MCF/O] TEAST aAS Sie oF cas cur MUD Mike agntm omer Bh eario = 3 oat or 10 2/0 (400 MCF/D) 20 toc evat: 3 ventas tess Doivaaam 14 Fn 2/0 (9.8 MMCF/D) tests, Example 2, Alberta basin, Canada.Sa aS TEESE IAEA gqure, 100, AND O8T/PRODUCTION DATA| ou - sb0 300° Fig. 12—Logs, sample data, and DST's and production tests, Example 3, Alberta basin, Canada. pore types throughout. Our log analysis, which was calibrated with the sample and core data, suggested that the halfway zone contained the commercial pay zone of about 46 ft (14 m), with some conventional reservoir rock. The 1958 well was re-entered in 1975, and the zone was acid fractured with 1,500 gal (5.7 m?) of 15% NCA acid and 60,000 Ibm (27 216 kg) sand. The well was completed with an absolute open flow of 4.6 ‘MMefiD (130,000 m3/d) gas and has already produced several billion cubic feet of gas at an average daily rate of 1.34 MMcf/D (40,000 m4/d). The presence of some ‘Type ID rock in the cuttings was an essential clue to in- dicating the presence of conventional reservoir rock. ‘This well discovered the Town field and gave us a calibration point to continue our search for new Halfway ‘opportunities. Example 2 ‘The Cretaceous Notikewan marine sand is generally rich in pore-filling clays. Most of the rock is Types II and IIL, and the few attempts to establish gas production in this, formation have been unsuccessful. Examination at the welisite of cuttings of a recent well (Fig. 11) showed loose grains and some Type ID rock in an interval cor- responding to a drilling break. The wellsite geologist Adnilistem-tested the interval containing the drilling break: the results are shown in Fig. 11. The “'gas show" from the DST. together with encouraging pore types in samples and some log-calculated pay. suggested a com- pletion attempt. The interval of indicated pay was frac- tured with 50,000 Ibm (22 680 kg) sand with KCI water, Oz. and methanol. The zone flowed 3.5 MMcf/D 100 000 m3/d) gas on a 16-day deliverability test. Other Notkewan zones have been flagged for testing on the basis of a re-examination of cuttings in other Wells and the encouraging results of this well Example 3 In the well shown in Fig. 12, log analysis indicated a possible thin {2.3-ft (0.7-m)} pay zone in an interval 66 wet (06 ROEK SAMPLE EVALUATION. tie ow | [ RCeRS "EVALUATION. Evatuarion | | EvALUATION [EXPLORATION & DEVEL OomenT| ‘OPPORTUNITIES. (Ne TEABLORATION & DEVELOPMENT| ‘OPPORTUNITIES Fig. 13-Value of integrated geologicallpetrophysicalipetro- leum engineering studies ft (20 m) thick that has a small amount of Type ID rock. ‘The formation in the interval 9,219 to 9,282.5 ft (2810 to 2830 m) is usually a well-consolidated, shaly marine sand, The coincidence of a log show. a minor dniling break, and some Type ID rock suggested the interval in this exploratory well should be production tested. No DST was run during drilling Intervals 9,216 t0 9.226 ft (2809 to 2812 m) and 9,252 10 9,259 ft (2820 to 2822 m) were perforated and frac ‘tured with 50,000 Ibm (22 680 kg) sand with KCI water, methanol, and CO2. After a long cleanup period, the well flowed 1.04 MMct/) (22 680 kg) on a J-in. (22-mm) choke. A re-cxamination of the samples and logs of the same formation in other wells in the area have shown that several better completion intervals are possi- ble. One well has been completed already for 1.86 MMcf/D (52 270 m3/d) at 2960 kPa (429 psi) ona '4-in, (7.59-mm) choke after fracture treatment. Conclusions We have found it very useful to classify sandstones and conglomerates into. pore types for the purpore ofpermeability. Inegration Of rock-pore-type data with laborato petrophysical data, log-derived dat - resulted in the discovery of major now cee Bas major new reserve believe thatthe concepts and methods we use wexe Ve more efficient and effective delineation of mere tech ein na well-log interpretation, and identification and evaluation of completion intervals. Fig. 13 expresses our view of the value of continued integration of geologic “and petroleum engineering data in exploration and develop- ment. We have found that continued incorporation of petroleum-engineering data and ideas into exploration is an essential ingredient in successful ventures. Acknowledgments We thank J.A. Masters and J.K. Gray of Canadian Hunter Exploration Ltd. for permission to present and publish this paper. We also thank our colleagues D.A. Provias, N.D. Sullivan, and R.E. Wyman for their assistance, Our laboratory work in Canada could not have been successful without the assistance of A.H Shepard and his staff at the Alberta Energy Resource Conservation Board who made thousands of feet of core available for study. J.W. Neasham and R.E. Tompkins of Reservoirs Inc. did the SEM, pore cast, X-ray diffrac- tion, and petrographic analyses. Special acknowledgment is given to the late G.E. Ar- chie who introduced the senior author to the study of pore structure of rocks and its influence on hydrocarbon entrapment, production, and evaluation. Nomenclature Ids = permeability-thickness product, md-ft References 1. Masters, J.A.: “Deep Basin Gas Trap, Wester Canads,” Bul, AAPG (Feb. 1979) 63, 152-81. 2. 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SI Metric Conversion Factors cu ft x 2.831 685 E-02 = m> ft x 3.048 E-0l =m in. x 2.54* E+0l = mm Ibm X 4.535 924 E-O1 = kg micron x 1.0* E-06 =m psi X 6.894757 E+00 = kPa sqft x 9.290 304" E02 = m? “Conversion factors exact Jet manaciteovadin Sct Pelum Ergnees ce 2.1981 Sees stesso Reve arc ewes ute et cer or et pasting hit SPE hon Tocca Co 1eeeca the Gaver pein San Aone 7