2016 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM)

Banff, Alberta, Canada, July 1215, 2016

Strain Field Sensing and Reconstruction for a Thin-wall Plate

Man Yu1, Jiajie Guo1*, IEEE/ASME Member, and Kok-Meng Lee1,2*, Fellow, IEEE/ASME
experimental measurements and a numerical model of a
rectangular plate, where accurate results were obtained via
time-consuming iteration that limits the algorithm to offline
applications. Modal expansion techniques were successfully
implemented to reconstruct distributed field information with
improved calculation efficiency. For control and monitoring
applications, mode shapes have been used to obtain strain and
displacement distributions by measuring strains at selected
locations [6]. Global dynamic strains in a wind turbine were
extracted by integrating a finite element model with a
photogrammetric approach [7], where many optical sensors
and modes were used to guarantee reconstruction accuracy.
Different physical fields can be reconstructed with various
kinds of sensing techniques, such as optical sensors [7],
accelerometers [8], strain gauge network [9]. But these
attached/contact sensing approaches were not applicable to the
machining process because of the material removal and
workpiece rotation. Advanced 3D image correlation
photogrammetry has been used to obtain full-field dynamic
displacement and strain in [10], and a CCD camera was used
in [11] to capture the deformation for computing strain, stress
and force. However, vision based methods are susceptible to
illumination thus unreliable in the presence of cutting chips
and coolant.

AbstractDeformation and vibration of thin-wall workpieces

during machining could induce residual stresses in the final
products, which makes real-time monitoring of the strain field
critical to optimizing machining process and minimizing
workpiece stresses. However, traditional methods based on
strain-gauge measurements are inapplicable because materials
are removed during machining. Illustrated in the context of
duplex lathe-turning that offers an effective means to reduce
some unbalanced cutting forces, this paper presents a
non-contact sensing method to reconstruct the continuous strain
fields of a thin-wall workpiece under external time-varying
cutting and clamping loads. This proposed method based on the
linear combination of mode shapes obtained offline for online
updating has been numerically verified against finite element
analysis; both static and dynamic conditions are considered.
Experiment results confirm that the method is effective in
capturing the dynamic behaviors in practice.

I. INTRODUCTION
Machining complex thin-wall components (such as
compressor disks and casings in aircraft engines) has been a
challenging task because workpiece deformation and vibration
not only compromise the surface integrity but also induce
residual stresses in the final products. National development
strategies [1, 2] have targeted at intelligent equipment capable
of autonomous tuning of process parameters during
manufacturing for high quality products, where process
monitoring is one of the critical featured functions [3]. Among
the technical challenges to achieve high product-quality is the
lack of an effective sensing method to reconstruct the strain
fields in the workpiece during machining. Motivated by the
need for a practical method to reconstruct time-varying fields
from finite number of sensing nodes, this paper proposes a
non-contact sensing method that uses physics-based models to
capture the continuous strain fields when machining thin-wall
components which deform continuously under external
time-varying (cutting and clamping) loads.
Several approaches have been developed to obtain
spatially distributed displacement and strain fields of
continuous deformations. The inverse finite element method
(iFEM) was presented to obtain the deformed shapes of plates
and shells [4] by fitting the numerous measured data with the
finite element model. The confluence algorithm was proposed
[5] to obtain the dynamic displacement field using
This research was supported by the National Basic Research Program of
China (973 Program, Grant No. 2013CB035803), National Nature Science
Foundation of China under Grant 51505164, and the Guangdong Innovative
Research Team Program (Grant No.2011G006).
Man Yu, Jiajie Guo and Kok-Meng Lee are with the State Key Lab. of Dig.
Manuf. and Equip. Tech., and Sch. of Mech. Sci. and Eng. at Huazhong Univ.
of Sci. and Tech., Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, P.R.China. K.-M. Lee is currently
on leave from the Woodruff Sch. of Mech. Eng. at Georgia Inst. of Tech.,
Atlanta, GA 30332-0405 USA
*Corresponding authors: Jiajie Guo (jiajie.guo@hust.edu.cn) and
Kok-Meng Lee (kokmeng.lee@me.gatech.edu)
978-1-5090-2065-2/16/$31.00 2016 IEEE

788

Most existing field-reconstruction methods require tedious

computation and demanding hardware resources, thus fail to
meet the real-time requirement for machining process
monitoring. This paper offers a noncontact sensing method
that takes advantages of physics-based models to reconstruct
strain fields of a thin-wall compressor disk. This method is
illustrated in the context of duplex lathe-turning that offers an
effective means to reduce unbalanced cutting forces. The
reconstruction of strains across a thin-wall component
featured with distributed deformation and vibration is
formulated with the mode superposition method that was used
for displacement field reconstruction in [12]. The reminder of
this paper offers the following:
Based on previous works on modal analysis in [13] and the
displacement field reconstruction (DFR) method in [12],
the strain field reconstruction (SFR) method is proposed
and formulated by assuming that dynamic behaviors can be
characterized by the linear combination of mode shapes.
Displacement and strain mode shapes are obtained offline
and superposition coefficients used for reconstruction are
updated online via real time measurements.
Displacement and strain fields are reconstructed and
compared against the simulated results from finite element
analysis (FEA), where an annular plate is subjected to
external loads in both static and dynamic conditions.
By comparing the reconstructed results and measured data,
the proposed SFR method is validated in experiment.

 nm

RR
= Z n 2 + R / R 2 .
(5)
(

nm
nm )

2
R nm
n( nm R nm ) / R
In (5), RR and are the normal strain mode functions along
the radial and tangential directions, and R is the shear strain
mode function. The phase shift of /2 in the third component
of nm is due to the first order derivative with and it can be
treated as rotation of the overall mode shape by /2n as
combined into the angular part in (4). If z is given, all strain
mode functions are solely defined by the radial information
including n, R, nm(R) and its derivatives. The strain mode
functions can be calculated from (5) once nm is obtained via
the modal analysis in [13]; and one displacement mode shape
gives rise to three strain mode shapes. It is noted that (4) can
be expressed in real components as

II. FORMULATION OF STRAIN FIELD RECONSTRUCTION

An annular thin-wall plate (outer radius a, inner radius b,
and thickness h) is schematically shown in Fig. 1, where the
cylindrical reference frame [er e ez] locates at the plate center
with the normal vector denoted by ez and the referenced
mid-surface spanned by the curvilinear axes (er and e). As h is
very small compared with a, deformation of the thin-wall plate
is dominated by the out-of-plane displacement w and the plane
strain state is assumed with components of rr, and r.
ez

dr

rd
rr

dh

er

rr

Fig. 1 An element in a thin-wall plate.

A. Strain Mode Shape

Based on previous work on displacement field
reconstruction [12], the displacement w can be decoupled into
linear combination of mode shapes:

B. Algorithm of Field Reconstruction

A time-varying physical field P can be decoupled into a
product of components in the time and spatial domains via
separation of variables:
+ +

p
P ( , R , ) = nm
( R )[ nm ( ) cos( n ) + nm ( ) sin( n )]
n =0 m= 0

P ( , R , ) =
=

p
nm

( R )[ nm ( ) cos( n ) + nm ( ) sin( n )]

(8)

( ) cj ( R , ) + j ( ) sj ( R , )]

j =1

p
p
where ( R , ) = nm
( R ) cos( n ), sj ( R , ) = nm
( R )sin( n ).

Monitoring the physical quantity at N different locations Rj =

(Rj, j), j = 1, 2, , N, nm and nm can be obtained as

a = (S T S ) 1 S T W
(9)
T
T
where P = P ( , R 1 ), , P ( , R N ) , a (t ) = (t ) (t ) ,
T

( t ) = 1 , 2 , , K , ( t ) = 1 , 2 , , K , S = S c S s ,

1i ( R 1 )
i
(R )
Si = 1 2

i
1 ( R N )

i2 ( R 1 )

(R 2 )

i
2

i2 ( R N )

iK ( R 1 )

iK ( R 2 )
, i = c , s.

iK ( R N )

Using N measurements and K modes for reconstruction,

there are N knowns (organized in the N1 vector P ) and 2K
unknowns (the 2K1 vector a) to be determined. With the
calculated coefficient a, the physical field across the plate can
be retrieved using (8).
Besides the direct differentiation of displacement in (2),
strain distributions can also be obtained from (6) or (7) where
the coefficients are calculated using (9) based on strain

(4)

n=0 m=0

nm

km

c
j

(3a~g)

kn

n =0 m= 0

+ +

(7)

p
where nm
is the mode shape along the radius, nm and nm
are the time-varying coefficients. Taking the lowest
K(=knkm) mode shapes, n = 0, 1, , kn and m = 0, 1, , km
for example, the actual quantity can be approximated as

Substituting (1) into (2) gives rise to the mode

superposition for strains which is normalized as

where = [ RR , , R ] , nm ( R) = RR , , e j / 2 R

(6)

+/2n for r; nm and nm are the time-varying coefficients to

be determined.

( , R, ) = anm ( ) nm ( R)e jn

( R )[ nm ( ) cos( n ) + nm ( ) sin( n )]
T

n =0 m=0

R
W
Z
F 1 a h
=
=
= 1,
= , = ,
r /a w/h z/h
F Eh a
hcw
= = 2 where cw = E / [12 (1 2 )]
t
a

nm

where nm ( R) = [ RR , , R ]nm ; = for rr and , =

(1)

where t is the time, n is the nodal radius, m is the nodal circle;

nm is the mode shape function along the radius; and anm is the
time-varying coefficients. As the workpiece under machining
is subjected to small deformations which is dominated by the
out-of-plane displacement w, the strains are given as
wrr
rr

= z w + rw / r 2
(2)
r)

(

r
2(rwr w ) / r 2
where rr and are the normal strains along the radial and
tangential directions, and r is the shear strain; z is the
distance from the referenced mid-surface; the subscripts on the
right denote the partial derivatives of w with respect to the
corresponding variable. Strain fields can be calculated using
(2) once the displacement is reconstructed with non-contact
sensing methods, such as eddy current or laser displacement
sensors [12]. However, differentiation in (2) increases sensing
noises and involves tedious numerical calculations hence is
not suitable for online applications.
To facilitate the analysis for workpiece of various
materials and dimensions, the above equations are normalized
using the rules (3a~g) where , E and are the density, elastic
modulus and Poisson ratio of the material:

n=0 m =0

+ +

w(t , r , ) = anm (t ) nm ( r )e jn

and

789

measurements at finite number of discrete locations. This

approach is an immediate application of the general
reconstruction algorithm for strain sensing; however, it is
almost impractical as it requires strain sensors to be wireless
and properly embedded as the workpiece is lathe cut.
C. Strain Field Reconstruction
With the strain mode shapes and the reconstruction
algorithm formulated in previous sections, an indirect
approach is employed to reconstruct the strain distributions
with (6) where the coefficients are determined from
displacement measurements using (9). In other words, the
superposition coefficients for strains are the same as those for
the displacement. This argument is justified by the derivation
from (1) to (4). The detailed procedure for strain
reconstruction is listed in Table I.

and the reconstructed fields are compared against the

simulated results in FEA.
Numerical dynamic analysis: To illustrate the efficiency of the
reconstruction algorithm to capture fast time-varying
dynamics, free vibration of the plate is intrigued by a step
change from an initial deformation and the simulation is
carried out with zero damping. The displacement and strains
are reconstructed at another node (circular marker) besides
the sensing nodes for illustration.
Flexible plate
Servo motor

a
er

Linear
motion
platform

TABLE I. STEPS FOR STRAIN RECONSTRUCTION.

ez
Machine tools

1. Obtain the mode functions nm of a workpiece from modal analysis for

a given fixture configuration.
2. Differentiate nms to obtain corresponding strain mode functions

nm with (5).

at discrete locations Ri = (Ri, i),

3. Measure the nodal displacement W
i = 1, 2, , N across the flexible part surface.
4. Obtain the superposition coefficients nms and nms from (9).
5. Substitute nms and nms into (6) to obtain the strain fields.

Fig. 2 Duplex machining of a compressor disk.

TABLE II. VALUES OF PARAMETERS IN SIMULATION.
Material properties
Aluminium 1060
Steel 304
TC4
Density (, g/cm3)
2.7
8.0
4.43
Elastic modulus (E, GPa)
70
200
113
Poisson ratio ()
0.35
0.29
0.34
Outer radius
Inner radius
Thickness
Workpiece
dimensions
a = 150 mm
b = 40 mm
h = 1 mm
r (mm)
(degree)
Free
80
6

100
15
Fixed
110
345
=0
120
30

130
330
Reconstruction
140
45
Measurement
150
0
Input force

It is noted that Steps 1 and 2 in Table I are carried out

offline and those mode functions are stored in a database, thus
their time cost would not affect the efficiency of online
reconstruction. The noises introduced by the differentiation in
(5) can be minimized within sensing tolerance using numerical
filters in advance. As workpiece geometry changes during
cutting process, all mode shapes are normalized according to
(3) while the actual field information can be retrieved by
multiplying a normalization factor. Although the strains are
derived from the displacement in (2) and the coefficients nms
and nms are calculated based on nodal displacement data,
strain field sensing does not require to obtain the whole
displacement field beforehand. In the following,
reconstruction results from the indirect approach are presented
and discussed for strain field sensing.

TABLE III. EXPERIMENT SETUP.

Front view
Strain gauges
I II

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The proposed method is numerically illustrated by
reconstructing the distributed strains of an annular plate using
the parametric values listed in Table II. The reconstructed
results are compared against FEA which serves as a basis for
numerical validation. The proposed method and related
analysis is experimentally evaluated on the duplex machine as
shown in Fig. 2.

Micrometer

Linear stages

The following investigations were conducted:

Numerical modal analysis: The strain and displacement mode
shapes are numerically calculated. An impulse response of
the flexible plate is obtained with an impact hammer and its
frequency spectrum is analyzed to justify reduction in the
number of modes for subsequent reconstruction.
Numerical static analysis: An annular plate subjected to a
concentrated force fz (=0.0045, equivalent to 10N for an
Al6016 plate) at the free edge (cross marker) is simulated in
FEA. Strain fields are reconstructed based on the simulated
displacements at selected nodes (square markers) from FEA,

Back view
Plate

Laser

EddyLaser sensor current

Gauge I

r (mm) (degree)
133
20
100

339

132

344

106

28

80

Eddy-current
Gauge II
100
sensors
Micrometer 150

0
0

Experimental vibration test: A step response experiment was

conducted to validate the proposed method capable of
capturing field dynamics with damping in practice. The
experimental setup is shown in Table III where the
Aluminum thin-wall plate (see Table II) was fixed at the
inner edge and free at the outer edge. Initial deflection was
obtained by pushing the micrometer against the plate surface
and a step input was intrigued by a sudden release of the
micrometer via the linear stages. Two uniaxial strain gauges
were mounted on the plate surface to measure the normal
strains; the first gauge was aligned with the circumferential
direction and the second one was along the radial direction
790

to measure and rr, respectively. As shown in Fig. 4(d)

that r is zero along the cutting trajectory (=0) which is of
the most interest, experiment result of r is not included in
this paper. Three eddy-current sensors and a laser sensor
were employed to measure the nodal displacements.
Specifications of the sensors are listed in Table IV.

cantilever beam under transverse loads. The tangential normal

strain is zero at the fixed edge, and there is tensile strain
along two radii and compressive strain around the loading on
the plate bottom surface (z=h/2). Both rr and are
symmetric while is antisymmetric with the radius = 0.
After multiplying the normalizing factor h2/a2, the maximum
error of reconstructed strains is on the order of 10-5 when the
largest strain is about 10-4. This 10% error is much larger than
that of the reconstructed displacement (estimated as 1%)
shown in Fig. 4(e), because the strains are indirectly sensed
based on displacement measurements.

TABLE IV. SPECIFICATIONS OF SENSORS.

Eddy-current Sensor (CWY-DO- 20XLT08-M10)
Installation
Performance
Diameter (mm)
8 Response (kHz)
10
Standoff (mm)
0.5 Range (mm)
2
Input (Vdc)
-24 Resolution (m)
0.1
Output (Vdc)
-18 to -2 Linearity (%FS)
1
Temp. stability (%FSR/C)
0.04
Laser Displacement Sensor (Keyence LK-H025)
Installation
Performance
Ref. distance (mm)
20 Sampling rate (kHz)
2
Spot diameter (m)
251400 Range (mm)
3
Wavelength (nm)
655 Repeatability (m)
0.02
Output (mW)
4.8 Linearity (%FS)
0.02
Temp. stability (%FSR/C)
0.01
Strain Gauge (BFH350-1AA-S)
Installation
Performance
Gauge pattern
uniaxial Gauge resistance ()
350
Base diameter (mm)
3.63.1 Gauge factor (mV/V)
21%
Gauge length (mm)
1.02.0 Mechanical hysteresis (m/m) 1.2
Range
0.01

w (mm)

0.2
0
-0.2

Magnitude

4
T ime (s)

100
50
0

50

100
150
200
Frequency (Hz)

250

300

Fig. 3 FFT of vibration measurement

A. Strain mode shapes

The lowest strain mode shapes obtained using (4) are listed
in together with the displacement mode shapes. It can be seen
that one displacement mode shape produces three different
strain mode shapes. Figure 3 shows an impulse response of the
plate captured by an eddy current displacement sensor in
experiment and the frequency spectrum obtained with FFT of
the measured data, which indicates the plate dynamics is
dominated by the lowest vibration modes. So the infinite
summation in (6) and (7) can be approximated by
superposition of the lowest three mode shapes in the following
to reconstruct the displacement and strain fields.

C. Dynamic field reconstruction

As shown in Fig. 5, the proposed reconstruction method is
capable to track the time-varying strains and displacement
closely as the plate is subjected to free vibration. It is also
observed that all strains vary with multiple modes similar to
the displacement, justifying the introduction of strain mode
shapes and mode superposition in the formulation.
D. Experimental validation
Strains and displacement reconstructed from the
measurements of eddy-current sensors are compared with the
data collected by the strain gauges and laser sensor for
validation purpose. Due to the limited number of sensors, two
mode shapes of the lowest orders were used for reconstruction;
corresponding superposition coefficients were calculated at
the sampling rate of 1000Hz. Figure 6 shows the reconstructed
normal strains at two different locations on the referenced
radius (=0) compared with data collected by the strain
gauges. The transient responses of both rr and are closely
tracked by the proposed method, validating the mode
superposition approach and related algorithm in the case of
damped vibration. It is also shown the amplitude of
reconstructed is generally larger than that of gauge
measurements. This sensing error could come from the
amplifying factor and installation of strain gauges, as well as
the signal-noise-ratio of the whole data acquisition system.
Figure 7 compares the reconstructed displacement with the
measurements by the laser sensor. The displacement was
reconstructed without extra efforts but its sensing precision is
higher than that of the strains, because the superposition
coefficients are calculated based on displacement
measurements in Table I.

TABLE V. MODE SHAPES.

Mode

RR

(0, 0)

(1, 0)

(2, 0)

(3, 0)

B. Static field reconstruction

Figure 4(a) shows the deformed shape of the plate due to a
transverse force applied at the free edge. The strains vanish for
negligible deformed displacements where it is far away from
the loading point. Thus the strains are shown in the sector area
-50 50 close to the loading in Fig. 4(b-d) together with
errors compared against FEA results. The radial normal strain
rr achieves its maximum at the fixed inner edge while is zero
at the free edge, which is similar to the normal strain along a
791

50

Free edge

calculations are involved in the algorithm. Its features are

further highlighted and discussed in the following:
Simple implementation: The proposed method, which obtains
strain fields from nodal displacements using off-the-shelf
eddy-current displacement sensors, overcomes limitations of
existing approaches that rely on strain sensors or machine
vision. Although modal analysis assumes zero damping and
no damping coefficients are explicitly expressed in (6), the
reconstruction method is capable to capture dynamic
behaviors with non-zero damping, because the superposition
coefficients actually account for damping effects when these
time-varying coefficients are determined by measurements
in practice.
High efficiency: The proposed method captures strain field
dynamics in real time with simple algebra calculations
characterized by reconstruction cycle-time of 60 s (on a
computer with 3.3GHz Intel i5 CPU and 8GB RAM). This
sensing rate is fast enough to capture general structural
dynamics, so the field dynamics can be discretized in the
time domain, and the displacement and strain fields were
obtained quasi-statically at each time instance.
Sensing precision: Incorporating more strain modes would
provide more precise reconstruction results, yet at the
expense of time cost. Besides, SFR in general has a poorer
precision than DFR because strains are reconstructed
indirectly through displacement measurements. Also, it is
found out in empirical trials that the reconstruction error
could be reduced by an optimized sensor configuration,
which is worth for further investigation.

fz
0

Fixed edge
-50

(a) FEA of a deformed annular plate.

rr (RSF)

Error (FEA- RSF)

(b) Reconstruction of rr.

(RSF)

Error (FEA- RSF)

FEA

(c) Reconstruction of .
Error (FEA- RSF)
W

r (RSF)

(a) Reconstruction of W

rr

FEA

(d) Reconstruction of r.
W (RDF)

Error (FEA-RDF)

(b) Reconstruction of rr

FEA

(c) Reconstruction of

(e) Reconstruction of displacement.

Fig. 4 Static reconstruction verified with FEA.

E. Discussion
The proposed method inherits the non-contact measuring
and superposition merits of the previous DFR method, so no
extra sensor or mass is attached to the workpiece to affect the
characteristics of part dynamics, and only simple algebraic

FEA

(d) Reconstruction of r

Fig. 5 Dynamic reconstruction verified with FEA.

792

 rr

FEA, where a flexible annular plate is subjected to static

deformation and free vibration. The proposed method captures
strain field dynamics in real time with simple algebra
calculations characterized by reconstruction cycle-time of 60
s and percentage error of 10%. Experiment validation is
provided with results of normal strains in a step response,
indicating the method is capable to capture dynamic behaviors
in practice even though damping coefficients are not explicitly
shown in the formulation or measured in the reconstruction
process.

Time (s)
(a) Reconstruction of rr at ( r , ) = (100mm, 0 )

rr

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Time (s)
(b) Zoom-in of (a)

Time (s)
(c) Reconstruction of at ( r , ) = (80mm, 0 )

Time (s)
(d) Zoom-in of (c)

w (mm)

Fig. 6 Comparison of reconstructed strains.

Time (s)

w (mm)

(a) Reconstruction of w

(b) Zoom-in of (a)

Time (s)

Fig. 7 Comparison of reconstructed displacement w.

IV. CONCLUSION
A strain field reconstruction method based on mode
superposition has been proposed in this paper for the
application of sensing continuous strain fields across a flexible
workpiece. This method is featured with simple
implementation of non-contact sensors and efficient algorithm
of reconstruction; thus it is expected to be applicable to
process monitoring for thin-wall part manufacturing under
complicated and demanding conditions. A concept of strain
mode shape has been introduced and obtained based on
displacement mode shapes. Illustrative examples of strain
reconstruction in static and dynamic cases have been
presented and the proposed method is numerically verified by
793