I R F A: 2. Signal Processing Signal Processing

2.
SIGNAL PROCESSING
SIGNAL PROCESSING
This section provides a short refresher on the principles of signal processing which
are important in inversion. Here we are generally interested in the frequency domain
operations, as this is where processes such as deconvolution or wavelet estimation
need to be clearly understood.
Basic Operations
There are essentially four operations which form the basis of digital signal
processing.
Convolution
Cross-correlation
o Auto-correlation
Deconvolution
In signal processing we are concerned with the combination of an operator (wavelet)

with a time series (seismic trace). Convolution in the time domain involves time
reversal of the operator, cross multiplication of the operator with every sample of the
time series and then summing the products.
To achieve the same result we can take the fast Fourier transform of the seismic
trace and the operator and perform an equivalent operation in the frequency domain.
Convolution in the frequency domain consists of multiplying the amplitude spectra
and adding the phase spectra.
As an aside, we should remind ourselves that taking the FFT of a seismic trace does
not directly yield the amplitude and phase spectra. The FFT actually gives us a
complex number from which we can compute the amplitude and phase spectra from
the real and imaginary parts.
imag
The amplitude spectrum is given by:
A f r 2 i 2
And the phase spectrum by:
f tan 1
r
A
i
real
i
r
Unwrapping the phase spectrum is not

trivial and leads to apparent differences
in absolute phase estimation between different software packages, even though the
time domain wavelet or operator will look the same.
Cross-correlation is the process by which we find the part of the seismic trace
which is also common to the operator. In the frequency domain cross-correlation is
achieved by multiplying the amplitude spectra and subtracting the phase spectra.
The cross-correlation trace is an important diagnostic in well ties.
2003 2011 Earthworks Environment & Resources Ltd

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2.
Amplitude1
Amplitude1
Phase1
Phase1
90
90
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
0
0
20
20
40
40
Convolution Amplitude
60
60
80
80
90
90
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
20
20
40
40
Amplitude1
Amplitude1
60
60
80
80
0.4
0.4
20
20
40
40
Correlation Amp
Correlation Amp
60
60
80
80
0
0
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100
Convolution
Multiply amplitude spectra
Add phase spectra
-180
-180
100
100
Phase2
Phase2
180
180
1.2
1.2
90
90
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
0
0
0
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100
Correlation Phase
Correlation Phase
180
180
1.2
1.2
Cross-correlation
90
90
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4

Subtract phase spectra
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
0
0
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
Amplitude2
Amplitude2
90
90
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0
0
0.6
0.6
-180
-180
100
100
180
180
0.8
0.8
90
90
0.8
0.8
Phase1
Phase1
1.2
1.2
1
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
0
0
180
180
0.8
0.8
-180
-180
100
100
180
180
Convolution Phase
Convolution Phase
1.2
1.2
1
Phase2
Phase2
1.2
1.2
1
0.8
0.8
Amplitude2
Amplitude2
180
180
1.2
1.2
1
SIGNAL PROCESSING
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100

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2.
Convolution Phase
Convolution Phase
180
180
1.2
1.2
1
90
90
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0
0
20
20
40
40
AutoCorrelation Amp
AutoCorrelation Amp
60
60
80
80
20
20
40
40
Amplitude1
Amplitude1
60
60
80
80
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100
Auto-correlation
Power spectrum & zero phase
-180
-180
100
100
Inverse Amp
Inverse Amp
180
180
90
90
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
20
20
40
40
Deconvolution Amp
Deconvolution Amp
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100
Inverse Phase
Inverse Phase
180
180
12.0
12.0
10.0
10.0
90
90
8.0
8.0
6.0
6.0
4.0
4.0
-90
-90
2.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
0
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100
Deconvolution Phase
Deconvolution Phase
180
180
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.0
90
90
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0
0
0
Phase1
Phase1
1.2
1.2
0
0
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
-180
-180
100
100
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
90
90
0.6
0.6
0
0
90
90
180
180
0.8
0.8
Autocorrelation Phase
Autocorrelation Phase
1.2
1.2
1
180
180
0.8
0.8
-90
-90
0.2
0.2
Convolution Phase
Convolution Phase
1.2
1.2
1
0.8
0.8
SIGNAL PROCESSING
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
Deconvolution
Define inverse operator
-180
-180
100
100

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2.
SIGNAL PROCESSING
Autocorrelation is a special case of cross-correlation in which we cross-correlate a

signal with itself. The amplitude spectrum of the auto-correlated is therefore the
power spectrum of the input signal. Because the phase spectrum is subtracted from
itself, the result is zero phase.
Deconvolution is the inverse of convolution. We usually apply deconvolution by
finding the desired inverse operator and using convolution. To remove the effects of
a wavelet, we find its inverse amplitude spectrum by taking 1/amplitude for each
frequency. Deconvolution is then multiplication by the inverse amplitude spectrum
and subtraction of the phase spectra. Because we are designing the inverse
operator, we have to take that the inverse operator is stable: 1/0.0 would lead to
infinitely large values in the amplitude spectrum of the inverse operator. To avoid the
operator blowing up in practice we would a small quantity of noise to the amplitude
spectrum before taking the inverse.
To differentiate an input signal (find the local slope) the frequency domain operator
has the properties:
Amplitude proportional to logarithm frequency (+6dB/Octave)

Phase is a constant 90 degree lead (positive phase shift)
Differentiaton Amplitude
Differentiaton Amplitude
100.0
100.0
90.0
90.0
80.0
80.0
70.0
70.0
60.0
60.0
50.0
50.0
40.0
40.0
30.0
30.0
20.0
20.0
10.0
10.0
0.0
0.0
0
Differentiaton Phase
Differentiaton Phase
Time Differentiation
Time Differentiation
180
180
90
90
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
-90
-90
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100
0.0
0.0
-50
-50
-0.5
-0.5
-30
-30
-10
-10
10
10
30
30
50
50
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
To integrate an input signal (find the area under the curve) the frequency domain
operator has the inverse properties
Amplitude response inversely proportional to logarithm frequency (6dB/Octave)

Phase response is a constant 90 degree lag (negative phase shift)
In the time domain, integration of a sampled (discrete) signal is the cumulative sum
of the sample values.
Integration Amplitude
Integration Amplitude
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0
Time Integration
Time Integration
Integration Phase
Integration Phase
180
180
90
90
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
-90
-90
20
20
40
40
60
60
80
80
-180
-180
100
100
0.0
0.0
-50
-50
-0.5
-0.5
-30
-30
-10
-10
10
10
30
30
50
50
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5

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10
2.
SIGNAL PROCESSING
Describing Phase
Phase is poorly understood by some geophysicists. Firstly, there is an equivalence
between time and phase lag. A time shift is equivalent to a linear phase lag in the
frequency domain. If we take a spike at t0 in the time domain then the amplitude
spectrum will be white from zero to infinite frequency and the phase spectrum zero
for all frequencies.
Shifting this spike to time t1 will result in a slope of -2t1 in the phase spectrum. If the
time shift is positive, the spike is now at a later time and therefore the phase is
lagging (negative slope to the phase spectrum).
We have a number of phrases to describe the phase spectra of some special cases
of wavelets. The commonly used terms encountered are
Zero phase
Linear phase
Minimum phase
Maximum phase
Mixed Phase
Linear Phase
Linear Phase
0.15
0.15
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Zero Phase
Zero Phase
0.15
0.15
0
0
0
0
-0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
-0.15
-0.15
-100
-100
-50
-50
0
0
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
50
50
-0.15
-0.15
100
100
0
0
50
50
200
200
150
150
200
200
0.15
0.15
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
150
150
Maximum Phase
Maximum Phase
Minimum Phase
Minimum Phase
0.15
0.15
0
0
0
0
-0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
-0.15
-0.15
-100
-100
100
100
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
-50
-50
0
0
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
50
50
100
100
-0.15
-0.15
0
0
50
50
100
100
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
Minimum phase is a very important definition. For a given amplitude spectrum the
minimum phase wavelet can be defined in a number of ways. It can be defined as
The causal wavelet with the maximum energy concentrated towards the front
The causal wavelet whose cumulative energy has the fastest build-up
minimum energy delay
Lowest phase lag plot - minimum phase lag

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11
2.
SIGNAL PROCESSING
A causal wavelet is a wavelet that has no energy before t=0. A causal wavelet is
therefore realisable in a physical system. A non-causal wavelet has energy at times
prior to the event giving rise to the energy: clearly this is physically impossible, but
not mathematically impossible.
Given the amplitude spectrum it is possible (although somewhat complicated) to
calculate the phase spectrum for minimum phase. A long winded method but one
which can be applied in a spreadsheet can be found in Anstey (1970). In signal
processing terms, a minimum phase wavelet can be found by the following procedure
Fill the real part of a complex FFT array with the ln(amplitude)
inverse FFT to time domain
Double the positive time sample values and zero the negative time sample
values
FFT to frequency domain
Find exp(amplitude)
Inverse FFT to time domain
Those familiar with complex trace analysis and the Hilbert transform will recognise
strong similarities.
A maximum phase wavelet is simply the time reversal of a minimum phase wavelet.
A zero phase wavelet is a wavelet whose phase spectrum is zero (flat). Strictly this
only applies for a wavelet centred at t=0. However, we often describe a zero phase
wavelet more loosely. For example, a zero phase wavelet arbitrarily shifted to
another time would have a flat spectrum if we subtracted a slope of -2t1 from its
phase spectra. Strictly this is a linear phase wavelet (for obvious reasons) but we
conveniently refer to it as zero phase.
We could also apply a constant phase rotation across all frequencies and still have a
linear phase wavelet (flat phase spectrum or constant slope). Again, this wavelet is
often referred to as a zero phase wavelet and gives rise to the nave view that zero
phasing is achieved by rotating back to zero phase.
A mixed phase wavelet is a wavelet whose phase spectrum does not fit one of the
previous descriptions.
Resolving Power
Resolution is often thought to be a simply a function of maximum frequency, the
higher the maximum frequency the greater the seismic resolution. This is not the
case. Resolution depends on the combination of factors
Maximum Frequency
Predominant Frequency
Bandwidth
Phase
On the last point, it is often stated that resolution is better for a zero phase wavelet
than for a minimum phase. Whilst this is true mathematically the difference in very
small in practice. A zero phase wavelet or seismic section has significant
advantages for seismic interpretation though.

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I R F A: 2. Signal Processing Signal Processing

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I R F A: 2. Signal Processing Signal Processing

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2.

In signal processing we are concerned with the combination of an operator (wavelet)

Unwrapping the phase spectrum is not

2003 2011 Earthworks Environment & Resources Ltd

Multiply amplitude spectra

2003 2011 Earthworks Environment & Resources Ltd

2003 2011 Earthworks Environment & Resources Ltd

Autocorrelation is a special case of cross-correlation in which we cross-correlate a

Amplitude proportional to logarithm frequency (+6dB/Octave)

Amplitude response inversely proportional to logarithm frequency (6dB/Octave)

2003 2011 Earthworks Environment & Resources Ltd

2003 2011 Earthworks Environment & Resources Ltd

2003 2011 Earthworks Environment & Resources Ltd

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