Basic Instrumentation

Course
Prepared by
Eng\ Ahmed Mohamed Abdel-Halim
EMC, MIDOR Site
2008

4. Temperature Measurements

Temperature Scales

The hotness or coldness of any material depends upon the molecular

activity of the material.
Kinetic energy is a measure of the activity of the atoms which make up
the molecules of any material.
As Kinetic energy of the material increases, the Temperature of the
material increases.
Therefore, temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the material.
It has been experimentally determined that the lowest possible
temperature is -273.15C.
Thermodynamic temperature is indicated by the symbol T and has the
unit known as the Kelvin, symbol K.
The Kelvin temperature scale was chosen so that its zero is at
-273.15C
Relation between C, F, K
T = T(C) + 273.15
T(F) = (9/5) T(C) + 32

Thermometer

One of the old-age thermometer is the mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Its operation was based on the temperature expansion of fluids.
A glass bulb filled with mercury is connected to a narrow evacuated
glass capillary tube.
As the mercury is warmed, it expands and rises up the capillary tube
into a vacuum.

A mercury-in-glass thermometer is effective in the range -39C to

~250C.
If a thermometer is required
for lower temperatures, the
alcohol-in-glass thermometer
can utilize the same principle
in the range -117C to 78C.

Thermometer

The thermometers include

Filled-System Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometers
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Detectors
Thermistors
Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors
Radiation Pyrometers

Filled-System Thermometers

Filled-system thermometers use the phenomenon of

thermal expansion of matter to measure temperature
change.
The sensing element is a capillary tube filled with a liquid
or gas which expands with an increase in temperature.
This sensing element delivers a motion of physical
change that is applied to the control element which
indicates the temperature of a process by means of a
pointer on a calibrated dial.

Filled-System Thermometers

Bimetallic Thermometers

These thermometers contain no liquid but do operate on

the principle of unequal expansion.
Since different metals expand at different rates, we can
bond one metal to another and see that when heated, the
bonded metal will bend in one direction and when cooled
it will bend in the opposite direction.
This bending motion is transmitted by a suitable
mechanical linkage to a pointer that moves across a
calibrated scale.
Although not as accurate as liquid in glass thermometers,
Bimetallic are much more rugged, easy to read, and have
a wider span making them ideal for many industrial
applications.

Bimetallic Thermometers

Thermocouples (T/C)

If two dissimilar metals are joined together to form a closed loop,

and if one junction is kept at a different temperature from the
other, an electromotive force is generated (called the Seebeck
emf in honor of its discoverer) and electric current will flow in the
closed loop.
So, if the temperature of one junction is kept at a known value,
the temperature of the other junction can be determined by the
amount of voltage produced.
Typically consists of 6 different types i.e. J, K, E, R, S and T
according to the metals materials.
We have a comprehensive tables of voltage versus temperature
for many types of thermocouples.

Thermocouples (T/C)

Measuring Thermocouple
Voltage
You cannot measure the Seebeck voltage directly because
you must first connect a voltmeter to the thermocouple,
and the voltmeter leads create a new thermoelectric
circuit.

Measuring Thermocouple

Voltage
Using an isothermal block can make a junction

compensation.
The isothermal block containing a thermistor to measure
the block temperature.

Thermocouples

Advantages

Its used over a wide range of temperatures (to 1482 C).

A computer-based temperature-monitoring system can perform the
entire task of reference compensation and software voltage-totemperature conversion.

Good vibration resistance.

Suitable for long distance transmission

Disadvantages of Thermocouples
Accuracy declines with time.
Non-linear operating curve.
Cold junction compensation required.

Thermocouples are not used in areas where high radiation fields are
present.
Slower response time.

Thermocouples

Failure Modes

An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that

there is no path for current flow, thus it will cause a low
(off-scale) temperature reading.
A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also
cause a low temperature reading because it creates a
leakage current path to the ground and a smaller
measured voltage.

Resistance Temperature Detector

(RTD)

Every type of metal has a different resistance to the flow of electrical

current.
For most metals the change in electrical resistance is directly
proportional to its change in temperature and is linear over a range of
temperatures, this constant factor called the temperature coefficient
of electrical resistance is the basis of resistance temperature
detectors.
The RTD can actually be regarded as a high precision wire wound
resistor whose resistance varies with temperature.
By measuring the resistance of the metal, its temperature can be
determined.
A typical RTD probe contains a coil of very fine metal wire, allowing
for a large resistance change without a great space requirement.
Usually, platinum RTDs are used as process temperature monitors
because of their accuracy and linearity.

RTD

RTD

2-Wire RTD

A temperature transmitter in the form of a Wheatstone bridge is

generally used to detect the small variations of resistance of the
RTD.

3-Wire RTD

Since the connecting wires are long, resistance of the wires

changes as ambient temperature fluctuates.
The variations in wire resistance would introduce an error in the
transmitter.
To eliminate this problem, a three-wire RTD is used.
The connecting wires (w1, w2, w3) are made the same length and
therefore the same resistance (Rw1, Rw2, Rw3).
Since Rw1 = Rw2, the result is that the resistances of the wires
cancel and therefore the effect of the connecting wires is
eliminated.

3-Wire RTD

RTD

Advantages
The response time compared to thermocouples is very fast.
Within its range it is more accurate and has higher sensitivity
than a thermocouple.
In an installation where long leads are required, the RTD does
not require special extension cable.
Sensors are interchangeable and do not require individual
calibration.
Disadvantages
More expensive than thermocouples
RTD is not capable of measuring as wide a temperature range
as a thermocouple.
A power supply failure can cause erroneous readings.
All connections must be tight and free of corrosion, which will
create errors.

Failure Modes

An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the

RTD and the bridge will cause a high temperature
reading.
Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low
temperature reading.

Thermistor

Thermistors are manufactured from beads of semiconductor

material.
Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature-sensitive
resistor.
The typical thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, this
means that with an increase in temperature, the resistance of the
thermistor decreases.
The per degree resistance change in a thermistor is much greater
than with an RTD.
It is also very non-linear and usually used over a very small
temperature span.
They are quite susceptible to permanent decalibration when
exposed to high temperatures.

Thermistor

Thermistor

Advantages
Have high sensitivity.
No moving parts.
Long service life.
Lightweight, compact.
Disadvantages

Very non-linear.
Not interchangeable I.e. each sensor needs to be calibrated
individually.

Quite fragile

Comparison of T/C, RTD, and

Thermistor

High Temperature Light Bulb

Thermometer

A standard household light bulb has a thin filament made

of a high melting point metal (probably tungsten: melting
point > 3000 C).
When the 240V main electricity passes through the
filament of the bulb it heats up and glows so brightly we
use it as a lamp.
The electrical resistance of the filament varies with
temperature, in fact its resistance rises as the
temperature rises.
This fact alone makes the current tends to regulate itself
when power is applied.

High Temperature Light Bulb

Thermometer

IC Sensors

Integrated circuit transistors produce an output proportional to the

absolute temperature.
If two identical transistors are operated at a constant ratio of
collector circuit densities (r), then the difference in their baseemitter voltages will be (kT/q) linear, since both k (Boltzmann's
constant) and q (the charge of an electron) are constant, the
resulting voltage is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
Different types are configured to give an output in the form of
either a varying current (typically 1 A/K) or varying voltage
(typically 10 mV/K).
Current forms are normally used with a digital voltmeter that
detects the current output in terms of the voltage drop across a 10
k resistor.
They only have a limited measurement range from -50C to
+150C.

Radiation Thermometers

All objects emit electromagnetic radiation as a function of their

temperature above absolute zero.
Radiation thermometers (also known as radiation pyrometers)
measure this radiation in order to calculate the temperature of
the object.
Different versions of radiation thermometers are capable of
measuring temperatures between -100C and +10000C.
The important advantage that radiation thermometers have over
other types of temperature-measuring instrument is that there is
no contact with the hot body while its temperature is being
measured.
Various types of radiation pyrometers exist
Optical pyrometers
Radiation pyrometers

Optical Pyrometers

The optical pyrometer is designed to measure temperatures where

the peak radiation emission is in the red part of the visible spectrum.
The optical pyrometers are used mainly in the range 600-3000C.
The instrument contains a heated tungsten filament within its optical
system.
The current in the filament is increased until its colour is the same as
the hot body, under these conditions the filament apparently
disappears when viewed against the background of the hot body.
Temperature measurement is therefore obtained in terms of the
current flowing in the filament.
Optical pyrometers widely used in industry for measuring
temperatures in furnaces and similar applications.

Optical Pyrometers

Optical Pyrometers

Total Radiation
Have an optical system that is similar to that in the
Pyrometers
optical pyrometer and focuses the energy emitted from

the measured body.

However, they differ by omitting the filament and
eyepiece and having instead an energy detector in the
same focal plane as the eyepiece was.
The radiation detector is either a thermal detector or a
photon detector.
Photon detectors are much faster than the thermopile
type, this enables us to use the photon type for
measuring the temperature of small objects moving at
high speed.

Radiation Pyrometers

Other Used Types Of

Thermography (thermal imaging)
Thermometer

Quartz thermometers
Fibre-optic temperature sensors
Acoustic thermometers
Colour indicators
Change of state of materials
Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments

Temperature Switches

Temperature switches operate from temperature changes

occurring in an enclosure, or in the air surrounding the
temperature-sensing element.

The operation of the temperature switch is similar to the operation

of the pressure switch ,both switches are operated by changes in
pressure.

The temperature element is arranged so a change in temperature

causes a change in the internal pressure of a sealed-gas, air-filled
bulb, or helix, which is connected to the actuating device by a
small tube or pipe.

A temperature change causes a change in the volume of the

sealed-in gas, which causes movement of a bellows.

Temperature Switches

The movement is transmitted by a plunger to the switch

arm.
The moving contact is on the arm.
A fixed contact may be arranged so the switch will open
or close on a temperature rise.
This allows the switch contacts to be arranged to close
when the temperature drops to a predetermined value
and to open when the temperature rises to the desired
value.
The reverse action can be obtained by a change in the
contact positions.

Temperature Switches

Bimetallic Temperature
Switch

Bimetallic thermal switches offer precise switching

temperatures and quick response times.
Consists of a bimetallic strip and a contact.
As the temperature rises, one of the metals will elongate
more than the other, forcing the strip to bend.
When the strip bends away from the contact, the circuit
is opened.
Cooling releases the tension in the strip, and the circuit is
closed.

Bimetallic Temperature
Switch