LECTURE 7

Essentials of Electronic circuit

An electronic circuit essentially consists of two types of components, namely:
active (e.g. transistors and integrated circuit) and passive (e.g. resistors and capacitors).
Active and Passive components :
ACTIVE components increase the power of a signal and must be supplied with
the signal and a source of power.
Examples are bipolar transistors, field effect transistors etc.
The signal is fed into one connection of the active device and the amplified
version taken from another connection. In a transistor, the signal can be applied to the
base connection and the amplified version taken from the collector. The source of power
is usually a dc voltage from a battery or power supply.
PASSIVE components do not increase the power of a signal. They often cause
power to be lost. Some can increase the voltage at the expense of current, so overall there
is a loss of power. Resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes are examples of passive
components.
Integrated circuits contain both active and passive components.
Since they usually increase the power of a signal and require a source of dc power they
are treated as active devices.
Voltage and current sources, semi conductors and vacuum devices come under the
category of active components. Active components activate electronic circuits to
function. In addition to these components, passive components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors are also necessary to control electronic circuits.
Passive components are capable of controlling the current, rate of change of
current and the rate of change of voltage in an electronic circuit.
Resistors
Any material that offers resistance to the flow of current is called a resistor. A
resistor is capable of conducting current in both directions. But while doing so, a fraction
of the energy is converted into heat energy. In electronic circuits, resistances are mainly
used for limiting the current flow (to a safe valve) through the devices. The specifications
of a resistor include its ohmic value, power rating, tolerance and working votage,
 Resistors are classified into two types.
1. Fixed resistors
2. Variable resistors
Fixed Resistors
A fixed resistor is one whose value cannot be changed by the user. It could be any
one of the following types.
o Carbon composition resistors
o Thin film resistors
o Wire wound resistors
Carbon composition resistors
These resistors are made of finely divided carbon or graphite, mixed with a
powered insulator material as a binder. The resistance element is usually enclosed in a
plastic case for mechanical strength and insulation. The two ends of the carbon resistance
element are fixed to metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire. These resistors are
commercially available in the range of 1 ohm to 20 Mega ohm. The size as well as the
power ratings of these resistors are small. Quarter watt and half watt resistances are very
commonly used in electronic circuits. The resistance values are indicated by circular
rings of different colours which follows a specific colour code.

Thin film resistors

These resistors are manufactured by depositing a very thin layer of conducting
material on an insulated rod, tube or plate made of ceramic or glass. There are two types
of thin film resistors namely,
1. Carbon film resistors
 2. Metal film resistors
Carbon film resistors
These resistors are manufactured by depositing pure carbon on a ceramic
substrate by thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons at 1273K. Lead wires are attached to
the film at each end and the whole assembly is surrounded by an insulating material. The
sheet resistance of the film is controlled by the carbon film thickness. These resistors are
commercially available in the range of 10 ohm to 10 Mega ohm. These resistors are used
in measuring instruments where close tolerances are required. They also have better
stability.

Metal film resistors

A metal film resistor is obtained by depositing a very thin layer of metal like
nickel on a ceramic or glass rod by means of electrolytic decomposition in a chemical
bath containing hypophosphate. The resistance value change only slightly with the
variation in temperature. However they can be considered very stable because of their
high reliability and stability. These resistors are preferred in electronic equipments. Metal
film resistors are available with resistance values ranging from 0.5 to 10 kilo ohm.
Wire wound resistors
This type of resistor is obtained by tightly winding a known length of wire on a
cylindrical ceramic core. The material for the wire is chosen from high resistivity alloys
like Nichrome and Manganin. The wire is normally applied with a coating of an
insulating material like enamel. Resistors of different values are obtained by varying the
length or thickness of the wire, or both. The end leads are soldered to end card and the
whole assemble is coated with a protective material such as enamel to prevent the ingress
of moisture. Wire wound resistors are available with resistance values ranging from 0.1
ohm to 1 mega ohm. They are preferred when resistors of high power rating (10 W to
75 W) are required.
Variable resistors
Variable resistors are those whose resistance values can be adjusted between zero
and a maximum value. They are immensely useful in adjusting voltages and currents.
Volume control in radio, brightness control in television are examples of variable
resistors. Variable resistors can be classified into
Wire wound variable resistors
Carbon composition potentiometers
Wire wound variable resistors
The wire wound variable resistors are further classified into three types. They are
Wire –wound rotary variable type resistor
Wire – wound solenoid type resistor
Helical wound variable resistor
Wire wound rotary variable resistor
These types of resistors are popular in TV and radio receivers for effecting
volume control. On a strip of Bakelite former, a nicrome wire is wound. The strip is then
bent to form an arc which is fixed in a Bakelite mould with end plates and screws. For
high power dissipation, an aluminium former with an oxide coating is preferred.
Wire wound solenoid type resistor
 The wire wound solenoid type resistor makes use of copper in an oxidized form as
the resistance winding. The winding is of circular or hexagonal shape, wound on a
ceramic or steel former.
This type of resistor is also referred as rheostat. The resistance of a rheostat is
changed by varying the position of the sliding brush contact. Copper or graphite can be
used as the brush material. The rheostat is capable of withstanding temperatures upto
300° C. These are used in industries and laboratories for obtaining the desired voltage
drop.
Helical wound variable resistor
These resistors are obtained by winding the resistance element over a helical
former of circular or rectangular cross – section. They are available in the resistance
range of 1 ohm to 10 Kilo ohm. The power ratings can go upto 200 watts.
Carbon composition potentiometer
Carbon composition potentiometer can be classified into two types.
i. Moulded type
ii. Coated film type
Moulded type potentiometer
In this type, the carbon composition mixture is moulded into a cavity over a
plastic base, or a mixture of carbon is coated on a ring of insulating material. This type of
potentiometers find applications in industries and defence.
Coated film type potentiometer
The coated film type potentiometers find their use in Televisions foe effecting
brightness and contrast control. They are also used in radio receivers and measuring
instruments. The coated film potentiometer is obtained by coating a mixture of carbon
and silica with a binder on a ring of insulating material.
Colour coding
Resistors are coded using different colour bands to indicate their resistance values
and tolerance. There are four colour bands drawn side by side at the left end of a resistor.
Reading from left to right, the band close to the left edge gives the first digit of the
resistance value. The next band indicates the second digit. The third band gives the
number of zeros after the two digits while the fourth band gives the tolerance value. For
example, a resistor with the following colour bands – Red – Red – Orange –Gold – will
have 2200 ohm with tolerance resistance.
Each colour represents a number according to the following scheme:
Number Colour
0 black
1 brown
2 red
3 orange
4 yellow
5 green
6 blue
7 violet
8 grey
9 white

The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor
value. For the resistor shown below, the first band is yellow, so the first digit is 4:

The second band gives the SECOND DIGIT. This is a violet band, making the second
digit 7. The third band is called the MULTIPLIER and is not interpreted in quite the same
way. The multiplier tells you how many noughts you should write after the digits you
already have. A red band tells you to add 2 noughts. The value of this resistor is therefore
4 7 0 0 ohms, that is, 4 700 , or 4.7 . Work through this example again to confirm
that you understand how to apply the colour code given by the first three bands.
The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the
percentage accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold-
coloured tolerance band, indicating that the actual resistance value is with + or - 5% of
the nominal value. Other tolerance colours are:

Tolerance Colour
±1% brown
±2% red
±5% gold
±10% silver