Social Cost of Educated Youth Unemployment in Ghana and Its Implications For Education John Anaesi Yarquah Stephen Baafi-Frimpong

Centrepoint Humanities Edition
VOL.14, NO.1, PP.122-143
Social Cost of Educated Youth Unemployment in Ghana and Its Implications

For Education
John Anaesi Yarquah
And
Stephen Baafi-Frimpong
Department of Educational Foundations
Faculty of Education
University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast
Abstract
The study looked at the social cost of educated youth unemployment in Ghana and its
implications for education. The research design used was the descriptive survey
type. Out of an estimated population of 16,000 in the Central and Eastern regions of
Ghana, which constituted the research areas, a total sample size of 446 was obtained
for the study. The snowballing sampling technique was used to select the educated
unemployed youth from some popular spots where the youth usually converged. The
three study settings of Elmina, Koforidua and Cape Coast were also obtained using
the purposive sampling technique. The instrument used was the questionnaire. The
main factors identified as accounting for the high educated youth unemployment
included: lack of adequate learning facilities for quality education; inadequate
teachers to teach various subjects in the schools and dropouts from school. It was
found that educated youth unemployment led to streetism and its attended social
vices such as stealing, drug abuse, and prostitution. The respondents intimated that
more emphasis should be placed on technical and vocational education that would
equip people with employable skills and that the curricula of schools would have to
be tailored to suit the industrial, technological and development needs of the society.
Government creating an enabling environment for businesses to thrive; and
intensification of the provision of counselling services in schools among others were
recommended for dealing with the unemployment menace.
Keywords: social cost, educated youth unemployment, youth unemployment, youth.
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Social Cost of Educated Youth Unemployment in Ghana
Introduction
Education is the key to national development and the fulfillment of national
aspirations and goals. It is central to the development of a better life and a better
world. Because of the importance of education in national development, all
successive governments in Ghana since 1919 made some sort of systematic effort to
regulate education (MacWilliam & Kwamena-Poh. 1975; Antwi, 1992). From
colonial times, the school has been perceived as a fertile ground for growing people
into gainful employment and in situations where family resources are scarce, the
government gives assistance to those who are prepared to climb high on the academic
ladder. This is because, society perceives the educated as having the greater chance
of being successful. For this reason, most people struggle hard to go higher in
education for better living.Unfortunately, in recent times, unemployment is so high
that the educated person hardly finds work to do. In fact, unemployment is widely
recognized as the most urgent challenge confronting the youth these days. It is
therefore not surprising that job creation is a topical issue in electioneering campaign.
Almost all politicians who mount political platforms promise the citizens job creation
as a means of curbing the unemployment menace when voted into power. Yet, the
level of unemployment seems to be increasing at an alarming rate. In a discussion
on youth unemployment in Ghana held on Metro TV, Good Evening Ghana
programme on September 9, 2010, the National Co-ordinator of National Youth
Employment Programme (NYEP) Hon. Abuga Pele, indicated that about 150,000
graduates from Junior High School, Senior High School and the tertiary institutions
join the unemployment group in the country every year. The problem of youth
unemployment in Ghana has largely been blamed on the government. Most people
believe that, the government does not create enough jobs to absorb the youth nor
behave in a way that will attract other corporate bodies to do so. The educational
institutions are also blamed for not providing the youth with the skills that match the
demands of the existing industries and organizations. Many of the existing industries
therefore have to hire and re-train labour at excessive cost, which is economically
unwise. Thus, the big gap between the skills of labour and the demands of industries
greatly contributes to the problem of unemployment.
Some of the youth on their part, are only keenly interested in securing white collar
jobs which are often nonexistent in the economy. Their inability to find such jobs
renders them unemployed. Population explosion has its own contribution to the
growth of unemployment. The high population growth rate which outstrips economic
expansion and job creation contributes to unemployment in most developing
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John Anaesi Yarquah, Stephen Baafi-Frimpong
VOL.14, NO.1, PP.122-143
countries including Ghana. According to an article published by the Public Agenda

(2006), a newspaper in Ghana titled Unemployment Plaguing Ghanaian Youth, it was
indicated that joblessness had become a key feature of the Ghanaian economy in
recent times.
In Africa, several factors account for the high rate of youth unemployment.
Economic Report on Africa (2005) indicated that, the most notable is low economic
growth, which is manifested in low economic activity and low investment. Another
factor is low enrolment rates, coupled with low completion rates, low quality of
education and a failure to orient curricula towards the needs of the private sector.
These have contributed to the mismatch of skills of the youth in labour markets in
Africa. Limited formal work experience and lack of general and job-related skills
also put young Africans at the end of the hiring list. A research conducted by Ghayur
(1989) on the repercussions of the unemployment of the educated youth, attributed
unemployment to the malfunctioning of the educational and training system, which
neglects the demands of the labour market. Thus, low levels of education and skills
reduce chances in the labour market
Also identified by the Economic Report on Africa (2005), is that the health status of
young people affects their employment situation. Young people who are HIVpositive eventually become ill with HIV-related diseases, which can increase their
absence from work, reduce productivity and lower their chances of being employed.
If left untreated, people are ultimately unable to work.
Rising unemployment among school graduates has a lot of social consequences.
Often, lack of employment opportunities may result in social conflicts, such as
violence and juvenile delinquency, which, in turn, incur high social costs. In fact, it
has been found out that there is a relationship among unemployment, crime and
social dislocation including increased divorce rates, worsening health and lower life
expectancy among others (Riley, 2003). Also regions that suffer from persistent high
unemployment experience falling real incomes and a widening of inequality of
income and wealth. But the question is, what exactly are the social impacts of
educated youth unemployment in Ghana?
Statement of the Problem
Education is generally seen as an investment. It is for this reason that most parents
make a lot of sacrifices and educate their children. One of the aims of education in
Ghana is to help children to become gainfully employed in order to be economically
124
independent and be able to cater for their parents at old age. Unfortunately, according
to the Ghanaian Chronicle (January 10, 2006), the rapid expansion of the educational
system is flooding the Ghanaian labour market with school leavers without
employable skills from all levels of the educational system and that has contributed to
the high unemployment rate in the country. Thus, school graduates in Ghana roam
the streets and various offices in the urban centres in search of seemingly nonexisting jobs, hence, dashing the hopes and aspirations of both the graduates and their
parents. Very significant and deserving attention is the social cost associated with
such graduate unemployment. The essence of this study was therefore to find out the
social consequences of educated youth unemployment in Ghana and its implications
for education.
Research Questions
In order to realize the objective of the study, five research questions were raised.
These are:
1.
What kinds of youth unemployment exist in Ghana?
2.
How does education contribute to youth unemployment in Ghana?
3.
How does educated youth unemployment negatively impact community

socially?
4.
What are the educational implications of youth unemployment in the

community?
5.
In what ways can education be used to prevent youth unemployment hence

social cost?
Literature Review
Youth and Unemployment Defined
The purpose of this study was to find out the social consequence of educated youth
unemployment and its implications for education. It is therefore important to
understand the concept of youth and unemployment. According to the standard UN
definition, youth comprises the age group between fifteen and twenty-four inclusive.
In practice, the operational definition of youth varies widely from country to country
depending on cultural, institutional and political factors (OHiggins, 1997). The
National Youth Policy of Ghana and the African Youth Charter which were launched
in August 2010 in Ghana, define youth as persons aged between 18 to 35 years.
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VOL.14, NO.1, PP.122-143
Sociologically, youth denotes an interface between childhood and adulthood

(Chigunta, 2002). The UN definition would be used for the purpose of this paper.
Africa has the fastest-growing and most youthful population in the world.
Over 20 percent of Africas population is between the ages of 15 and 24 and, since
over 40 percent of Africas population is under 15 years of age, that number is
expected to grow significantly in the coming years (Zuehlke, 2009). According to
the International Labour Office (1998), youth make up as much as 36 percent of the
total working-age population and three in five of Africas unemployed are youth.
Unemployment, according to the ILO definition as cited by OHiggins (1997) and
which according to him is now the most widely used definition, is defined as those
people who have not worked more than one hour during the short reference period
but who are available for and are actively seeking for work. Yakubu (2010) indicates
that unemployment is defined by the Ghana Statistical Service as the proportion of
the economically active members of the population who are not working but are
available for work. In other words, unemployment refers to a situation whereby a
person who is a member of the labour force and is willing to work at the available
wage rate is unable to find a job for some reasons.
Forms of Unemployment
The Ghana Labour Statistical Service (2010) identifies four major types of
unemployment commonly found in Ghana. These are Cyclical/Keynesian, Structural
unemployment, Frictional unemployment and Classical unemployment.
Cyclical/Keynesian unemployment occurs when there is not enough aggregate
demand in the economy. Cyclical unemployment rises during economic downturns
and falls when the economy improves. Keynesians argue that this type of
unemployment exists due to inadequate aggregate effective demand. That is, this
type of unemployment arises from the depression or recession stage in the business
cycle. Aggregate demand is made up of consumption, investment and government
spending. If any of these components falls the demand for labour will also fall and
that creates unemployment.
Structural unemployment is the situation when the numbers of jobs in the labour
market are unable to provide substantial jobs for everyone who wants one. This
occurs when a firm suffers a structural decline, having become uncompetitive in the
face of either changing costs and technology or changing demand.
126
Frictional unemployment involves the time-lag involved in the move from one job to
another. Frictional unemployment is always present in an economy so the level of
involuntary unemployment is properly the unemployment rate minus the rate of
frictional unemployment.
Classical unemployment is also known as real wage
unemployment. It occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market clearing
level causing the number of job searchers to exceed the number of vacancies
available.
Other types of unemployment include: Seasonal unemployment which is associated
with seasons of the year that demand for a particular job rises and falls; Casual
unemployment that occurs when people are employed on short-term basis; Job search
unemployment that results when people refuse to accept jobs that give them their
reservation wage or minimum acceptable wage; and Residual unemployment which
results from long-term unemployment, resulting in the worker becoming
unemployable.
Relationship Between Education and Employment
The relationship between education and employment is essentially the links between
education and industry or the economy. One way to examine this relationship is to
identify the roles and functions of education, especially the ones related to
employment. Documentary evidence (Watts, 1983; Economic Report on Africa,
2005) suggest that education's links with employment has been and continue to be, a
powerful influence on the expansion of educational systems and curriculum
innovation throughout the developed and developing worlds. Thus, to examine the
links between education and employment, we need to examine the functions of
educational institutions and the nature and the purpose of the education curriculum
provided by institutions.
In broad terms, as Watts (1983, pp. 6) indicates, there are four functions of
educational institutions in relation to employment:
1.
The selection function - increasingly nowadays, educational

qualifications are becoming necessary prerequisites for entry into
many occupations and used by many employers for employment
selection;
2.
The socialization function - in schools and colleges, the

socialization function nurtures within young people different types
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of attitudes and behaviour (apart from providing work skills)

relevant to their future levels of participation in the labour force;
3.
The orientation function - this is basically concerned with

deliberate curricular interventions (i.e. careers and guidance
programmes) designed to help students understand employment
opportunities and to get students prepared for job choices; and,
4.
The preparation function, covering promotion and acquisition of

specific skills and knowledge which students will be able to apply
in a direct way after entering employment.
Employment is created and provided by industry and the nature, scope and the
quantity of employment vacancies and employment opportunities are dependent on a
country's resources, its economic policies, technical knowhow and the skills of the
population, political stability and the overall state of the economy.
As far as employment's links with education are concerned, industries create
employment opportunity and whenever vacancies exist, industries turn to the
education system for recruitment and in fact most industries depend on the
educational system for skilled manpower. What matters here are the attitudes, skills
and knowledge the graduates bring to the work place and this is why the educational
institutions are brought into the picture as these institutions supposedly prepare
young people for life after school. It is for this reason that some people (i.e. parents,
politicians) assume that education has a direct link with employment and that the
education system should be blamed when school leavers do not get employment.
Causes of Educated Youth Unemployment
The reasons for educated youth unemployment are fairly similar to other causes of
unemployment. They include: (a) Lack of qualifications. Young people without any
skills are much more likely to be unemployed. This relates to what is termed as
structural unemployment; (b) Geographical unemployment. Educated
youth
unemployment is often focused in certain areas usually inner cities where there is a
cycle of low achievement and low expectations; (c) Black economy. Official
unemployment may occur in areas where there is a thriving black economy (ie.
unofficial jobs people engage in). These jobs may be illegal such as dealing in drugs;
(d) Real wage unemployment. You could argue unemployment is caused by labour
market rigidities and wages being above the equilibrium rate; (e) Frictional
unemployment. This relates to situations whereby school leavers may just take time
128
to find the right work (Economics, 2008). Other reasons for educated youth
unemployment include: Lack of employability That is, the youth may lack the
necessary educational and relevant training for good, productive jobs; Inadequate
employment creation as a result of poor economic conditions and the lack of an
enabling environment for paid employment creation in the formal private sector;
Lack of entrepreneurship or the capacity to own, manage and operate the micro,
small and medium scale enterprises; Lack of equal educational opportunities for
young women and men also results in serious gender gaps in literacy and
employment; Urban-rural migration creates a rapid growth in urban population and
intensifies competition in the urban labour market (Ogbu & Ikiara, 1995; Okojie,
2003; Sommers, 2003; Economic Report on Africa, 2005).
Causes of unemployment in Ghana include:
Changes in global economic environment (eg. change in technology); Changes in the
level of public expenditure; Rural-Urban migration; Slow growth in private
investment; Seasonal changes; Rapid expansion of formal education; and
demographic changes (ISSER, 2007).
Consequences of Educated Youth Unemployment
Educated youth employment has grown in prominence on national and global
development agenda. This is most probably because of its economic and social costs.
The lack of employment opportunities in poor economies has a lot of social
implications. Unemployment among the educated youth has been found to promote
rural-urban migration and its attendant vices. It has been observed that lack of job
prospects and the likelihood of a desolate future for unemployed young people may
contribute to socially deviant behaviour (Ogbu & Ikiara 1995; Sommers 2003). The
rise in criminal activities, drug addiction and prostitution among young unemployed
is due partly to the combined effects of lack of social networks and insufficient job
opportunities (WHO, 2004). A study conducted by Carmichael and Ward (2001) in
England and Wales on the link between unemployment and crime suggest that youth
unemployment and the different types of crime such as burglary, theft, fraud and
forgery and total crime are significantly and positively correlated. In Africa,
unemployment has driven many young women and girls to become social sex
workers. Struggling to support families and provide care to sick members of the
household, their ability to pursue education is often curtailed. Lack of job
opportunities and their disadvantageous social role, both in terms of assets (education
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and health) and cultural norms, make them more likely to end up as sex workers
(ILO, 2005).
Crime and violence have been increasing in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa
among young people and this is partly attributed to unemployment. Youth gangs,
viewed as second or substitute families, typically satisfy the economic and social
needs of unemployed young people through violence (WHO, 2004).
Young
people not attending school, living on the street and outside the reach of mainstream
services, are more likely to abuse illicit substances than are employed young people
(UN, 2003). Drug abuse decreases young peoples possibility of finding employment
and results in additional costs to the economy. Unemployed young people are at a
much higher risk of contracting HIV/AIDS than are employed young people. This is
due to persistent behavioural risks, and lack of information, education and services
(UNAIDS, 2004).
Social Costs of Educated Youth Unemployment
Educated youth unemployment has a significant social cost. In addition to the indirect
health cost, educated youth unemployment partly contributes to illicit activities like
increase insecurity. The increase in criminality in a country as a consequence of
youth unemployment causes losses in foreign direct investment. For example, foreign
investors have cited crime as the biggest deterrent to investing in South Africa
(UNODC, 2003). Fosu (2005) noted that, youth unemployment is partly responsible
for civil disorder, which sometimes develop into civil strife and conflict. These are
some of the most serious constraints to Africas development. He maintains that
young uneducated and educated unemployed men are prime candidates for
recruitment as soldiers in any civil disorder. Sustained unemployment could also
cause young people to be hostile to the world of work and more receptive to drugs
and crime (Nattrass, 2002). In Ghana, according to ISSER (2007), the costs of
unemployment (including educated youth unemployment) relate to poverty, loss of
income, social vices and loss of human resource to the community.
Method
This study which was a descriptive survey conformed to the qualitative research
paradigm. Questionnaire and interviews were used to collect data from educated
unemployed youth in three towns in Ghana namely, Cape Coast, Elmina and
Koforidua. The areas were purposively selected because they typified the fastest
growing centres in terms of population growth rate and increased school enrollment.
130
Population, Sample and Sampling Procedures

The population of the study consisted of all educated unemployed youth in the
Central and Western regions of Ghana estimated to be 16,000 (Ghana Statistical
Service, 2005). These comprised youth who had had some form of education,
namely, primary, junior and senior high school and those with tertiary education as
well as those who had dropped out of school after the basic level. The accessible
population, however, was the educated unemployed youth in Cape Coast, Elmina and
Koforidua areas. In view of the absence of relevant data on educated unemployed
youth in the research settings and the difficulty of readily identifying such
unemployed youth, the researchers used clusters of youth in popular areas such as
markets, town halls, lorry stations, and for Cape Coast and Elmina, the beaches and
castle areas as well. For all these areas, the snow-balling sampling technique was
used to select the sample. In all a total sample size of 446 was obtained. The
breakdown of the sample is as follows: 85 from Elmina which comprised 59 males
and 26 females; 121 from Koforidua which was composed of 89 males and 32
females and 240 from Cape Coast made up of 156 males and 84 females. Apart from
the gender distribution mentioned above the study also identified the educational
levels attained by the respondents. It was observed that out of the 446 respondents 28
(14.6%) were from junior high school; 129 (28.9%) were from senior high school;
178 (39.9%) were from polytechnic; 58(13.0%) from university; 51(11.4%) from
other institutions like vocational, technical and agricultural schools. Finally, 2 (0.4%)
were dropouts after basic school.
Instrument and Data Collection Procedures
The main instrument used was a questionnaire for the school dropouts, while the
same questionnaire was used as a structured interview schedule. The instruments
were administered and collected by the researchers and their assistants. The
questionnaire contained 59 items, 51 of which were close ended while the
remaining 8 were open-ended. The close-ended items were basically Likert scale of
the Yes and No type. The questionnaire had seven major sections touching on
respondents personal data, kinds of youth unemployment, how education contributes
to youth unemployment, how educated youth unemployment negatively impacts
community socially, the educational implications of youth unemployment in the
community and finally, ways of preventing youth unemployment through education.
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A pilot test was conducted to help establish the reliability of the instrument. The
Cronbachs alpha was used to measure the internal consistency of the instrument
using the SPSS computer software. The reliability co-efficient value of .89 was
obtained. The validity of the instrument was established through peer review. Some
items of the instrument were also modified to help elicit the right responses after the
pilot testing.
Data Analysis, Results and Discussion of the Findings
Research Question one: What kinds of youth unemployment exist in Ghana? The
results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Kinds of Youth Unemployment
Cape Coast
Kinds of unemployment No %
Casual
42
17.5
Voluntary
48
20.0
Cyclical/Regression
9
3.7
Residual
13
5.4
Seasonal
41
17.1
Structural
3
1.3
Frictional
11
4.6
Disguised
2
0.8
Classical
12
5.0
Urban
59
24.6
Total
240 100
Source: field survey (2010)
Elmina
No %
11 12.9
15 17.7
2
2.4
9 10.6
15 17.7
1
1.2
2
2.3
30 35.3
85 100
Koforidua
No %
8
6.6
18 14.9
5
4.1
3
2.5
14 11.6
6
4.9
18 14.9
5
4.2
3
2.5
41 33.9
121 100
The data in Table 1 show that the two most prevalent kinds of youth unemployment
in all the three areas in order of importance were the rural-urban and voluntary types.
This is represented by the views of 24.6% and 35.3%, 33.9% and 20%, and 17.7%
and 14.9% of respondents from Cape Coast, Elmina and Koforidua respectively.
Research Question Two: How does education contribute to youth unemployment in
Ghana? The data in Table 2 reveal how education contributes to educated youth
unemployment in the communities.
132
Table 2 Educations Contribution to Educated Youth Unemployment

Question
Yes
Freq. %
Responses
No
Freq. %
Uncertain
Freq. %
Does the structure of school curricula help

solve unemployment?
252 56.5
189 42.4
1.1
Are there enough teachers in the schools to

teach the subjects?
152 34.1
294
70
15.7
Are there enough facilities to enhance

teaching/learning in the schools?
369 82.7
Do you have adequate educational

institutions in your community to cater for
the educational needs of the youths in the
area?
161 36.1
285 63.9
Are there any counselling units in the

schools to help students determine their
future careers?
148 33.2
272 61.0
26 5.8
Would you say that the school curricula

provide students with employable skills?
272 61.0
172 38.6
2 0.45
Dropouts from school contribute to youth

unemployment.
The belief that
the educated ones must engage in only
white collar jobs
328 73.5
117 26.2
314 70.4
65.9
1.6
129 28.9
0.2
0.7
Source: Field Survey, 2010

Eighty two point seven percent (82.7%) of the respondents disagreed that there are
enough facilities like science labs, technical, vocational workshops and textbooks,
equipment and tools to enhance learning in the schools. The result also show that
328 (73.5%) of the respondents were of the view that Dropouts from school
contribute to youth unemployment. Majority of the respondents, 314 (95.0%) further
explained that the youths were unemployed because they did not have skills. Others,
17 (5.1%) indicated that it was due to lack of certificates. On the other hand, majority
of the respondents, 65.9%, 63.9% and 61% maintained that there were not enough
teachers in the schools to teach the subjects, there were inadequate educational
institutions in their community to cater for the educational needs of the youths in the
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area, and that there were no counselling units in the schools to help students
determine their future careers.
Research Question Three: How does youth unemployment negatively impact
community socially? The results in Table 3 reveal the respondents view on how
youth unemployment negatively impacts community socially.
Table 3
Socially
How Educated Youth Unemployment Negatively Impacts Community
Statement
Crime rate is high as a result of
educated youth unemployment in
the community.
Educated youth unemployment
increases teenage pregnancy in the
community.
Agree
Freq. %
411 92.15
Responses
Disagree
Freq. %
35 7.85
Uncertain
Freq. %
-
416
30
93.27
6.73
There is an increase in divorce cases

among educated unemployed.
347
77.8
97 21.8
Poverty level is high because of a

large number of unemployed
educated youth.
413
92.6
32
Most educated unemployed youth

take to social vices such as
prostitution and begging for money.
402
90.1
Most educated unemployed youth

ended up in the streets, selling and
sleeping anywhere.
413
92.6
44
7.2
9.9
33
7.4
2
1
0.5
0.2

From Table 3 it is observed that over 90% of the respondents agreed that as a result
of educated youth unemployment there was an increase in the rate of teenage
pregnancy in the community; the poverty level was high; most youths ended up in the
streets selling all sorts of things and sleeping anywhere; crime rate was high in the
community; and that the educated unemployed youth took to social vices such as
prostitution and begging for money.
134
Research Question Four:

What are the educational implications of youth
unemployment in the community? The responses are provided in Table 4.
Table 4 Educational Implications of Youth Unemployment
Statement
Since many youths in the community are

unemployed it does not motivate others to
continue schooling.
Responses
Agree
Freq. %
314 70.4
Disagree Uncertain
Freq. %
Freq. %
132 29.6
-
The curricula of schools would have to be

tailored to the industrial, technological and
development needs of the society.
408 91.5
38
Most of the youth would prefer to drop out

of school than to remain in school.
182 40.8
264
59.2
The value of education for both girls and

boys must be stressed to all parents.
408 91.5
37
8.3
Many more schools devoted to technical

and vocational education, would have to be
established in the communities to equip
people with employable skills.
402
90.1
44
9.9
Educational reforms measures may have to

be geared towards tackling the problem of
the youth unemployment.
423
94.8
22
5.2
8.5
0.2

As indicated in Table 4, the result shows that majority of the respondents supported
the items which dealt with educational implications of youth unemployment. Out of
the 446 respondents, 423(94.8%) agreed to the statement that educational reform
measures may have to be geared towards tackling the problem of the youth
unemployment; 408(91.5%) respondents agreed that the curricula of schools would
have to be tailored to suit the industrial, technological and developmental needs of
the society; 408(91.5%) observed that the value of education for both girls and boys
must be stressed to all parents; 402 (90.14%) agreed that many schools should be
devoted to technical and vocational education and training should be established in
the communities to equip people with employable skills. Also 314 (70.4%) agreed
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that when many youths in the community are unemployed it does not motivate others
to continue schooling.
Research Question Five: In what ways can education be used to prevent youth
unemployment? The responses are provided in Table 5.
Table 5 How Education can be used to Prevent Youth Unemployment.
Statement
More subjects must be introduced on the

school curricula to cater for the
development of the varied talents
possessed by individuals as well as
develop their skills.
Responses
Agree
Freq. %
359 80.5
Disagree
Freq. %
87 15.5
Uncertain
Freq. %
-
Government must revisit the continuation

school concept which stressed on
vocational skills.
409
92.0
37
8.3
More secondary/technical schools should

be established.
405
90.8
39
8.7
More vocational and commercial schools

should be established.
407
91.3
39
8.7
The government must establish technical

and vocational workshops/ structures for
clusters of basic schools.
426
95.5
20
4.5
More vocational and technical teachers

must be trained in the country.
433
97.1
13
2.9
The Ministry of Education must educate

people to know the importance of
technical and vocational education.
429
96.2
16
3.6
0.5
0.2

The data in Table 5 show that most of the respondents supported the measures that
could be adopted to prevent educated youth unemployment in their communities.
Four hundred and thirty-three (97.1%) respondents agreed that more vocational and
technical teachers must be trained in the country; 429 (96.1%) respondents supported
the idea that the Ministry of Education must educate people to know the importance
136
of technical and vocational education; 426 (95.5%) of the respondents agreed that the
government must provide structures for clusters of basic schools to be used as
workshops for technical and vocational education; 409 (91.7%) respondents want the
government to revisit the continuation school concept introduced in Ghana in the
1970s which stressed on vocational skills; 407 (91.3) respondents agreed that more
vocational and commercial schools should be established; and finally 359 (80.5%) of
the respondents agreed that more subjects must be introduced into the school
curricula to cater for the development of the varied talents possessed by individuals
as well as develop their skills.
Discussion
It was observed from the study that rural-urban migration is a major cause of
unemployment in all the three communities that were studied. This is not surprising
as school graduates these days seem to be no longer interested in farming which is
the major occupation of the people in the rural areas of Ghana. This is because
farming is no longer lucrative as it used to be in the 1960s. Also very often, their
friends who migrate to the urban areas come back on visit looking very much
attractive than those they left behind at home in the village. For example, they dress
better and are able to spend money lavishly on drinks and other material things which
their colleagues in the village cannot afford. As a result many young people migrate
from rural to urban areas expecting better opportunities there (Ogbu & Ikiara, 1995).
Besides, there is often the desire to live in an urban area with more and better
amenities such as electricity and good drinking water.
The findings of the study also showed that the educated youths were unemployed
because they were mainly interested in white collar jobs which were often nonexistent. The mentality is that since one has been to school it is only appropriate to
sit in an office and work. This results in voluntary unemployment. Thus, even when
other jobs exist they refuse to accept them because they think the jobs do not befit
their status as educated people.
As regards how education in the communities contributes to youth unemployment,
the study found that it was manifested in lack of facilities to enhance the quality of
learning; the youth dropping out of school; and the inadequate educational
institutions to cater for the educational needs of the youth. It is not surprising that
lack of employable skills was identified among the most important factors
contributing to educated youth unemployment. As noted by Ogbu and Ikiara (1995)
the low quality of education and the failure to relate curricula to the needs of both the
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private and public sectors of the economy have contributed to the mismatch of skills
of youth labour markets in Africa and for that matter, unemployment. The lack of
effective counselling systems in the schools to guide students in pursuing their future
careers is also another important issue worth commenting on. Career guidance and
counselling help students to become aware of their strengths and weaknesses and also
to explore where their values and interests lie. This enables the students to access
valuable information about details of career, industry outlooks and job prospects for
the future. Most importantly, it helps students to know that there is a match between
their chosen career and their personality, self-efficacy, and self-concept as well as
build resume that will make them more marketable.
Giving their impressions on
how educated youth unemployment negatively impacts on community socially, over
90% of the respondents agreed that poverty level was too high and that most youths
ended up in the streets, selling all sorts of things and sleeping anywhere. Since many
Ghanaians normally have large families, if the elder siblings continue to depend on
the families after schooling then there is the likelihood that some school children will
be found on the streets selling various items to support themselves and their parents.
About 90% of the respondents also agreed that most youths take to social vices such
as prostitution and begging for money, which supports ILOs (2005) finding that the
unemployed youths survive by engaging in various activities such as petty trading,
casual work, borrowing, stealing, pick pocking, prostitution, touting and other illegal
activities. This is not unanticipated because as noted by the ILO (2005) an inability to
find employment creates a sense of uselessness and idleness among young people
that can lead to increased crime, mental health problems, violence, conflicts and drug
taking.
Educational Implications
Concerning educational implications of youth unemployment over 90% of the
respondents agreed that educational reform measures would have to be geared
towards tackling the problem of educated youth unemployment; the curricula of
schools would have to be tailored to suit the industrial, technological and
development needs of the society; the value of education for both girls and boys must
be stressed to all parents; that many more schools should be devoted to technical and
vocational education that would equip students with employable skills.
Without doubt, more than ever before, this is the time to harness the potential of all
our young people if we are to curb the growing unemployment problem. Developing
young peoples employability should be a key policy issue for ensuring their
138
successful transition to the labour market and access to career-oriented employment.

This involves helping to ensure that they acquire the skills, knowledge and attitudes
that will allow them to find work and to cope with unpredictable labour market
changes throughout their working lives. This calls for effective collaboration between
educational institutions and industries. The stress on vocational and technical
oriented type of education should be deemed most appropriate. Providing young
people with the option of following a vocational pathway at an early age that
combines school-based education with training at the workplace is perhaps the surest
way of ensuring their employability. Unquestionably, students who graduate with
relevant work experience have a far greater chance at landing a job. Thus, the great
value attached to general education by pupils, parents and the society as a whole
should be equally attached to vocational education.
Another issue worth discussing is the claim by majority of the respondents that since
many youths in the communities were unemployed, it did not motivate others to
continue schooling. There is indeed an element of truth in that. If young students see
their older siblings who have graduated from school struggling for employment
without success, they will surely be discouraged and not motivated to make all the
sacrifices associated with schooling.
The findings of the study also suggest that educational institutions should provide a
variety of support services, like counselling, placement and evaluation services. It is
particularly important that the institutions gather appropriate information about their
results and use these to improve the quality of their programmes.
Finally, in developing young peoples employability, education policies should aim
at augmenting the quality of initial education/training and by making school diverse,
flexible and attractive enough to meet the interests and aspirations of the widest
possible range of young people.
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings discussed and their educational implications, it is
recommended that the government of Ghana should come out with measures to
mitigate the hardship which people go through in rural areas, since that serves as a
push factor leading to rural urban migration and subsequently unemployment. For
example the government can make agriculture lucrative by subsidizing agricultural
inputs and making acquisition of land easy and available to the youth.It was found
out that unemployment was riffed because of the absence of job opportunities in the
139
VOL.14, NO.1, PP.122-143
communities. Consequently, it is recommended that the government should

encourage private investors to create jobs by creating an enabling environment for
businesses to thrive since she cannot do it alone. Really, it is important to
acknowledge that the aggregate volume of economic activity is the major
determining factor of youth unemployment, and that a sound combination of
macroeconomic and structural policies are needed to lay the foundation for solving
youth labour market problems. There is the need to intensify the provision of
counselling services in the schools. The counselling units in the schools should
endeavour to assist students match their career aspirations with their talents, abilities
and self-concepts. Students should also be encouraged to discard the notion that
school education is only good for white collar jobs. It is also recommended that about
three quarters of the secondary grammar schools in Ghana should be turned into
secondary/technical schools. If this is done the impression created in Ghana that
technical and vocational education is for the academically weak students would be
discarded and children will value the acquisition of technical and vocational skills.
The government should revisit the continuation school system where
pupils/students are made to learn under the tutelage of master craftsmen or artisans
and helped learn a trade before completing the junior high school. This will help to
get children out of the streets since they would have acquired trades that will enable
them earn a living after leaving school. It will also reduce robbery, prostitution and
other social vices that the youth engage in.
Again, it is recommended that the school curricula should be tailored to suit the
industrial, technological and developmental needs of the society. Enhancing the
employability of the youth through better education is thus required. Education
curricula need to be made more relevant to labour market needs. To this end there
should be a search for ways to update curricula and qualifications in faster and more
flexible ways.
Finally, to stem the tide of unemployment, it is important for the educational
institutions to keep in touch with the realities of industries and the expectations of
employers regarding school leavers and graduates. This will enable the institutions
better understand the needs of industries, communities and society in general to
respond to these needs.
140
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