OperationsandMaintenanceofMobileCommunications,

BBNetworking,SwitchingTechnologiesand
FiberOptics
ASUMMERINTERNREPORT
Submittedby

JAWEEDAKHTAR
RollNo:B082832
inpartialfulfillmentofSummerInternshipfortheawardofthedegree
of

BACHELOROFTECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS&COMMUNICATIONSENGINEERING

RGUKTBASARCAMPUS
RajivGandhiUniversityofKnowledgeTechnologies(RGUKT)
Basar,Adilabad(dist),Andhrapradesh

July2013

BHARATHSANCHARNIGAMLIMITED
O/O.GMTDBSNL
Opp.RailwayStationMahabubnagar
Mahabubnagar509050
Andhrapradesh

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the summer internship project report on Mobile
Communications,Broadband,Networking&IT,SwitchingTechnology& Marketing
and Transmission Technologyis the bonafide work of JAWEED AKHTAR,
RollNo:B082832,3rdYearB.TechinElectronicsandCommunicationsEngineeringof
RGUKT Basar Campus of Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies
(RGUKT),AndhraPradeshcarriedoutundermysupervisionduring15052013to
09072013.
Place:
Date:

Acknowledgement

ItiswithadeepsenseofgratitudeIacknowledgethisGoldenopportunity
providedtomebythemanagementofBharatSancharNigamLimited
Mahabubnagar509050,forthemostvaluableindustrialtrainingfrom15thMay2013
to9thJuly2013.
IamthankfultoSri.B.HanumanthaRao(Asst.GM)forallowingmetoobserve
andstudyabouttheirsophisticatedElectronicsandCommunicationEquipmentsin
DistrictExchangeBhavanandcompletingthisIndustrialTrainingsuccessfully.
IwouldliketoexpressmyspecialthankstoSriT.KrishnaReddy(JTO)forhis
valuableguidance,suggestions,cooperationandencouragementwhichleadtothe
successfulcompletionofMobileCommunications
Itisindeedagreatoccasionformetoexpressmyheartfullgratitudeand
respecttoourSri.B.Laxmiprasad(JTO)andSri.D.Nagraj(SDE)whoseconstanthelp
andencouragementhelpedmeinsuccessfulcompletionof
Broadband,Networking&IT.
MySpecialthankstoSmt.P.Vijayalaxmi(SDE),Sri.B.Laxmiprasad(JTO)and
Sri.S.DhileshwarRaowhoseconstantguidanceandmotivation,whichleadmeto
learnmuchaboutSwitchingTechnologies&Marketing.
IalsoexpressmygratitudetoSri.T.BabuRao(SDE),SriV.RangaRao(JTO)
whohelpedmetoexpandmyknowledgeinTransmissionTechnologies.
IonceagainthankNagrajsirandallwhowereassociatedwithmefortheir
keeninterestandgeneroushelpextendedtomeandmakingmyendeavorsagreat
success,whichareunforgettableandvaluableexperienceinmylife.

Abstract
ThepurposeofthisreportistogiveindetailedinformationabouttheconceptofGSM,CDMA
Technologies,GPRSandEDGEinMobilecommunications.Whichincludesthemainconceptslike
callprocessing,2Gand3G.Whenwecallfromourmobileitcanbeprocessfurtheronlywhenit
catchesthesignalsfromBTSandthenitreachesthedestinationpointviaBSCandMSC.Thesame
processtakesplaceinaccessinganinternetinwirelesscommunicationsystems.
ItgivesaglobalunderstandingofDSLTechnologieslikebroadband,NetworkingandIT.The
operationsinvolvedinthisistooptimizethetechnicalresourceslikeswitchesinsteadofusingHubs
inrouting,allocationofanIPaddressestotherapidlygrowingusersandprovidehispeed
uninterruptedbroadbandservices.Thisledustounderstandthenetworkinginvolvedinhomeline
broadbandconnections.
ItalsoincludestheconceptsofSwitchingTechnologies.SpecificallyCDOTSwitch.TheMain
ObjectiveofCDOTistodesignanddevelopdigitalexchangessuitableforIndianenvironment.C
DOTDSSMAXisauniversaldigitalswitchwhichcanbeconfiguredfordifferentapplicationsas
local,transit,orintegratedlocalandtransitswitch.
Finally,itprovidesanoverviewofanOpticalsystems.SinceOpticalfibersarethecheapestand
saferwaytotransferhighamountofdata,becauseithasunlimitedbandwidth.Thefunctionofan
Opticalsystemstoconverttheelectricalsignalsintolightsignalandviceversasothatitcanbe
transferlongerdistancethroughopticalfibers.Therearemanytypesoffiberswhichhasdifferent
capacitiesandperformance.

Contents
1. MobileCommunications
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

Introduction
GSMPrinciples
CellularTechnology
GSMNetwork
CallProcessing
Handoffs
GPRS
EDGE
CDMATechnologies

2. DSLTechnologies&Networking
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Broadbandtechnology
2.3 BroadbandServices
2.4 BroadbandCPENetwork
2.5 TCP/IP

3. SwitchingTechnologies

3.1 DifferentTypesofElectronicExchanges
3.2 IntroductiontoCDOT
3.3 CDOTDSSFamily
3.4 CDOTANRAXframestructure
3.5 CDOTSBMandMBMstructures

4. TransmissionTechnologies

4.1 TheoryandPrinciplesoffiberOptics
4.2 ConstructionofO.F.Cable
4.3 TypesofFibers
4.4 FiberOpticalTransmissionSystem(FOTS)
4.5 Applications

ListofTables:
Table1.2.1GSMFrequencies
Table:1.7.1ComparisonbetweenGSMandGPRS
Table:2.2.1Broadbandtechnologies
ListofFigures:
1.2.1UpandDownlink
1.3.1Cell
1.3.2Cluster
1.3.3Cellradius
1.4.1AreaRelationsinGSM
1.4.2GSMarchitecture
1.4.3BTS
1.4.4AtypicalGSMArchitecture
1.6.1kindsofHandoffs
1.8.1GSMEvolution
1.9.0SchematicdiagramoftimedomainsandfrequencydomainsofFDMA,TDMAandCDMA
1.9.1ForwardandbackwardtransmissionandreceivinginCDMAtransmissionsystem
1.9.2QCELPvariableratevocoderblockdiagram
1.9.3Evolutionfrom2Gto3G
2.4.1CPInstallations
2.4.2BridgeMode
2.4.3RouterMode
2.5.1TCP/IPprotocols
2.5.2bustopology
2.5.3ringtopology
2.5.4startopology
2.5.5Meshtopology
3.1.1BasicTelephoneexchangediagram
3.1.2TelephoneNetwork
3.1.3CallRoutingdiagram
3.1.4HardwareconfigurationofANRAX
3.5.1SBM&MBMsystemArchitecture
3.5.2AnalogTerminalUnit
3.5.3DigitalTerminalUnit
3.5.4SignalingUnitModule
3.5.5ISDNTerminalUnit
3.5.6Timeswitchunit
3.5.7Baseprocessorunit
4.1.1Propagationoflightinfiber
4.2.1TypicalCoreandCladdingDiameters
4.3.1Multimodestepindex
4.3.2SingleModestepindex
4.3.3MultimodeGradedindex

4.3.4AttenuationduetoAbsorption
4.3.5AttenuationduetoScattering
4.3.6LossandBends
4.4.1DifferentPDHbitratesusedindifferentcountries
4.4.2MUXStages
4.4.3CompatibilityofSDHwithPDH
4.4.4TerminalMultiplexer
4.4.5ADM
4.4.6DigitalCrossConnects
4.4.7BlockSchematicofDWDM
4.4.8OADM
4.4.9OXC
4.4.10OSCSchematicdiagram
ListofPhotographs:
1.4.1BSC
3.1.1MDF
3.1.2pillar
3.1.3DP
3.5.1SBM

S.No Acronyms

ListofAbbreviations:
Abbreviations

BTS

BaseTransceiverStation

BSC

BaseSwitchingController

MSC

MobileSwitchingCenter

SIM

SubscriberIdentificationModule

AUC

AuthenticationCenter

BSS

BaseStationSystem

EIR

EquipmentIdentityRegister

GGSN

GatewayGPRSSupportNode

HLR

HomeLocationRegister

10

VLR

VisitorlocationRegister

11

MT

MobileTerminal

12

SGSN

ServingGPRSSupportNode

13

TE

TerminalEquipment

14

EDGE

EnhancedDataratesforGSMEvolution

15

GPRS

GeneralPacketRadioSystems

16

UMTS

UniversalMobileTelecommunicationSystem

17

CDMA

CodeDivisionMultipleAccess

18

IMSI

InternationalMobileSubscriberIdentity

19

IMEI

InternationalMobileEquipmentIdentity

20

PIN

PersonalIdentificationNumber

25

ADSL

AsymmetricDigitalSubscriberLine

26

DSL

DigitalSubscriberLine

27

WiFi

WirelessFidelity

28

CPE

CustomerPremisesEquipment

29

DSLAM

DigitalSubscriberLineAccessMultiplexer

30

TCP

TransportControlProtocol

31

UDP

UserDataGramProtocol

32

MDF

MainDistributionFrame

33

DDF

Digitaldistributionframe

34

DP

Dropingpoint

35

CDOT

CenterforDevelopmentOfTelematics

36

BM

BaseModule

37

SBM

SingleBaseModule

38

MBM

MultiBaseModule

39

ISDN

Integratedsubscriberdigitalnetwork

40

ATU

AnalogTerminalUnit

41

DTU

DigitalTerminalUnit

42

CAS

Channelassociatedsignaling

43

CCS

Commonchannelsignaling

44

PDH

Plesiochronousdigitalhierarchy

45

SDH

Synchronousdigitalhierarchy

46

STM

SynchronousTransferMode

47

DWDM

DenseWaveLengthDivisionMultiplexing

48

PSTN

PublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork

49

DSL

DigitalSubscriberLine

50

E1

Europeandigitaltransmissionformat1

Chapter1
MobileCommunications
1.1Introduction:
INDIAhasadoptedGSMstandardforPublicLandMobileNetwork(PLMN).GSMstandsfor
GlobalSystemforMobileCommunications.Ithaslotofadvantageslikelowcost
,flexibility,innovativeservices,standardinterfaces,anditcanbeusedanytimeandanywhere.InGSM
TechnologythereisanEfficientuseofradiospectrumduetowhichitcanhandlehugeamountof
subscriberdensity.
1.2Principles
GSMworksontwotypesofPrinciplesi.eTimedivisionMultipleAccess(TDMA)andFrequency
divisionMultipleAccess(FDMA).Apartfromtheseithasfollowingfeatures
Operatesat900MHz.
InternationalRoamingfacility.
Powerclass0.8to20W.
CellRadiusupto35Kms.
Maximummobilityspeed250Km/hr.
TDMA:TimeDivisionMultipleAccessScheme
OneRadioFrequency=EightTimeSlots
OneTDMAFrame=EightTimeSlots
OneTimeSlot=OnePhysicalChannel
OneTimeSlotDuration=0.577m.sec

FDMA:FrequencyDivisionMultipleAccess
Scheme
UplinkFrequencyBand=(890915)MHz
DownlinkFrequencyBand=(935960)MHz
AbsoluteRadioFreqCarrierNumber(ARFCN)
Bandwidth=915890or960935=25MHzFig.1.2.1UpandDownlink
frequencies

Frequencies

AllocatedGSMFrequencyBands
GSM900MHZ

GSM1800MHZ

Uplink

890915Mhz

17101785Mhz

Downlink

935960Mhz

18051880Mhz

Duplexinterval

45Mhz

95Mhz

Bandwidth

25Mhz

75Mhz

Frequencyinterval

200Khz
Table1.2.1GSMFrequencies

200Khz

1.3CellularTechnology
1.3.1Cell:Abasestation(transmitter)havinganumberofRFchannelsiscalleda
Cell.
Eachcellcoversaalimitednumberofmobilesubscriberswithinthecell
boundaries(Coveragearea).TypicalCellRadiusAprrox=30Km(Startup)1Km
(Mature).
Therearethreetypesofcellsaccordingtodistanceorpopulation.
MICROCELL:Usedformostpopulation
MACROCELL:Usedforrural(less)population
UMBRELLACELL:Reducedno.ofcellsinhandover
1.3.2Site:MorethanonecelliscalledasSite.
1.3.3Cluster:AgroupofsiteiscalledasCluster.

Fig1.3.1CellFig1.3.2Cluster
COCHLINTERFERENCE:

Interferenceiscausedbyanothercell/mobileusingthesame
frequencyincell.Soweneedtoincreasethe
clusterdistanceofsamefrequencies.
Q=D/R
HigherQreducedcochlinterference.
LowerQIncreasecochlinterfaces.

Fig1.3.3Cellradius

1.4
GSMNetworkStructure:
Everytelephonenetworkneedsawelldesignedstructureinordertorouteincomingcalledtothe
correctexchangeandfinallytothecalledsubscriber.Inamobilenetwork,thisstructureisofgreat
importancebecauseofthemobilityofallitssubscribers.IntheGSMsystem,thenetworkisdivided
intothefollowingpartitionedareas.
GSMServiceArea:Totalareaservedbythecombinationofallmembercountrieswhereamobile
canbeserved.
PLMNServiceArea:Itisonenetworkarea.
MSCServiceArea:TherecanmanyMSC/VLRinone
PLMNarea:ItisoneMobileExch.Area.
GMSC:AllincomingcallsforPLMNN/WwillberoutedthroughGMSC.InaGSM/PLMNN/W
allmobileterminatedcallswillberoutedtoaGatewayMSC.CallconnectionsbetweenPLMNs,

ortofixednetworkmustberoutedtoaGMSC.TheGMSCcontainstheInterworkingfunctionsto
maketheseconnections.
LOCATIONAREA:ThereareseveralLAinaMSC/VLRcombination.ALAisapartofthe
MSC/VLRserviceareainwhichaMSmaymovefreelywithoutupdatinglocationinformationto
theMSC/VLRexchangethatcontroltheLA.WithinaLAapagingmessageisbroadcastinorderto
findthecalledmobilesubs.LAcanbeidentifiedbysystemusingtheLocationAreaidentity.
RelationamongareasinGSMisshownbelowinthegivefigure1.4.1

Fig.1.4.1AreaRelationsinGSM

GSMArchitecture:

OMC
B

BSS

Un

BSC

BTS

MS

VLR

MSC

Abis

HLR

AUC

E
Other

MSCs

Other
MSCs
VLRs

Other
Networks

EIR

Fig1.4.2GSMarchitecture

Mobilestations(MS)

:MobileStationisreallytwodistinctentities.Mobileequipmentorterminal
andSIMCard,MS=ME+SIM.TheMSmayincludeprovisionsfordatacommunicationaswellas
voice.AmobiletransmitsandreceivesmessagetoandfromtheGSMsystemovertheairinterfaceto
establishandcontinueconnectionsthroughthesystem.

Mobileequipment,whichistheactualHardware,isanonymous.EveryterminalhasanUnique
InternationalMobileEquipmentIdentity(IMEI)whichcanbeusedtoidentifymobileunitsthatare
reportedstolen.TheIMEIistheuniqueidentityoftheequipmentusedbyasubscriberbyeach
PLMNandisusedtodetermineauthorized(white),unauthorized(black),andmalfunctioning(gray)
GSMhardware.

SIMcard,issubscriberskeytothenetwork,implementedasasmartcardholdsthesubscriber

informationincludingauniqueidentifiercalledInternationalMobileSubscriberIdentity(IMSI),is
mobileidentitywithinthemobilenetwork,usableforanymobileequipmentsalsoforbilling
purposeandhasappropriatesecurityparametersandalgorithms.SIMisaremovableSCand
containsanintegratedcircuitchipwithamicroprocessor,randomaccessmemory(RAM),readonly

memory(ROM)andEEPROM.ItisinsertedintheMSunitbythesubscriberwhenhewantsto
usetheMStomakeorreceiveacall.IthasPersonalIdentificationNumber(PIN)toprotect.
FUNCTIONSOFSIMCARD:

Accesscontrol
Customization
Servicepersonalization
Networkbrandingandadvertising
Valueadditioninoperatorservices
Roaming

BaseTransceiverStation:
A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and is
controlledbyaBSC.BTSistypicallyabletohandlethreetofive
radio carries, carrying between 24and40 simultaneous
communication.ReducingtheBTSvolumeisimportanttokeeping
downthecostofthecellsites.
Functions:BTSistotransmitandreceiveradiosignalsfrom
a mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function
completely, the signals are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed,
modulated,andthenfedtotheantennasystematthecellsite.Fig1.4.3BTS
BTS transmits frequency and time synchronization signals over frequency correction channel
(FCCHandBCCHlogicalchannels.Thereceivedsignalfromthemobileisdecoded,decrypted,and
equalizedforchannelimpairments.
Transcodingtobring13Kbpsspeechor3.6/6/12datatoastandarddatarateof16Kbpsandthen
combiningfourofthesesignalsto64KbpsisessentiallyapartofBTS,though,itcanbedoneat
BSCoratMSC.Thevoicecommunicationcanbeeitheratafullorhalfrateoverlogicalspeech
channel. Transcoding o/p 64kbps and up to 30 such 64kbps channels are multiplexed on
2.048MbpsAbisinterference.
BaseStationController:
TheBSCisconnectedtotheMSCononesideandtotheBTSontheother.TheBSC
performstheRadioResource(RR)managementforthecellsunderitscontrol.Itassignsandrelease
frequenciesandtimeslotsforallMSsinitsownarea.TheBSCperformsthe
intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in its control. It also
reallocatesfrequenciestotheBTSsinitsareatomeetlocallyheavydemands
duringpeakhoursoronspecialevents.TheBSCcontrolsthe
powertransmissionofbothBSSsandMSsinitsarea.Theminimumpower
levelforamobileunit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC
provides the time and frequency synchronization reference signals
broadcastbyitsBTSs.
TheBSCalsomeasuresthetimedelayofreceivedMSsignalsrelativetothe
BTSclock.IfthereceivedMSsignalisnotcenteredinitsassignedtimeslotat
theBTS,TheBSCcandirecttheBTStonotifytheMStoadvancethetiming
suchthatpropersynchronizationtakesplace.photo:1.4.1BSC
ThefunctionsofBSCareasfollows.

TheBSCmayalsoperformtrafficconcentration
toreducethenumberoftransmissionlinesfromtheBSCtoitsBTSs,asdiscussedinthelast
section.
BASESTATIONSYSTEM(BSS):
TheBSSisasetofBSequipmentconsistingofaRadiotransmitter/receivercalledBTS(Base
TransceiverStation)andacontrollercalledBSC(BaseStationController)
TheBSSisviewedbytheMSCthroughasingleAinterface
asbeingtheentityresponsibleforcommunicatingwithMSCinacertainarea.Theradioequipment
ofaBSSmaybecomposedofoneormorecells.ABSSmayconsistofoneormoreBTS.The
interfacebetweenBSCandBTSisdesignedasanAbisinterface.
MobileSwitchingCenter(MSC):
Thenetworkandtheswitchingsubsystemtogetherincludethemainswitching
functionsofGSMaswellasthedatabasesneededforsubscriberdataandmobility
management(VLR).ThemainroleoftheMSCistomanagethecommunications
betweentheGSMusersandothertelecommunicationnetworkusers.Thebasic
switchingfunctionofperformedbytheMSC,whosemainfunctionistocoordinate
settingupcallstoandfromGSMusers.TheMSChasinterfacewiththeBSSonone
side(throughwhichMSCVLRisincontactwithGSMusers)andtheexternal
networksontheother(ISDN/PSTN/PSPDN).ThemaindifferencebetweenaMSC
andanexchangeinafixednetworkisthattheMSChastotakeintoaccountthe
impactoftheallocationofRRsandthemobilenatureofthesubscribersandhasto
perform,inaddition,atleast,activitiesrequiredforthelocationregistrationand
handover.
TheMSCisatelephonyswitchthatperformsalltheswitchingfunctions
forMSslocatedinageographicalareaastheMSCarea.TheMSCmustalsohandle
differenttypesofnumbersandidentitiesrelatedtothesameMSandcontainedin
differentregisters:IMSI,TMSI,ISDNnumber,andMSRN.Ingeneralidentitiesare
usedintheinterfacebetweentheMSCandtheMS,whilenumbersareusedinthe
fixedpartofthenetwork,suchas,forrouting.
MajorfunctionsofMSC:
Callsetup,supervisionandrelease
Digitcollectionandtranslation
Callrouting
Billinginformationandcollection
Mobilitymanagement(registration,locationupdating,handoff)
Pagingandalerting
Managementofradioresourcesduringacall
Interrogationofappropriateregisters(VLR/HLR)
EchocancellationandmanageconnectionstoBSS,MSCs,PSTN
HomeLocationRegister(HLR):ItislocatedinMSCanditcontainsalladministrativeinformation
ofeachsubscriberregisteredinanGSMnetwork.LogicallythereisoneHLRperGSM
network.Thedatabasealsoincludesthestatusinformationofeachmobilesubscribersandthe

locationinformation(VLRaddress)necessarytoforwardcallstohim..
VisitorLocationRegister(VLR):VLRContainsselectedadministrativeinformationfromHLR
neededforcallcontrolandprovisionofsubscribedservicesforeachmobilelocatedinthe
geographicalareacontrolledbyit.ThoughVLRcanbeimplementedasanindependentunit,VLR
andMSCareinvariablyimplementedforthesamegeographicalarea.

Fig1.4.4AtypicalGSMArchitecture

1.5CallProcessing
MobileOriginatedCallMOCallshave4phases:
SETUPPHASE:Callcontrol(CC)entitysendsasetupmessagetoitspeerentity.
RINGINGPHASE
CONVERSATIONPHASE
RELEASEPHASE
SETUPPHASE:Thisphaseinvolvesthefollowingsequences...
i.
REQUESTFORSERVICE(CHANNEL)BYMS
ii.
CMSERVICEREQUEST
iii.
AUTHENTICATION:TocheckidentityprovidedbytheMSandTosupplyn/w
parameterstoMStocalculateKc(CipherRadioChannel:64bits).

iv.
CIPHERING:isusedtoencryptdataonradiointerface.
v.
EQUIPMENTVALIDATION(EIRCHECK)
vi.
SETUPMESSAGE
vii.
VALIDATIONATVLR
viii. ASSIGNMENT
CallProcessinginvolvesroutingthroughdifferentkindsofChannelsthosearegivenbelow.
RFChannelsOverview:
BroadcastcontrolChannel(PMP):Itcarriesaboutcellselectioninformation.Itsisalwaysdownlink
BCCH:BroadcastcontrolChannel
FCCH:FrequencyCorrectioncontrolledChannel
SCH:Synchronizationchannel
CommonControlChannels(PP):
PCH(Downlink):PagingchannelisforincomingcallstoMS.
RACH(Uplink):RandomAccesschannelisusedforrequestingotherchannels.
AGCH(Downlink):AccessGrantchannelcarriesthephysicalchannelinformation.
DedicatedControlChannels(PP):ItisbothUplink&downlink.
SDCCH:StandardDedicatedControlChannelusedforregistrationpurpose.
FACCH:FastAssociatedcontrolchannel.Usedtosendurgentinformations.
SACCH:SlowAssociatedcontrolchannel.Usedtosendnonurgentinformations.

1.6Handoffs

GenerallyHandoversareofTwotypes
HardHandoverBreakbeforemake
SoftHandovermakebeforebreak

Fig.1.6.1kindsofHandoffs

1.7GeneralPacketRadioSystems(GPRS)
GeneralPacketRadioServices(GPRS)hasbeenspecifiedtooptimizethewaydata
iscarriedoverGSMnetworkswithnewrequirementsforfeatures,networkcapacity
andbearerservices.
GPRSisadataserviceforGSM,theEuropeanstandarddigitalcellularservice.Itisa
packetswitchedmobiledataservice,awirelesspacketbasednetwork.GPRS,furtherenhancing
GSMnetworkstocarrydata,isalsoanimportantcomponentintheGSMevolutionentitledGSM+.
HighspeedmobiledatausageisenabledwithGPRS.
InGPRSallthedatathathastobesent,issplitintoseveralsmallerdatapacketsfirst.
ThosepacketsarethensentindividuallyacrosstheGPRSnetworkandeachofthosepacketscan

travelonadifferentroute.Thepacketsarriveattherightdestinationaddressandcouldbe
reassembledintherightorder,becauseeverysinglepacketcontainsthedestination
addressandinformationaboutthesequencingofthedifferentpackets.InGPRS,oneusercan
occupymorethanonetimeslotormorethanoneusercanbeonasingletimeslot.
Dependingondifferentaspects,amaximumdatarateof171.2kbpscouldbe
achieved.
S.No

2GGSM

2.5GGPRS(GSMAdvanced)

Onlycircuitswitched

SupportsbothCircuitandpacketswitching

Noretransmissionisprovided.

MSUtilizesAutomaticretransmission(ARQ)atdata
linklayertoretransmiterrorframes.

Singletimeslotperuser.

Multipletimeslotscanbeallottedtoasingleuser

4
Simpletimebasedbilling
ChargingorbillingismoreComplex

Table:1.7.1ComparisonbetweenGSMandGPRS

1.8EnhancedDataratesforGSMEvolution(EDGE)
EDGEisatechnologythatgivesGSMNetworksthecapacitytohandleservicesfor3G.EDGEwas
developedtoenablethetransmissionoflargeamountsofdataatpeakratesofupto472kbps.Users
shouldexperienceaveragespeedsof80kbpsto130kbps.EDGEdeploymentwillbeginin2003
withfulldeploymentfinishingin2004.EDGEdevicesarebackwards
compatiblewithGPRSandwillbeabletooperateonGPRSnetworkswhereEDGEhasnotyetbeen
deployed.
UniversalMobileTelecommunicationSystem(UMTS):
UMTSisa3Gmobilecommunicationstechnologythatprovideswidebandcodedivisionmultiple
access(CDMA)radiotechnology.TheCDMAtechnologyoffershigherthroughput,realtime
services,
andendtoendqualityofservice(QoS),anddeliverspictures,graphics,videocommunications,and
othermultimediainformationaswellasvoiceanddatatomobilewirelesssubscribers

Fig1.8.1GSMEvolution

1.9CodeDivisionMultipleAccess(CDMA)Technologies:
1.9.0Introduction

Thewirelessmultipleaccessmodescurrentlyinuseinclude:FDMAinanalogsystems,andTDMA
and CDMA in digital systems. The theoretical basis for the realization of multiple access
connections is the signal division technology. That is, suitable signal design is made at the
transmittingendsothatthesignalssentfromdifferentstationsaredifferent;thereceivingendhas
thesignalidentifyingcapability,andcanchoosethecorrespondingsignalfrommixedsignals.When
multipleaccessmobilecommunicationisestablishedbasedonthedifferenceofcarrierfrequencies
of the transmission functions, the multiple access mode is called Frequency Division Multiple
Access(FDMA);whenmultipleaccessmobilecommunicationisestablishedbasedonthedifference
of signal existence time, it is called Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) mode; when the
multipleaccessmobilecommunicationisestablishedbasedonthedifferenceoftransmissionsignal
codeforms,itiscalledCodeDivisionMultipleAccess(CDMA)mode.Fig.12givesaschematic
diagramofthetimedomainsandfrequencydomainsofFDMA,TDMAandCDMAtransmission
processes.

Fig1.9.0SchematicdiagramoftimedomainsandfrequencydomainsofFDMA,TDMAandCDMA

1.9.1ConceptofCDMA:
CDMAreferstosuchatechnologythatthetransmittingendmodulatesthesignalsthatitsends
usingmutuallydifferentand(quasi)orthogonalpseudorandomaddresscodes,andthereceivingend
detectsthecorrespondingsignalsbydemodulatingthemixedsignalsusingthesamepseudorandom
addresscodes.
1.9.2Conceptofspreadspectrumcommunication:
AspreadspectrumtechnologyisadoptedinCDMAtransmissionsystems.Spreadspectrum
technologyreferstosuchatechnologythattheoriginalsignalsareconvertedtotransmissionsignals
with much wider bandwidth the original, so as to achieve the antiinterference purpose of the
communicationsystem.
Shanonequation:C=Blog2(1+S/N)
Where,Bisthechannelbandwidth,Sistheaveragesignalpower,Nistheaveragenoisepower,and
Cisthechannelcapacity
FromequationS/Ndecreases,thepurposeofhighqualitycommunicationcanbeachievedwithout
reducingthesystemcapacity,aslongasthebandwidthBisincreased.


1.9.3TechnicalfeaturesofCDMA
1.Invisibilityandsecurity;
2.Strongantiinterferenceandantimultipathability;
3.Realizationofmultipleaccesstechnology,increaseofcapacityandimprovement offrequency
reusepattern;
4.Wide frequency band seizure, increased system complicity and high synchronization
requirement.

1.9.4PrincipleofCDMAtransmissionsystem
CDMAwirelesstransmissionsystemstructure:
InCDMAcommunicationsystems,thepseudorandomaddresscodesareperiodiccodeseries
withstrongselfcorrelationbut0orverysmallmutualcorrelation.Basedonthedifferentsignal
modulationmodes,CDMAsystemscanbedividedintoDSCDMAsystemandMCCDMAsystem.
InaDSCDMAsystem,i.e.thesocalleddirectspreadcodedivisionmultipleassesssystem,
specificspreadspectrumcodesareusedatthetransmittingendtoperformtimedomainspread
spectrumprocessingtotheoriginalsignals,andthesamespreadcodesareusedatthereceivingend
forthesignaldemodulationtoobtainfinallytherequiredusefulsignals.InaMCCDMAsystem,i.e.
thesocalledmulticarriercodedivisionmultipleassesssystem,specificspreadspectrumcodesare
usedatthetransmittingendtoperformfrequencydomainspreadspectrumprocessingtotheoriginal
signals,andthesamemethodisusedatthereceivingendforthesignaldemodulationtoobtain
finallytherequiredusefulsignals.SincetheMCCDMAsystemworksinfrequencydomain,thefast
Fouriertransformation(FFT)technologymustbeemployedatthetransmittingend,whileinversed
Fouriertransformation(IFFT)technologymustbeusedatthereceivingend.
InacommercialCDMAcellularmobilecommunicationsystem,CDMAismainlycombinedwith
thedirectspreadingtechnologytoformtheDSCDMAsystem.

Fig.1.9.1ForwardandbackwardtransmissionandreceivinginCDMAtransmissionsystem
ThemainstandardsusedintheCDMprocessareasfollows:
1.Eitherinforwardorbackwarddirection,thesignalshavetobeprecodedfirst,andcorresponding
decodingprocessingistobeperformedintherespectivereceivingprocess;
2.Frequencydivisionduplex(FDD)modeisadoptedasthetransmissionmode;
3.Qualcomvariableratecodeexcitedlinearprediction(QCELP)modeisusedforvoicecoding;

4.Theconvolutioncodingandblockinterleavingcombinationmodeisadoptedforchannelerror
correction;
5.QPSKisadoptedforforwardmodulation,and/4QPSKisadoptedforbackwardmodulation;
6.Thespreadspectrumsignalrateis1.2288Mbit/s;
7. Frequency bands: 824849MHz (backward channels/BS receiving), 869894MHz (forward
channels/BStransmission);
8.Carrierseparation:1.25MHz
1.9.5CriticaltechnologiesinCDMAwirelesstransmissionsystem
Several new technologies are used in the CDMA wireless transmission system to improve the
systems safe and stable operation, and thereby the systems service quality has been largely
enhanced. The following paragraphs will present a brief introduction of the major critical
technologies.
Voicecodingtechnology
TheCDMAwirelesstransmissionsystemadoptsQCELPvariableratevocodertechnology.The
purposeistolowerthedatatransmissionrateasmuchaspossiblewhilekeepingthecommunication
qualityatacertainlevel.QCELPmainlyusescodetablevectorquantificationdifferentialsignals,
and then generates a variable output data rate based on the voice activation level. Generally
speaking,foratypicaltwopartycall,theaverageoutputdatarateisalmosttwice,ormorethan
twice,lowerthanthemaximumdatarate.
Theimplementationprocessisbrieflydescribedasfollows:Theinputvoicesignalsaresampled
at8kHzfirst,thentheyaredividedintomany20mslongframestogeneratesubframesparameter
framescontainingthreetypesofparameters(linearpredictioncodefilter,toneparameterandcode
tableparameter).Thethreetypesofparametersareconstantlyupdated,andtheupdatedparameters
aretransmittedtothereceivingendaccordingtoacertainframestructure.Oftheseparameters,the
linearpredictioncodefilterparameterisupdatedonceper20ms(oneframe)underanydatarate,
whilethetoneparameterandcodetableparameterchangewiththeselecteddatarate.

Fig.1.9.2QCELPvariableratevocoderblockdiagram
Voiceactivationtechnology

Generally,themobilesubscribervoiceactivationunremittanceprobabilityis35%.IntheCDMA
transmission system, making use of this feature, when all subscribers share the same wireless
channelandattheinstancewhenthereisnoinformationtransmissionamongthesubscribers,the
vocoderoutputratecontrollertransmittingpowerisreducedorstopstransmission,thusthesystem

capacityisincreasedbynearly3times.

Synchronizationtechnology

In the CDMA transmission system, the importance of synchronization lies in the systems full
application of orthogonality of spread spectrum codes. It is due to the introduction of
synchronizationtechnology,thesignalsofvariouschannelsareorthogonaltooneanotherratherthan
introducinginterference(infact,synchronizationerrormayintroducesomeinterference,butwitha
verysmalllevel).TherealizationofsynchronousCDMAincludesthreeprocesses:synchronization
detection,synchronizationestablishmentandsynchronizationholding.
Powercontroltechnology

IntheCDMAtransmissionsystem,theconditionfortheseparationofthesignalsofdifferentmobile
stationsusingtheCDMAmethodisthatthepowersofthereceivedsignalsofvariouschannelsare
basicallythesame,andthemethodtoensurethesamepowerofvarioussignalsistocontrolthe
transmittingpowerofthebasestationsandmobilestations.Thepowercontroltechnologiesinclude
forwardpowercontroltechnologyandbackwardpowercontroltechnology.Thebackwardpower
control technology can be further divided into mobile stationinvolved backward loop control
technologyandmobilestationandbasestationjointlyinvolvedclosedloopandouterloopcontrol
technology.Nomatterforwardpowercontroltechnologyorbackwardpowercontroltechnology,this
rulemustbefollowed:powerdecreaseshouldbefastandpowerincreaseshouldrelativeslow.
Softhandofftechnology

IntheCDMAtransmissionsystem,softhandofftechnologyreferstotheintercellhandoffusing
connecting the new cell before disconnect the original one mode, and it may occur in the
followingthreecases:betweendifferentsectorswiththesameBTS,betweendifferentBTSswithin
thesameBSC,andbetweendifferentBSCswithinthesameMSC.
Multiaccesstechnology
1.WalshCodes
Differentiatingforwardchannels:IntheCDMAsystem,eachforwardcodedivisionchanneluses
64levelWalshfunctionsofthebitrateof1.2288Mbit/sforspectrumspreading,sothattheforward
codedivisionchannelsaremutuallyorthogonal.
2.PNCodes
2151shortcode:Todifferentiatebasestations;
2421Longcode:Todifferentiatemobilestationsbackward,andusedforscramblingforward.
IntheCDMAsystem,twomseriesareused,oneis2421(r=42)longandtheotheris2151(r=15)
long. In forward channels, the m series with length of 2421 are used to scramble the service
channels,andthemserieswiththelengthof2151areusedfororthogonalmodulationoftheforward
channels. Different base stations use m series with different phases for modulation, with the
minimumphasedifferencebeing64bits.Thus,therecanbeupto512phasesavailable.
Inbackwardchannels,theserieswiththelengthof2421areusedfordirectspectrumspreading,with
eachsubscriberallocatedwithphaseofonemseries.CalculatedbytheusersESN,thesemseries
phasesarerandomlydistributedandnonrepeated,andtheseusersbackwardchannelsarebasically
orthogonal to one another. The PN code with the length of 2151 is also used for orthogonal

modulationofbackwardservicechannels.However,asitisnotnecessarytodifferentiatethebase
stationsonbackwardchannels,themseriesofthesamephaseisusedforallmobilestations,withits
phaseoffsetbeing0.
RAKEreceiver
Theforwardchannelreceiver(mobilestation)intheCDMAtransmissionsystemisequippedwith
threecorrelatorsandonesearchingcorrelator.ThesignalsmodulatedbyQPSKaresentthesethree
correlators,whichimplementtheseparationandreceptionofthesignalsofthesethreepaths.The
searchingcorrelatorisusedtogivethetimedelayvalues1,2and3oftherelatedaddresscodes,
andthenthereceivingsystemperformscomparisonbetweenthedelaydataandthecodeelementsto
determinethepathtobereceivedandthecorrectsamplingandjudgmentoftheweightcircuit,and
finallyobtainendmaximumoutputsignalsignaltonoiseratio.Inthebackwardchannelreceiver
(withinbasestation),thesignalprocessingmodeisbasicallythesamewiththatintheforward
channelreceiver,butwithanadditionalspacediversityreceivingcircuit.
Networkandcontroltechnologies
The CDMA system systems many supreme features are realized by means of the extremely
complicatedbutflexibleandreliablenetworkandcontroltechnologiesinthesystem.
Theinitialcontrolisimplementedonthewirelessinterface(i.e.theU interfacebetweenthe
mobilestationandthebasestation)throughthepilotchannel,synchronizingchannelsandpaging
channel in the forward channels, and the access channel in the backward channels. After the
establishmentofcommunication,thecontrolisimplementedonlybymeansofthesignalingservice
multiplexedintheservicechannelbetweentheforwardchannelsandbackwardchannels(suchas
intercellhandoff,powercontroltechnologyetc.).
Briefdescriptionsofthethirdgenerationcellularmobilecommunicationsystem:
Thethirdgenerationcellularmobilecommunicationsystem(3G)isalsocalledIMT2000,implying
thatthesystemsworkingfrequencybandis2000MHz,anditsmaximumserviceratecanbeashigh
as2Mbit/s.ItstechnicalbasisisbroadbandWCDMA,characterizedmainlybymultimediaand
intelligentfeatures.

Fig1.9.3Evolutionfrom2Gto3G
InFig.1.9.3IS95AintegratestheIPprotocolinthemobilephone,anditisnotnecessarytoinclude
theIPlayerinthenetworkspackettransmissionlayer.Astheresult,thehardwareiscompatiblewith
alltheIPbasedstandardnetworksinthefuture.ThedatatransmissionrateoftheIS95Anetworkis
14.4kbit/s;IS95Bincreasesthedatatransmissionrateto64kbit/sbyupgradingthecorenetworkand

wirelessnetwork,andmakesCDMAapacketmodenetworkbyaddingadatabasisdevicethrough
thebasestationcontroller;asthefirstphaseofCDMA2000,1XRTTdoublesthevoicecapacity,and
increasesthedatatransmissionrateto144kbit/s,anditisestimatedthatthetypicalrateavailablefor
the subscribers is 130kbit/s; 1XEVDO can provide highspeed packet data service on a carrier
frequency.Ifthesubscribersrequirevoiceoranyotherrealtimeservice,the1XEVDOsystemwill
automatically returns to 1XRTT, and execute and complete that service, and this process is
transparenttothesubscribers;1XEVDVisthesecondphaseofCDMA2000,withitsobjectbeing
integrating the capability on the first phase to the same carrier frequency, while keeping the
capabilityoftransmittingpacketdataservicesonseparatedcarrierfrequency.Thisphaseprovides
realtime,nonrealtime,mixedrealtime/nonrealtimeservicemodes,andadatatransmissionrate
ashighas2Mbit/s.

********

2.1Introduction

Chapter2
DSLTechnologies&Networking

DSLhasprovedtobeanimportanttechnologyforprovisioningofBroadbandservicesthroughthe
copperloop.Theownersofcopperloophavetobegivenahighprioritybecausetheirroleiscritical
askeydriversintheBroadbandservicemarketusingDSL.
BSNLandMTNLaswellasotheraccessprovidersareexpectedtoaggressivelyusetheircopper
loopinfrastructureforprovidingBroadbandservicesthroughthistechnology

whatisDSL?
DSLprovidesdedicatedbandwidththatcanbeupto278timesfasterthana28.8Kbpsmodem,143
timesfasterthan56Kbpsmodem,62timesfasterthanISDNandupto4timesfasterthanaE1(T1)
connection.That'sreallyfast!
Itsmainfeatureslistedbelow.
Features:
Evenbetter,DSLusesyourordinaryphonelinebutdoesn'ttieitupyoucanaccessthe
Internetwhileyouareusingthesamelineforconversationorfaxing.
youstayconnectedthere'snodialinguporwaitingforbusysignals.
DSLmayoffermorethan100timesthen/wperformanceofatraditionalanalogmodem
DSLusesthesametelephonelineastraditionalmodem
DSLremainsalwaysonallthetimeCustomernolongerneedtophysicallydialupto
theISPtologintotheinternet
DSLcanalsobeimplementedwithPPoE(PointtoPointProtocoloverEthernet)thatdoes
notsupportalwayson.Thisisrequiredwhenauthenticationisnecessary.
xDSLFamilies:
ADSL:AsymmetricDigitalSubscriberLine
HDSL:HighDataRateDSL
VDSL:VeryhighdatarateDSL
IDSL:ISDNDSL
RADSL:RateadaptiveDSL
SDSL:SymmetricDSL
Differenttechnologies:
NarrowBand:2.4kbps128kbps
Broadband:256kbps8000kbps
LAN:1000kbps100Mbps/GigaEthernet

2.2Broadbandtechnology
AnalwaysondataconnectionthatisabletosupportinteractiveservicesincludingInternetaccess
andhasthecapabilityoftheminimumdownloadspeedof256kilobitspersecond(kbps)toan
individualsubscriberfromthePointOfPresence(POP)oftheserviceprovider

Broadbandtechnologies

Wireless

Wireline

3GMobile

DSL(DigitalSubsLine)

WiFi(WirelessFidelity)

CableModem

WiMAX

OpticalFibreTechnologies

LMDS&MMDS
FSO(FreeSpaceOptics)

PLC(PowerLine
Communication)

Satellite

Table:2.2.1Broadbandtechnologies
2.3BroadbandServices
FollowingaretheservicesprovidedbyaBroadbandnetwork.
HighspeedInternetAccess
BandwidthonDemand
Multicasting
DialVPNService
VideoandAudioConferencing
ContentbasedServices
VideoonDemand
AudioonDemand
TVchannelsthroughbroadband.
IPTelephony
Messaging
MultisiteMPLSVPNwithQualityofService(QoS)guarantees.
WiFiWebhosting
Leaselineservice

2.4BroadbandCPENetwork
BroadbandComponents
1.
2.
3.
4.

CustomerPremisesEquipment(CPE)
DigitalSubscriberLineAccessMultiplexer(DSLAM)
LANSwitches:foraggregatingDSLAM
BroadbandRemoteAccessServer(BRAS)

5. SubscriberServiceSelectionSystem(SSSS)
6. RADIUSandLDAP
7. ProvisioningSystem

CustomerPremisesInstallation

Fig.2.4.1CPInstallations
ADSL:AsynchronousDigitalSubscriberLine
Splitter:Itseparatesthe300Hzto3.5Khzvoicechannelfromupstreamandreducestraffic
congestiondownstream

MultiUserCustomer

Fig.2.4.2BridgeMode

Fig.2.4.3RouterMode
DSLAMisanintegratedhardwareandsoftwaresystemthatallowstheusertoaccess
Broadbandservicesaswellasoriginateandterminatetelephonecallsoverthesamesinglepairof
copperwires
DSLAMaggregatesthesubscriberlines
DSLAMseparatesVoiceandDataoftheSubscriber,Voiceisgiventotheexchangeswitchand
DataisfedtotheIPNetworkthroughtheLANSwitch.
DSLAMshavebeencategorizedinto6typesbasedonno.ofports(480,240,120,64,32&16)
providedandplannedfordeploymentbasedontheexpecteddemand
BRAS:SupportsterminationofDSLcustomers.
AllotmentofIPaddresstocustomerActasanedgerouterforterminatingVPNtraffic.
Protocols:OSPF,BGPandLDPSupportsLawfulinterceptionandmonitoring
RADIUS:ThisinconjunctionwithBRASauthenticatescustomer,uploadcustomerprofileinthe
SSSSandkeepstrackofbilling.
LDAP:Itstorescustomerdatabasevizusername,passwordandthedefaultservicesthatitcan
subscribeto.
Provisioning:Thisisthemostcriticalcomponentsforensuringquickdeliveryofservice.Itensures
endtoendprovisioningofservicerightfromDSLCPEstoDSLAMtoSwitchtoBRAStoLDAP
NOTE:TheLDAP(DirectoryServer)andRADIUS(server)willbeabletohandleacustomerbaseof
8Lakhsassumingaconcurrencyrateof40%

2.5TCP/IP
Internetisnetworkofnetworks,withdifferenthardware/softwaretechnologies
alsoknownbythenameTCP/IPInternet,nameTCP/IPistakenfromthenamesoftheoneofthe
transportlayerprotocols(TransportControlProtocol)andthenetworklayerprotocol(Internet
Protocol).TCP/IPisbackboneoftheInternet
OSIismadeofsevenlayers.
TCP/IPprotocolismadeoffivelayers.
OSIModel
TCP/IPModel

FunctionsofLayers:
1.PhysicalLayer
Characteristicsofinterfacesandmedia,linecoding,topology,datarateandtransmissionmode.
2.Datalinklayer
Framing,Physicaladdressing,errorFlow&Accesscontrol.
3.NetworkLayer
Logicaladdressing,routing,packetisation,fragmentation,Internetworking
4.TransportLayer
Portaddressing,Segmentationandreassembly,ErrorFlowandConnectioncontrol.
5ApplicationLayer
Enablestheusertoaccessthenetwork,allowstouseElectronicmail,FTP,WWW,and
remoteloginandsoon.
TCP/IPProtocolSuite..

Fig.2.5.1TCP/IPprotocols

UserDataGramProtocol(UDP):
Providesunreliable&connectionlessservice
Transfersdatawithoutestablishingasession
Usedforservicesthathaveaninbuiltreliability
Doesnotuseendtoenderrorcheckingandcorrection
Doesnotorderthepackets;maylooseorduplicateapacket
RunsfasterthanTCPduetolessoverheads
InternetProtocol(IP):
Providesbesteffortorconnectionlessdeliveryservice.
Noerrorcheckingortracking
Ifreliabilityisimportant,IPmustbepairedwithareliableprotocollikeTCP
Transmitsblocksofdatacalleddatagramseachofwhichistransportedseparately
ResponsibleforIPaddressing
Datagramsmaytravelalongdifferentroutesandmayarriveoutofsequenceorduplicated.
ApplicationsusingTCP:
FileTransferProtocol(FTP)
SimpleMailTransportProtocol(SMTP)
TELNET
HyperTextTransferProtocol(HTTP)
ApplicationsusingUDP:
TrivialFileTransferProtocol(TFTP)
NetworkFileSystem(NFS)
SimpleN/WManagementProtocol(SNMP)
DomainNameService(DNS)
IPAddressing:EachhostonaTCP/IP
networkisuniquelyidentifiedattheIP
layerwithanaddress.TheIPv4addressis
32bitslong
IPv4AddressScheme
Indecimaltheaddressrangeis0.0.0.0to255.255.255.255
With32bits232=4billionIPAddressarepossible.
TheIPaddressisoftheform<networkID,hostID>
LANTopologies:Topologyisthewaythateachnodeisphysicallyconnectedtothenetwork
Commontopologiesinclude:
BUS
RING
STAR
MESH

 BUSTopology:

Amaincableisrunningwith
allnodesareconnectedtothislinearbus.

RINGTopology:

Allthenodesareconnected
inringstructurewitheachother.

Fig.2.5.2bustopology

Fig.2.5.3ringtopology
STARTopology:

Eachdevicehasadedicated
pointtopointlinktoacentralcontroller,likea
hub/switch.
Fig.2.5.4startopology
MESHTopology:

Ithasdedicatedpointtopoint
linkbetweendevices.

NetworkElements:

Fig.2.5.5Meshtopology

REPEATER:
ForRegeneratingthesignalsrepeaterisused.AlsocalledasLANExtenders.WorksinPhysical
Layer.Itsa2portdeviceandWorksinHalfduplexmode.Repeaterisaregeneratornotan
amplifier.RepeaterisnotadevicethatconnectstwoLANsofdifferentprotocols,Thelocationofa
repeateronalinkisvital.
HUB:AlsocalledasDummydevice.WorksinPhysicalLayer.Theactivecentralelementofthe
starlayout.WorksontheprincipleofBroadcasting.AllconnectedmachinescomeintooneB/C
domain.InaHUBoneB/CdomainandoneCollisionDomain.
Disadvantages:a)Broadcastingb)Singlecollisiondomain
c)Halfduplexoperationd)Bandwidthsharing
SWITCH:WorksinLayer2.Ithas8P/32Petc.switchesareavailable.Multiportdevice.
EveryportisfixedBandwidth.Incomingpackets(partofanEthernetframe)aresavedto
atemporarymemoryarea(buffer);theMACaddresscontainedintheframe'sheaderisreadand
thencomparedtoalistofaddressesmaintainedintheswitch'slookuptable(MACTable).Aswitch
hasoneB/CdomainandmanyC/D.

Advantagesofswitches:
Unicasting
Fullduplexoperation
Multiplecollisiondomains
Fullbandwidthavailabilityforeachport
ROUTER:Routersoperateatthenetworklayer.RoutersconnecttwoormoreLANs/WANsthatuse
thesameordifferentdatalinkprotocols,butthesamenetwork
protocol.WorksbasedonIPaddress.Routingtablesaremaintainedforpacketforwarding.
EachinterfaceisaseparateB/CandC/Ddomain.
GATEWAY:Usedforconnectingnetworksusingdifferentarchitectures.
Itwoksinall5layersofTCP/IP.
Gatewayconvertsonesetofcommunicationprotocolsto
someothersetofcommunicationprotocols.Thisincludes
a)Addresstranslation
b)Protocoltranslation
c)Messageformatconversion.

*******

Chapter3
SwitchingTechnologies
3.1EvolutionOfTelephoneexchanges
Switching:Settinguptemporaryconnectionbetweentwoormoreexchangeterminations,and

Transmissionofspeechandsignalsbetweentheseterminations,withreliableaccuracy
1.ManualExchange:ControlledbyanOperator
2.AutomaticExchange:
I) Scrowger(ControlledbySubscriberonly)
II) Crossbar(controlledbybothSubscriberandanOperator)
3.ElectronicExchange:Therearetwotypesofelectronicswitchingsystem
1 Spaceswitching:Spacedivisionswitchingwhereeachcallisallocatedaphysicalpath
throughasequenceofswitchesintheexchange.Thisisananaloguetechnique.Itisrelatively
old,andnonewinstallationsusethistechnique
2 Timeswitching:InTimeDivisionSwitching,anumberofcallssharethesamepathontime
divisionsharingbasis.Thecallisnotallocatedapaththroughtheexchange,butonlya
sequenceoftimeslots.Allnewexchangessinceabout1980usethistechnique.
TheseAllareCircuitSwitching.

DifferentTypesofElectronicExchanges:Switchingofincominginformationcanberouted
bydifferentSwitcheswhicharegivenbelow.Thefunctionalityoftheseswitchescanbevaried
accordingtodifferentclimaticconditions.
(1)CDOT:IndianMade
(2)E10B:FranceMade
(3)OCB:FranceMade
(4)EWSD:GermanyMade
(5)5ESS:USAMade

Functionsofanexchangeare:
i. Settingupof4typesofcallsi.eswitchingfunctions
ii. Exchangeofinformationwiththeexternalenvironment(Subscriberlinesorotherexchanges)
i.e.signaling.
iii. Processingthesignalinginformationandcontrollingtheoperationofsignalingnetwork,i.e.
control
iv. Routingand
v. Chargingandbilling
ConstraintsofElectronicexchanges:
Totalprotectionfromdust
Stablepowersupply
Temperature&Humiditycontrol
PCBRepair
Fasterobsolescence

BasicDiagramOfTypicalTelephoneExchange

Fig3.1.1BasicTelephoneexchangediagram
TelecommunicationNetworks
TwoTypesofNetworks:
1.LocalNetworkwhereCustomerisconnectedtotheTelephoneExchangeoncoppercable
2.TrunkNetworkwhereconnectivityisprovidedfromoneexchangetoanotheronOFC
TelephoneNetwork

Fig3.1.2TelephoneNetwork
Externalplantofanexchange:
MainDistributionFrame:
MDFWillHaveTwoSides.
1.LineSide
2.ExchangeSide
OnLineSide,100prAreTerminatedPerTagBlock
OnExchangeSide,NumberOfPairsVariesAsPerSwitchs
Technology

Photo3.1.1MDF

PILLARS:Oneexchangecanhaveanynumberofpillarsthat
arenecessitatedbasedonthetopographyofthatexchange
externalplant
UndergroundcablesthatconnecttheMDFandpillarsare
calledasPrimarycables.
U/GcablesthatconnectthepillarandtheDPsinthatpillar
areaarecalledasDistributioncables.
Photo3.1.2pillar
DP:ADPscapacitycanbe1,2,5,10,20or50pairs.
EachDPisgivena4digitnumber,in
whichthefirst2digitsindicatethepillarnumberinwhichthat
DPisworking.
ThroughaDropwire,theconnectionisextendedinto
customerpremises.

Photo3.1.3DP
TypesofTelephoneCalls:
Theprimepurposeofanexchangeistoprovideatemporarypathforsimultaneousbidirectional
transmissionofspeechbetween
LocalCall(Intraexgecall):OriginationandDestinationsubscribersareinsameexchange
OutgoingCall:DestinationSubscriberisoutsidetheexchange
IncomingCall:OriginationSubscribersisoutsidetheexchange
TransitCall:Bothsubscribersareoutsidetheexchange
CallRouting:
International
N/W

Fig3.1.3CallRoutingdiagram

3.2IntroductiontoCDOT
CDOTstandsforCenterforDevelopmentOfTelematics.
CDOTistotallydevelopedinIndiain1984byDr.SamPetroda,HeadQuartersatBangalore.
TheMainObjectiveofCDOTistodesignanddevelopdigitalexchangessuitableforIndian
environment.
CDOTDSSMAXisauniversaldigitalswitch,whichcanbeconfiguredfordifferentapplications
asLocal,Transit,orIntegratedLocal,andTransit(ILT)switch.Standardcards,racks,frames,
cabinetsanddistributionframesareusedwhichfacilitateflexiblesystemgrowth.

3.3CDOTDSSFamily
TheCDOTishaving4typesofExchanges.
(1)CDOT128RAX.
(2)CDOT256PRAX.
(3)CDOTSBM.
(4)CDOTMBM.
Alltheabove4typesofswitchingsystemsarecalledasDIGITALSWITCHINGSYSTEM(DSS)
FAMILY.

3.4CDOTANRAXframestructure
TheCDOT256PANRAXhasbeendesignedbyreconfiguringthebasicbuildingblockusedin
highercapacitysystemsoftheCDOTDSSfamily.Thesystemishighlymodular,andflexibletothe
changingtechnology.Thesoftwareisstructuredandclearinterfacesexistbetweenhardwareand
software.Theredundancyofcriticalcircuitryandexhaustivesetofdiagnosticschemesensurehigh
systemreliability.
The256PANRAXcatersto256terminationsandisbasedonthe256PRAXswitch,development
byCDOTmorethanadecadeago.Itavoidslongersubscriberlineloopsandprovides
telecommunicationfacilitiesinremoteareas.ItinterfacestoaLocalExchange(LE)overtwoE1
links,supportingV5.2protocol,andautomaticallyachievesnetworksynchronization.

Fig3.1.4HardwareconfigurationofANRAX

IdealforRuralApplications

The256PANRAXisidealforruralapplicationssinceitprovidesimmediatebasictelephone
connectionswithminimalinfrastructure.Itisaneasytoinstallfaulttolerantsystemwithinbuilt
redundancy.Besidesrequiringnoairconditioning,itcanwithstanddust,widetemperature
fluctuations(5Cto50C),humidityandsalinity.Moreover,itconsumesverylittlepower,
sustainingitselfdespitefrequentpowerfailuresduetolowbatterydrain.
AdministrativeFeatures:
Fieldprogrammabilityofparameters
Passwordprotection
UserfriendlyMMI
Serviceinterception
MaintenanceFeatures:
Remotemonitoring
Statusandalarmdisplay
Automaticsystemrecovery
Diagnosticsoncards
Linetesting
SubscriberFeatures:
DynamicO/Grestrictions
Callqueuing
Callwaiting
Maliciouscalltracing
Detailedcallrecording
Hotlinefacility
Calldiversion
Trunkoffer
PriorityLine
Detailedbilling

3.5CDOTSBMandMBMstructures
CDOTSBM:
ItistheTHIRDgenerationofCDOTDSSFamily.
ItistheDOUBLEthesizeofCDOT256PRAXand
alsoservesRuralAreasandSmallUrbanAreas.
Ithasatotalof2024terminationsanditcontains10
frames,BaseModule(BM)have488terminationsand
LM1have768terminationsandLM2have768
terminations.
ItisaRuralAutomaticExchange.
ItiscontrolledlocallybyInputoutputprocessor(IOP)
Module.
ItisnowreplacedbyCDOTRBMs(RemoteBase
Modules).

Photo3.5.1SBM

CDOTMBM
ItistheFOURTHgenerationofCDOTDSSFamily.
ItisalsocalledasMAX(MainAutomaticExchange)andservesUrbanAreas.
CDOTMAXisof2types.
(1)MAXL(Large):upto16no.ofBMsareconnectedtoMAX.
(2)MAXXL(ExtraLarge):upto32no.ofBMsareconnectedtoMAX.
MAXLhasacapacityof20,000Lines+3,000Trunks.
MAXXLhasacapacityof40,000Lines+6,000Trunks.
ItisaMainAutomaticExchange.
ItiscontrolledbyInputoutputprocessor(IOP)ModuleatOMC.
BASICBUILDINGMODULES:
BaseModule
CentralModule
AdministrativeModule
InputOutputModule

Fig3.5.1SBM&MBMsystemArchitecture
TheBaseModule(BM):Itisthebasicgrowthunitofthesystem.
Itinterfacestheexternalworldtotheswitch.
Theinterfacesmaybesubscriberlines,analogueanddigitaltrunks.
EachBaseModulecaninterfaceupto2024terminations.

Itcarriesoutmajorityofcallprocessingfunctions
TheSingleBaseModule(SBM):InSingleBaseModule(SBM)configuration,theBaseModule
actsasanindependentswitchingsystemandprovidesconnectionsto1500linesand128trunks.
Insuchaconfiguration,theBaseModuledirectlyinterfaceswiththeInputOutputModule.
Itisaveryusefulapplicationforsmallurbanandruralenvironments.
WithminimummodificationsinhardwareaBaseModule(BM)canberemotelylocatedasa
RemoteSwitchUnit(RSU),parentedtothemainexchangeusingPCMlinks.
CentralModule(CM):Itconsistsofamessageswitchandaspaceswitchtoprovideintermodule
communication.ItperformvoiceanddataswitchingbetweenBaseModules.
ItcommunicateswithAdministrativeModuleforoperationandmaintenancefunctions.
Italsoprovidesclockandsynchronizationonacentralizedbasis.
AdministrativeModule(AM):Itsupportadministrationandmaintenancefunctions
ItcommunicateswiththeBaseModuleviatheCentralModule.
ItsupportstheInputOutputModuleforprovidingmanmachineinterface.
ItalsosupportstheAlarmDisplayPanelfortheaudiovisualindicationoffaultsinthesystem.
InputOutputModule(IOM):Itisapowerfulduplexcomputersystem
Itinterfacesvarious2ndrystoragedeviceslikediskdrives,cartridgetapedriveandfloppydrive.
Itsupportsprintersandportsforvideodisplayunitswhichareusedformanmachine
communicationinterface.
HARDWAREARCHITECTURE
BASEMODULE(BM):ThesubscribersmaybeindividualorgroupedPBXlines,analogordigital
lines.Thetrunksmaybe:
1TwoWirePhysical
2E&MFourWire
3E&MTwoWire
4DigitalCASorCCS.
Functions:ThebasicfunctionsofaBaseModuleare
AnalogtodigitalconversionofallsignalsonanaloglinesandtrunksInterfacetodigitaltrunks
SwitchingthecallsbetweenterminalsconnectedtothesameBaseModuleCommunicationwith
theAdministrativeModuleviatheCentralModuleforadministrativeandmaintenancefunctions
Provisionofspecialcircuitsforcallprocessingsupporte.g.tones,announcements,MF/DTMF
senders/receivers
AnalogTerminalUnittointerfaceanaloglines/trunks,andprovidingspecialcircuitsas
conference,announcementsandterminaltester.
DigitalTerminalUnitforinterfacingdigitaltrunksi.e.2MbpsE1/PCMlinks
SignalingUnitModuletosupportSS7protocolhandlersandcallprocessingfunctionsforCCS7
calls.
ISDNTerminalUnittosupportterminationofBRI/PRIinterfaces
TimeSwitchUnitforvoiceandmessageswitchingandprovisionofservicecircuits.
BaseProcessorUnitforcontrolmessagecommunicationandcallprocessingfunctions.

AnalogTerminalUnit(ATU):TheAnalogTerminalUnit(ATU)isusedforinterfacing128
analogterminationswhichmaybelinesortrunks.
ItconsistsofterminalcardswhichmaybeacombinationofLineCircuitCards(LCC),CCBwith
Metering(CCM)cards,TwoWireTrunk(TWT)cards,E&MTwowire(EMT)TrunkcardsandE&M
Fourwire(EMF)trunkcards
provisiontoequipConference(CNF)card
Announcement(ANN)tosupport15userfriendlyannouncementmessages
TerminalTestController(TTC)fortestingofanalogterminations.
PowerSupplyUnit(PSUI)isused.

Fig.3.5.2AnalogTerminalUnit
AnalogSubscriberLineCards:SubscriberlinecardsasLCCorCCMwithinterfacesupto8
subscribers,providebasicBORSCHTfunctionsforeachline.
EachCCMcardhastheprovisionofbatteryreversalforallthe8lineswiththelasttwolines
havingprovisiontogenerate16Khzmeteringpulsestobesenttosubscriber'smeteringequipment.
outputoffourLCCsismultiplexedtoforma32channel,2MbpsPCMlinkalsocalleda
terminalgroup(TG).
AnalogTrunkCards:Analogtrunkcardsinterfaceanaloginterexchangetrunkswhichmaybe
ofthreetypesasTWT,EMTandEMF.
SignalingProcessor(SP)Card:SignalingProcessor(SP)processesthesignalinginformation
receivedfromtheterminalcards.
Thissignalinginformationconsistsofscan/drivefunctionslikeoriginationdetection,answer
detection,digitreception,reversaldetection,etc.
ThevalidatedeventsarereportedtoTerminalInterfacecard.
BasedontheinformationreceivedfromtheTerminalInterfaceController,italsodrivestheevent
ontheselectedterminalthroughscan/drivesignals.
TerminalInterfaceController(TIC)Card:TerminalInterfaceController(TIC)controlsthefour
terminalgroups(TG)of32channels,
Multiplexthemtoformaduplicated128channel,8MbpslinktowardstheTimeSwitch(TS).
Forsignalinginformationof128channels,itcommunicateswithSignallingProcessor(SP)to
receive/sendthesignalingeventonanalogterminations.
TerminalInterfaceControllerisbuiltaround8bitmicroprocessorwithassociatedmemoryand
interfaceanditisduplicatedforredundancy.
DigitalTerminalUnit(DTU):DigitalTerminalUnit(DTU)isusedexclusivelytointerfacedigital
trunks.
OnesetofDigitalTrunkSynchronization(DTS)cardalongwiththeDigitalTrunkController
(DTC)cardisusedtoprovideoneE1interface.EachinterfaceoccupiesoneTGof32channelsand
foursuchinterfacesshare4TGsinaDigitalTerminalUnit.

Fig3.5.3DigitalTerminalUnit
SS7SignalingUnitModule(SUM):AnyoneoftheATUorDTUinaBMcanbereplacedby
SUMframetosupportCCS7signalling.
Onlyonesuchunitisequippedintheexchangeirrespectiveofitsconfigurationorcapacity.

Fig.3.5.4SignalingUnitModule
ISDNTerminalUnit(ISTU):OneofthefourATUs/DTUsinaBMcanbereplacedbyISTUto
provideBRI/PRIinterfacesinCDOTDSS.
TheonlyconstraintisthatISTUhastobeprincipalTUi.e.directlyconnectedtoTSUon8Mbps
PCMlink.
ByequippingoneISTUintheexchange,amax.of256Bchannelsareavailabletothe
administratorwhichcanbeconfiguredasBRI,PRIoranymixaspersiterequirement.
DependingontherequirementofnumberofISDNInterfaces,oneormoreISTUscanbe
integratedinCDOTDSS,eitherinoneBMordistributedacrossdifferentBms.

Fig.3.5.5ISDNTerminalUnit
TimeSwitchUnit(TSU):TimeSwitchUnit(TSU)implementsthreebasicfunctions
AstimeswitchingwithintheBaseModule,routingofcontrolmessageswithintheBaseModule
andacrossBaseModulesandsupportserviceslikeMF/DTMFcircuits,answeringcircuits,tones,
etc.
Thesefunctionsareperformedbythreedifferentfunctionalunits,integratedastimeswitchunitin
asingleframe.

Fig.3.5.6Timeswitchunit
BaseProcessorUnit(BPU):BaseProcessorUnit(BPU)isthemastercontrollerintheBaseModule.
Itisimplementedasaduplicatedcontrollerwithmemoryunits.
Theseduplicatedsubunitsarerealizedintheformofthefollowingcards:
BaseProcessorController(BPC)Card
BaseMemoryExtender(BME)Card

Fig.3.5.7Baseprocessorunit
BPCcontrolstimeswitchingwithintheBaseModuleviatheBaseMessageSwitchandtheTime
SwitchController.
ItcommunicateswiththeAdministrativeProcessorviaBaseMessageSwitchforoperationsand
maintenancefunctions.
InaSBMconfiguration,BPCdirectlyinterfaceswiththeAlarmDisplayPanelandtheInput
OutputModule.
Tosupport8,00,000BHCA,theBPCcardisreplacedbyHighperformanceProcessorCard(HPC).
CENTRALMODULE(CM):CentralModule(CM)isresponsibleforspaceswitchingofinter
BaseModulecalls,communicationbetweenBaseModulesandtheAdministrativeModule,clock
distributionandnetworksynchronization.
Forthesefunctions,CentralModulehasaSpaceSwitch,SpaceSwitchControllerandaCentral
MessageSwitch.
CMprovidesconnectivityto16BMsifitisCMLand32BMsifitisCMXL.EachBMinterfaces
withCMviatwo512channelparallelbusesasBUS0andBUS1,eachoperatingat4Mbps.
Ina32BaseModuleconfiguration,thereare64parallelbusescarryingthevoiceinformationfrom
BaseModulestotheCentralModule,andalsotheswitchedinformationinthereversedirection.
SpaceSwitch(SS)andSpaceSwitchController(SSC):Inordertotakecareofthelargenumber
ofinterfacesignals,theswitchportionofCMisdividedintothreestagesviz.MUXstage,Switch
stageandDEMUXstage.
TheMUXandDEMUXstagesareimplementedonsinglecardtoprovidetheBaseModuleto
CentralModuleinterfaceineachdirection.
InterfacingandswitchingarecontrolledbySSCwhichprovidescontrolsignalsforthe
MUX/DEMUXcardsandtheSpaceSwitchSwitchcards.

ThesetimeslotscarrycontrolmessagefromeachBaseModuleandthesemessagesaresenttothe
CentralMessageSwitch(CMS).
ClockDistribution:CMprovidesthecentralclockfordistributiontotheBaseModules.
The8MHzclockmaybelocallygeneratedattheCentralClock(CCK)cardincaseofCMXLand
ofSpaceSwitchClock(SCK)cardincaseofCMLbyusinghighstabilityVCXOcrystal
ormaybederivedfromanexternalreferenceclockusingtheNetworkSynchronizationController
(NSC)cardincaseofCMXLandNetworkSynchronization
Equipment(NSE)incaseCMLunderthecontrolofSSC.
ADMINISTRATIVEMODULE(AM):AdministrativeModule(AM)consistsofaduplicated
16/32bitcontrollercalledtheAdministrativeProcessor(APC).
ItcommunicateswithBaseProcessorsviatheCMSforcontrolmessagesandwiththeduplicated
InputOutputProcessorsintheInputOutputModuleforinterfacingperipheraldevices
Administrativeprocessorisresponsibleforglobalrouting,translation,resourceallocationandall
otherfunctionsthatareprovidedcentrallyinCDOTDSSMAX
ALARMDISPLAYPANEL(ADP):Itisathreecardimplementation.AmatrixofLEDsis
providedtoindicatethemaintenancestatusoftheswitchunitsandtheirlevelofinitialization.
Asevensegmentdisplayshowsthecountoflinesandtrunkscurrentlyfaulty.
Keysareprovidedformanualacknowledgment,initiatingselftestandselectiveaudiodisable.
SignalingEquipment:
CAS(Channelassociatedsignaling):

Interexchangesignalingcanbetransmittedoverachannel
directlyassociatedwiththespeechchannel,usingCAS
CCS7(Commonchannelsignaling):Usescommonchannelforinterexchangepurpose.

********

Chapter4
TransmissionTechnologies

4.1 TheoryandPrinciplesoffiberOptics
BySnell'slaw,n1sin1=n2sing2
Thecriticalangleofincidencecwhere2=90o
Isc=arcsing(n2/n1)
Atanglegreaterthancthelightisreflected,Becausereflectedlightmeansthatn1andn2
areequal(sincetheyareinthesamematerial),1and2arealsoequal.
Theangleofincidenceandreflectionareequal.Thesesimpleprinciplesofrefractionand
reflectionformthebasisoflightpropagationthroughanopticalfiber.
Propagationoflightthroughfiber:Theopticalfiberhastwoconcentriclayerscalledthecoreand
thecladding.Theinnercoreisthelightcarryingpart.Thesurroundingcladdingprovidesthe
differencerefractiveindexthatallowstotalinternalreflectionoflightthroughthecore.

Fig.4.1.1Propagationoflightinfiber
4.2 ConstructionofO.F.Cable
AnOpticalfiberconsistsofacoreofopticallytransparentmaterialusuallysilicaor
borosilicateglasssurroundedbyacladdingofthesamematerialbutaslightlylower
refractiveindex.
Fiberthemselveshaveexceedinglysmalldiameters.Figureshowscrosssectionofthecore
andcladdingdiametersofcommonlyusedfibers.Thediametersofthecoreandcladdingare
asfollows(unitinmicrometers)

Fig4.2.1TypicalCoreandCladdingDiameters

4.3 TypesofFibers:
Therearethreetypesoffibers:
1.MultimodeStepIndexfiber(StepIndexfiber)
2.MultimodegradedIndexfiber(GradedIndexfiber)
3.SingleModeStepIndexfiber(SingleModeFiber)
Stepindexfiber
1.In"StepIndex"Fibers,therefractiveindexchangesabruptlyfromcladdingtocore.
2.Thepathsalongwhichtherays(modes)ofthisstepindexfibertraveldiffer,dependingontheir
anglesrelativetotheaxis.
3.Asaresult,thedifferentmodesinapulsewillarriveatthefarendofthefiberatdifferenttimes,
resultinginpulsespreadingwhichlimitsthebitrateofadigitalsignalwhichcanbetransmitted.
4. Thistypesoffiberresultsinconsiderablemodeldispersion,whichresultsthefiber'sband
width.

Fig4.3.1Multimodestepindex

Fig4.3.2SingleModestepindex
Gradedindexfiber
1.Thisfiberiscalledgradedindexbecausetherearemanychangesintherefractiveindexwithlarger
valuestowardsthecenter.Aslighttravelsfasterinalowerindexofrefraction.
2.So,thefartherthelightisfromthecenteraxis,thegraterisitsspeed.Eachlayerofthecore
refractsthelight.Insteadofbeingsharplyreflectedasitisinastepindexfiber,thelightisnowbent
orcontinuouslyrefractedinanalmostsinusoidalpattern.
3.Thoseraysthatfollowthelongestpathbytravelingneartheoutsideofthecore,haveafaster
averagevelocity.Thelighttravelingnearthecenterofthecore,hastheslowestaveragevelocity.

Fig4.3.3MultimodeGradedindex

ATTENUATIONS:Therearetwotypesofattenuations
i)Intrinsicii)ExtrinsicAttenuation
i)INTRINSICATTENUATION:Itislossduetoinherentorwithinthefiber.Intrinsicattenuation
mayoccuras
(I) AbsorptionNaturalImpuritiesintheglassabsorblightenergy.

Fig4.3.4AttenuationduetoAbsorption
II)ScatteringLightraystravellinginthecorereflectfromsmallimperfectionsintoanew
pathwaythatmaybelostthroughthecladding.
Lightislost

Fig4.3.5AttenuationduetoScattering

ii)EXTRINSICATTENUATION:Itislossduetoexternalsources.Extrinsicattenuationmayoccur
as
MacrobendingThefiberissharplybentsothatthelighttravellingdownthefibercannotmake
theturn&islostinthecladding.
MicrobendingMicrobendingorsmallbendsinthefibercausedbycrushingcontractionetc.
Thesebendsmaynotbevisiblewiththenakedeye.

Fig4.3.6LossandBends
DISPERSION:Itisdefinedasthespreadingoflightpulseasittravelsdownthefiber.ecauseofthe
spreadingeffect,pulsestendtooverlap,makingthemunreadablebythereceiver.

BANDWIDTH:Itisdefinedasthespreadingoflightpulseasittravelsdownthefiber.becauseofthe
spreadingeffect,pulsestendtooverlap,makingthemunreadablebythereceiver.
.NUMBERICALAPERTURE:Numericalaperture(NA)isthe"lightgatheringability"ofafiber.
Lightinjectedintothefiberatanglesgreaterthanthecriticalanglewillbepropagated.Thematerial
NArelatestotherefractiveindicesofthecoreandcladding.
NA= n12n22 wheren1andn2arerefractiveindicesofcoreandcladdingrespectively.
NAisunitlessdimension.
Dispersion:Dispersionisthespreadingoflightpulseasitstravelsdownthelengthofanoptical
fiber.Dispersionlimitsthebandwidthorinformationcarryingcapacityofafiber.
Therearethreemaintypesofdispersioninafiber:
(I)ModalDispersion
(II)Materialdispersion
(III)Waveguidedispersion
BANDWIDTHANDDISPERSION:Abandwidthof400MHzkmmeansthata400MHzsignal
canbetransmittedfor1km.Itmeansthattheproductoffrequencyandthelengthmustbe
400orless.Wecansendalowerfrequencyforalongerdistance,i.e.200MHzfor2kmor100
MHzfor4km.
Multimodefibersarespecifiedbythebandwidthlength
productorsimplybandwidth.
Singlemodefibersontheotherhandarespecifiedby
dispersion,expressedinps/km/nm.
4.4 FiberOpticalTransmissionSystem(FOTS)
DigitalTransmissionSystems:Digitaltransmissionsystemsandhierarchieshavebeenbasedon
multiplexingsignals,TransmissionSystemsaredividedinto2types.
Theyare
1)Plesiochronousdigitalhierarchy(PDH)
2)Synchronousdigitalhierarchy(SDH)
Plesiochronousdigitalhierarchy(PDH):Plesiochronousmeansrunningatalmostthesamespeed.
DifferentPDHbitratesusedindifferentcountriesintheworldisshownbelow.

Fig4.4.1DifferentPDHbitratesusedindifferentcountries

FOTScomprisesofthefollowingsubsystems...
1.Digitalmultiplexsubsystem
2.Opticallinetransmissionsystem
3.Centralsupervisorysystem
4.Transmultiplexersubsystem
5.Alarmsubsystem
6.Powersupplysubsystem
1.Digitalmultiplexsubsystem:Thedigitalmultiplexsystemcanbedividedintothreestages.
Secondordermultiplexer.
Thirdordermultiplexerorsecond/thirdorder
Fourthordermultiplexer.
Thesethreestagedmultiplexersdigitizeandmultiplex
signalsintofollowingdigitalbitstreamsof
1.2048kbit/s,
2.8448kbit/s,
3.34368kbit/s
4.139,264kbit/s.

Fig4.4.2MUXStages
2.Opticallinetransmissionsystem:Itconvertelectricalsignals,whicharereceivedfromMultiplexer
intoOpticalsignals.CapacityofOpticalfiberSysteminPDHConventional
(i)8Mb/s120channels(4PCM)
(ii)34Mb/s480channels(16PCM)
(iii)140Mb/s1920channels(64PCM)
(iv)565Mb/s7680channels(256PCM)
Optimux
2/34Mb/soptimux
2/140Mb/soptimux
DrawBacksofPDHsystems:
Commoncarriernationwidenetworks.
TelephoneInterofficeTrunklines.
Customerpremisecommunicationnetworks.
Underseacables.
HighEMIareas(Powerlines,Rails,Roads).
Factorycommunication/Automation.
Controlsystems.

Expensiveenvironments.
Highlighteningareas.
Militaryapplications.
Classified(secure)communications
Synchronousdigitalhierarchy(SDH):
ForsmoothtransformationfromexistingPDH,ithastoaccommodatethethreedifferent
countrystandardsofPDHdevelopedoveratimeperiod.Theaimofthesestandardswasto
simplifyinterconnectionbetweennetworkoperatorsbyallowinginterconnectionofequipment
fromdifferentvendorstotheextentthatcompatibilitycouldbeachieved.TheSONEThierarchy
from52MbitpersecondrateonwardswasacceptedforSDHhierarchy.
AdvantagesofSDHoverPDH:
PDHisnotsynchronousone.Differenttributarieshavedifferentbitrates,whereasSDHisa
globallysynchronizedone.
EventhoughthebandwidthofO.FCableisinfinite,themaximumbitratepossiblewithPDHis
565Mbpsonly,whereaswithSDHonecangomorethan40Gbps.
SDHhasselfhealingringfacility.
Capableofoperatinginamultivendorandmultioperatorenvironment.
FullymanagedwithNMS.
SDHiscapableofhandlingATM/Framerelay/Ethernetformats.
CapableoftransportingexistingPDHsignals.
CompatibilityofSDHwithPDH:

Fig4.4.3CompatibilityofSDHwithPDH
SDHBitRates:
STM1bitrate155.52Mbps
STM4bitrate155.52*4=622.08Mbps
STM16bitrate2.5GbpsApproximately.
STM64bitrate10GbpsApproximately
STM256bitrate40GbpsApproximately

NetworkElementsinSDH:
TerminalMultiplexers:Terminalmultiplexersareusedtocombineplesiochronousandsynchronous
inputsignalsintohigherbitrateSTMNsignalsasshowninFig.4.4.3below.
Onthetributaryside,allcurrentplesiochronousbitratescanbeaccommodated.Ontheaggregate,
orlinesidewehavehigherbitrateSTMNsignals
PDH
SDH

Terminal
Multiplexer

STMN

Fig4.4.4TerminalMultiplexer
Add/DropMultiplexer(ADM):Plesiochronousandlowerbitratesynchronoussignalscanbe
extractedfromorinsertedintohighspeedSDHbitstreamsbymeansofADMs.Thisfeaturemakes
itpossibletosetupringstructures,whichhavetheadvantagethatautomaticbackuppath
switchingispossibleusingelementsintheringintheeventofafault.

Fig4.4.5ADM
DigitalCrossConnects(DXC):Crossconnectionisasynchronousnetworkinvolvessettingup
semipermanentinterconnectionsbetweendifferentchannelsenablingroutingtobeperformed
downtoaVClevel.Thisnetworkelementcanhavewidestrangeoffunctionssuchasmapping
ofPDHtributarysignalsintovirtualcontainersandswitchingofvariouscontainersuptoand
includingVC4.

Fig4.4.6DigitalCrossConnects
Regenerators:Regenerators,asthenameimplies,havethejobofregeneratingtheclockand
amplitudeoftheincomingdatasignalsthathavebeenattenuatedanddistortedbydispersion.
Theyderivetheirclocksignalsfromtheincomingdatastream.Messagesarereceivedby
extractingvarious64kbit/schannels(e.g.servicechannelsE1,F1,etc.inRSOH)andalsocan
beoutputusingthesechannels.

DenseWaveLengthDivisionMultiplexing(DWDM):DWDMisatechnologyinwhichanumberof
opticalwavelengthsarecombinedandthentransmittedinasinglefiber.Singlefiberisfor
transmittingmorethanoneopticalsignalsimultaneously.asshowninfig4.4.7

fig4.4.7BlockSchematicofDWDM
TheFollowingStepsDescribesTheAboveSystem:
1.TheTransponderacceptsinputintheformofstandardsinglemodeormultimodelaser.Theinput
canfromdifferentphysicalmedia,differentprotocolsandtraffictypes.
2.ThewavelengthofeachinputsignalismappedtoaDWDMwavelength.
3.DWDMwavelengthsfromthetransponderaremultiplexedintoasingleopticalsignaland
launchedintothefiber.
4.Apostamplifierbooststhestrengthoftheopticalsignalasitleavesthesystem.
5.Opticalamplifiersareusedalongthefiberspanasneeded.
6.APreamplifierbooststheopticalsignalbeforeitenterstheendsystem.
7.TheincomingsignalisdemultiplexedintoindividualDWDMwavelengths.
8.TheindividualDWDMwavelengthsaremappedtotherequiredoutputtypeandsentoutthrough
thetransponder.
DWDMSystem:ItconsistsofthefollowingComponents.
Transponder
Multiplexers(Combiner)
Demultiplexers(Splitter)
OpticalFiberAmplifier(OFA)
OpticalAddDropMultiplexer(OADM)
Opticalcrossconnector(OXC)
Opticalsupervisorychannel(OSC)
Transponder:
TransmitTransponder:ThefunctionofTransmittransponderistoconverttheincomingoptical
signalintopredefinedopticalwavelength.
ThetransponderfirstconvertstheopticalsignaltoanelectricalsignalandperformsReshaping,Re
timingandRetransmittingfunctionsor(3RFunctions).
TheelectricalsignalisthenusedtodrivetheLASER,whichgeneratestheopticalwavelengthas
perITUGrid.
Theoutputfromallthetranspondersisfedtothecombinerinordertocombineallopticalchannels
inopticaldomain.

ReceiveTransponder:
Individualwavelengthsarefirstsplitfromthecombinedopticalsignalwithhelpofsplitterand
thenfedtoindividualreceivetransponders.
Thereceivetransponderconvertstheopticalsignaltoelectrical,does3Rfunctionsandfinally
convertthesignalbackintooptical.
SignalDirection:ITUGRID:DWDMsendingalargenumberofcloselyspacedopticalsignals
overasinglefiber.StandardsdevelopedbytheITU(InternationalTelecommunicationsUnion)
definetheexactopticalwavelengthusedforDWDMapplications.
ThecenteroftheDWDMbandliesat193.1THzandcentrewavelengthof1552.52nmwith
standardchannelspacingof200GHzand100GHz.
Standard"Channelspacingis100GHzallowstransmissionof45channelsononefiber.
MultiplexersandDemultiplexers:DWDMsystemssendsignalsfromseveralsourcesthrougha
singlefiber.Themultiplexertakesopticalwavelengthsfrommultiplefibersandconvergestheminto
onebeam.
AtthereceivingendtheDemultiplexerseparatesthesinglebeamintoitswavelengthcomponents
andcouplingthemintoindividualfibers.
Thesedevices(MUX/DEMUX)istominimizecrosstalkandmaximizechannelseparationand
interference.
Add/dropmultiplexer(OADM):OADMcanremoveorinsertoneormorewavelengths.Rather
thancombiningorseparatingallthewavelengths,theOADMcanremovesomewhilepassingthe
others.
OADMonlycandoopticalwavelengthsareaddedanddroppedbutnoconversionofthesignal
fromopticaltoelectrical.

Fig4.4.8OADM
OpticalAmplifier:Theopticalamplifierisusedtoamplifyallthewavelengthsatonceandboost
thesignalpoweraftermultiplexingandbeforedemultiplexing.
ThefiberopticamplifiercomponentoftheDWDMsystemprovidesacostefficientmethodof
takinginandamplifyingopticalsignalswithoutconvertingthemintoelectricalsignals.
DWDMamplifiesabroadrangeofwavelengthsinthe1550nmregion.
RequirementsofanOpticalIdealAmplifier:
Providehighgain
Havewidespectralbandwidth
Provideuniformgain

AllowBidirectionalamplification
AddminimumnoiseandLowcost
Havelowinsertionloss
Nocrosstalkandnointerferencebetween
components
Goodconversionefficiency
OPTICALCROSSCONNECT:OXCcantakefourinputfiberseachcarryingfourwavelengths
andrearrangethe16wavelengthsontothefouroutputfibers.
Awavelengthcanarriveononefiberandleaveonanotherfiber.
AwavelengthcanalsochangebyatransponderinOXCwillshuffleoneofthearrivedwave
lengthsandtransmitsanotherwavelengthtoanavailablechannel.

Fig4.4.9OXC
Opticalsupervisorychannel(OSC):

Fig4.4.10OSCSchematicdiagram

ADVANTAGESOFfiberOPTICS:
I.Opticalfibersarenonconductive
Cablescanbealldielectric.
II.ElectromagneticImmunity:
Immunetoelectromagneticinterference(EMI)
Noradiatedenergy.
Unauthorizedtappingdifficult.
III.LargeBandwidth(>5.0GHzfor1kmlength)
Futureupgradability.
Maximumutilizationofcablerightofway.
Onetimecableinstallationcosts.
IV.LowLoss(5dB/kmto<0.25dB/kmtypical)
V.Small,Lightweightcables.
EasyinstallationandHandling.
Efficientuseofspace.
VI.AvailableinLonglengths(>12kms)
Lesssplicepoints.
VII.Security
Extremelydifficulttotapafiberasitdoes
notradiateenergy
Highlysecuretransmissionmedium.
VIII.SecurityBeingadielectric
Itcannotcausefire.
Doesnotcarryelectricity.
Canberunthroughhazardousareas.
IX. Universalmedium
ApplicationsofOpticfibers:
Commoncarriernationwidenetworks.
TelephoneInterofficeTrunklines.
Customerpremisecommunicationnetworks.
Underseacables.
HighEMIareas(Powerlines,Rails,Roads).
Factorycommunication/Automation.
Controlsystems.
Expensiveenvironments.
Highlighteningareas.
Militaryapplications.
Classified(secure)communications
*******

Conclusions:
Callprocessinghasbeenunderstoodindetailed.
EvaluationofGSMandCDMAtechnologies(2G&3G)havebeenstudied.Itisfoundthat
landlinephoneisbetterthanwirelesstechnologiesbecauseofnoradiationeffectsandwhich
providesuninterruptedbroadbandservices.
GotabroadideainmaintenanceofCDOTswitch.
Differencesbetweendifferentopticalfibercableshasbeenknown.
UsesofOpticalfibersmakesustoreduceCopperwirecablestherebycostreduction.

References:

GordonL.Stber2011,PrinciplesofMobileCommunication
GovindP.Agrawal2012,FiberOpticCommunicationSystems
JamesN.Downing2004,FiberOpticsCommunications
JohnWileyandSons,2002.WCDMAforUMTS:RadioAccessforThirdGeneration
MobileCommunications,H.HolmaandA.Toskla,SecondEdition,
JuhaKorhonen2003,Introductionto3GMobileCommunications
NikilJayant,BroadbandLastMile:AccessTechnologiesforMultimediaCommunications
pptsprovidedbyBSNL
N.MarySDERTTCHyderabadMobileno:9490282822Emailid:nannam.mary@gmail.com
P.MunigangadharamJTORTTCHyderabadMobileno:9490182966munigangadharam@gmail.com
A.ViswanathSubDivisionalEngineerRTTCHyd
Websites:
http://www.cdot.in/solution_products/network_management.htm
http://www.mobilegprs.com/edge.htm