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Forensic Analysis of Fingerprints
Forensic Analysis of Fingerprints
Forensic Analysis of Fingerprints
James McClain
University Roll No.: 509/CH-044
Exam. Roll No.: A10/CH-014
P.G. Part – I (5th Year)
Department of Chemistry
James McClain
Date: PG 5th Year
CERTIFICATE
done by James McClain, exam roll no. A10/CH-014 during the period
of his study in the Department of Chemistry of Ravenshaw University under my
supervision & Guidance and the dissertation has not formed the basis for the Award of
any Degree / Diploma / Fellowship or similar title to any candidate of any other
University
Abstract
Crime scene investigation involves several aspects of chemistry when analyzing forensic
evidence. Forensic chemistry is a diverse field, involving analysis of samples ranging from
human body fluids to car paint. Each forensic laboratory will have different analytical
capabilities from general chemistry to specialty analyses. Specialized forensic analysis may
also involve the following areas of concentration:
Forensic serology: study of blood. Deals with the used of blood samples to identify
individual
Forensic toxicology: field in which chemical research has had perhaps its greatest
effect. It is used for the identification of drugs and poisons
DNA Fingerprinting: perhaps the newest and most exciting forensic procedure
develops in modern history – DNA typing.
Fingerprinting: first technique probably used by scientist for the identification of
wrongdoers.
Forensic chemistry also provides materials to further the reader’s understanding of the
subject and to encourage his or her further studies in the field. Thus this article presents the
some major laboratory procedures use during forensic analysis of fingerprints that is the
identification of fingerprints.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
4. Fingerprinting 2
5. DNA fingerprinting 15
5.2.1. Procedures 18
6. Conclusion 20
7. Bibliography 21
Introduction
The next portion that is section 5 focuses on perhaps the newest and most exciting
forensic procedure developed in modern history: DNA typing. The text provides a
review of the nature and characterization of DNA and the methods now available for
its use in forensic analysis. The text provides a somewhat detailed discussion of the
chemical reactions and technology involved in the amplification, analysis, and
identification of DNA fragments used by today’s forensic scientists.
With the development of techniques for enhancing microscopic pieces of DNA in the
1980s and 1990s, it has become possible to use samples as small as a single hair or a
flake of skin to establish, with near certainty, the likelihood that a particular person
has or has not committed a crime. The availability of DNA typing has already made
possible the release of men and women convicted of crimes they did not commit and
the apprehension of other men and women for crimes of which they were never
suspected.
4. Fingerprinting
W
hen bloody finger-marks or impression on clay, glass, etc exist they
may lead to the scientific identification of criminals. Fingerprints are
characteristic features of human skin found on the palm side of the
fingers and thumbs and on the soles of the feet. They are almost the only place on
Figure 1 www.wikipedia.org
Scientific studies of fingerprints began in the late 17 th century when an English physician,
Nehemiah Grew (1641 - 1712) took note of the “innumerable (too many to be counted) little
ridges” that he observed on the tips of fingers. The first concrete step in that direction
occurred in 1823 when the Czech physiologist Jan Purkinje (1778 – 1869) noted that
fingerprints commonly followed one of nine distinctive patterns which he called transverse
curve, central longitudinal stria, oblique stripe, oblique loop, almond whorl, spiral whorl,
ellipse, circle and double whorl. He made no connection between these patterns and their
potential use in the identification of criminals.
By 1850s, the stage had been set for the scientists and law enforcement officers to begin to
see how fingerprints could use in forensic science.
Fingerprints begin to develop and are completely formed during the fetal stage of life. They
have two fundamental characteristics that permit them to be used to identify an individual
Figure 2 www.detectopoint.com
Rid geology study of the uniqueness of friction ridge structures and their use for personal
identification.
Crossov
er
Core
Bifurcati
on (fork)
Ridge
S
ending
Island
c
a Delta
r Pore
Figure 4 www.wikipedia.org "another representation of ridge characteristic"
In the loop pattern there are two focal points figure 5: the core or the center of the loop and
the delta. The delta is the area of the pattern where there is a triangulation or a dividing of
The whorl pattern will have two or more deltas in figure 6. For whorl pattern, all deltas and
the areas between them must be recorded - figure 6.
Figure 6 www.detectopoint.com
In figure 7 shows that the arch pattern has no delta or core; but it too must be fully
recorded so that its individual characteristics can be easily distinguished.
Scientists have now identified more than 150 different ridge characteristics (also known as
minutiae) by which two fingerprint patterns can be compared with each other. For example,
“Forensic Analysis of Fingerprints” J. McClain A10/CH-014 509/CH-044
Exam Roll No. Univer. Roll No.
the ridges in a fingerprint pattern may be long in some place and short in another. They may
be broken into short segments known as islands - figure 8.
Figure 8 the most obvious features of a fingerprint are raised area (ridges) and depression (grooves) "Forensic chemistry
by David E. Newton, published 2007 page 16"
They may branch at some point in their length, producing bifurcations and they may fold
around upon themselves forming closed loops. One problem with the process of fingerprint
identification is deciding how many of those 150 characteristics must match in order for the
prints to be identical. Some of the characteristic are listed in figure 3. Standard set by some
countries are as follow:
UK: normally require two points to match on 16 point system in order for
them to be considered identical.
Australia and New Zealand: deals with a 12-point system.
India: deals with 8-point system
USA: every state has its own point system but the FBI deal with 12-point
system.
Fingerprints may take one of the three forms: visible, plastic or latent.
Visible prints are left behind when a person transfers some type of colored
material on his or her hand to a smooth surface by touching it. For example, a
person’s hands might become bloody during commission of a crime. That
blood would then be left behind on any surface the individual touched, such
as a door handle, tabletop, or automobile steering wheel.
Plastic prints are produced when a person touches a soft material, such as
clay, mud, soap, or wax, in which the friction ridges produce a visible pattern.
Latent prints are so called because they are invisible to the human eye. They
are composed of eccrine secretions, produced by small sweat glands located
just under the surface of friction ridges. Eccrine secretions are left behind
after a person has touched an object. The vast majority of fingerprints that
law enforcement officers deal with are latent prints. A number of chemical
techniques have been developed by which such prints can be made visible
and, therefore, usable for purposes of identification.
A latent fingerprint can be detected in any of three ways: with powders, by means of
chemical tests, and by using optical procedures. These tests are designed primarily for the
detection of latent prints since visible and plastic prints typically do not require further
enhancement to make them visible.
In the first procedure that is often used in the search for latent prints, the person collecting
the print spreads a colored powder on it such that some of the powder adheres to the print,
making it visible. The use of a powder is possible only when a relatively large amount of
eccrine secretions has been deposited on a surface, at least 500 ng (ng = nanogram, 1
billionth of a gram). The normal procedure is to sprinkle the powder on a camel’s hair,
nylon, or other fine-haired brush and then to wipe the brush gently across the surface being
tested - figure 9.
The second method of fingerprint detection invokes some type of chemical test that results
in the formation of a characteristic colored product. Chemical tests are more sensitive than
powder tests and can generally be used with residues that weigh between 100 and 200ng.
Some of the most widely used chemical tests are the silver nitrate, iodine fuming, ninhydrin,
and superglue (cyanoacrylate), Physical Developer, and ruthenium oxide tests.
One of the oldest methods for the detection of latent fingerprints makes use of
silver nitrate (AgNO3). The test depends on the fact that silver nitrate reacts with the
chloride ion present in eccrine secretions:
AgNO3(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + NO3-(aq)
When exposed to light, solid silver chloride readily decomposes, forming chlorine gas
and solid, grayish silver metal: To perform the silver nitrate test, the tester sprays or
gently wipes a small amount of a 3 percent solution of silver nitrate across the
surface being examined for fingerprints. The surface is then exposed to ultraviolet
light or, if that is not available, to bright normal light. Any fingerprints on the surface
will become visible as a grayish pattern in a matter of minutes.
2AgCl(s) + hv 2Ag0(s) + Cl2(g)
The silver nitrate test is used less frequently today than previously partly because
the prints formed with the process tend to become blurred over time and are not
usable with prints more than a few weeks old.
Another popular and widely used test for latent fingerprints is the iodine fuming
test. When iodine crystals are heated, they sublime; that is, they pass directly from
the solid to the vapor state without first melting. In the presence of eccrine
secretions, the iodine reacts with fatty acids in the secretions, forming a brownish
complex that is easily visible. The complex decomposes rather easily, however, and
the brownish evidence of any prints present on a surface fades rather quickly.
Figure 11 www.detectopoint.com
The Physical Developer test has two special advantages. First, it works well with
porous objects that are wet or that have been wet in the past. Second, PD has been
effective in developing prints when other methods have been unsuccessful. The
greatest disadvantage of the PD test, however, is that it is destructive. The chemicals
in the product may wash away parts of the print itself or may react with the surface
Fingerprints that are normally not visible under ordinary light may often be seen if the light
or the object being viewed is modified in some way. One of the simplest modifications of
light to reveal a latent print is simply to shine a strong line source at an oblique angle to the
surface. In some cases, this change in the direction of light alone may reveal a print that was
otherwise not visible. In other cases, using a different type of light source may reveal prints.
An instrument known as the Reflected Ultraviolet Imaging System (RUVIS), for example,
emits an ultraviolet light that is directed at a surface suspected of holding latent prints.
Prints otherwise not visible in ordinary light may become visible under the ultraviolet beam.
One of the most important of these developments was the discovery that traditional
fingerprint tests (such as the ninhydrin or cyanoacrylate test) could be made more useful by
adding a second chemical to a print being examined to make it fluorescent or to enhance its
With these various methods, the one chosen depends on the surface to be worked on.
Powders should be selected when the surface is smooth, while chemicals for soft and
porous surfaces. When attempting to utilize all of the chemical methods of development,
one should use iodine fuming first, ninhydrin second, then silver nitrate, and finally super
glue fuming if it applies. This is the procedure for optimum visualization because iodine
fuming is not permanent, and if ninhydrin fails, silver nitrate can be used but will wash
away all the fatty oils and proteins from the surface. Hence, silver nitrate is used last if
super glue fuming is not used.
Variation in DNA is probably the single most reliable measure of genetic diversity. Organism
whose DNA differ dramatically have the greatest physical and biological diversity, while
those whose DNA differ only moderately and relatively similar in their physical and
biological characteristics. Scientists believe that the human genome contains about 80,000
distinct genes. Each of these genes contains several thousand nucleotides. The availability of
DNA maps makes possible a number of applications, including some of the interest to
relatively small number of researchers and others of considerable practical value to many
scientists and other professionals.
The basic for this conclusion is that DNA is normally transmitted conservatively (without
error) from parent to offspring. The DNA in an organism’s all is usually identical to that
found in the cells of its parent’s bodies. That general rule is violated only when mutations
occur. A mutation is a change in DNA sequences cause by burst of energy (such as x-ray),
certain chemicals, or other factors. For example, a photon of radiation might strike a DNA
molecule; rupture a bond within a nucleotide, and cause a change in nucleotide sequence.
The first and one of the best-known fields in which DNA typing was used is paternity testing.
Although it is always clear who the mother of a child is, there is sometimes a question as to
who the child’s father. The DNA argument for paternity is simple, it is based on the fact that
DNA is passed on conservatively (without change) from generation to generation. Thus, a
child’s DNA is some mixture of both parents’ DNA.
DNA typing is a clearly powerful tool with numerous applications. In forensic science, it is
used for the identification of individuals accused of rape, murder and other violent crimes.
Such applications are possible because DNA in such crimes is usually available from three
essential sources: the victim, the perpetrator of the crime, and evidence left behind at the
scene of the crime, such as blood, semen, hair or other biological materials. Forensic DNA
typing generally involves the comparison of three kinds of DNA as shown below – figure 13:
DNA typing can be determine conclusively(1) whether evidence at the crime scene, such as
blood, hair or other biological materials came from the victim or if not (2) whether it came
from some other known or unknown individual.
Two technologies are currently in general use for the analysis of DNA patterns: restriction
fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Steps:
First, the DNA sample must be removed from the material on which it was deposited
(a shirt, carpet, floor, victim’s skin, or other body part, for example).
It must then be cleaned and separated from non-DNA materials that would
contaminate the analysis.
It must also be examined to determine the amount of DNA present and its integrity,
meaning the amount of DNA that remains intact.
Organic extraction is perhaps the simplest and most common method for removing a DNA
sample from the material on which it has been deposited. In this procedure, a piece of the
material is cut from the whole object (a garment or carpet, for example) and added to a
flask containing an organic solvent—usually phenol, chloroform, isoamyl alcohol, or some
combination of these solvents. The flask is then warmed, increasing the rate at which cells in
the sample are released from the material and dissolved in the solvent. When removal of
the biological material from the sample appears complete, the cells obtained are
transferred to a second flask and mixed with another reagent, such as EDTA
(ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), sodium dodecyl sulfate, or tris [hydroxymethane]amino
methane. This reagent causes the lysis (rupture) of cells, releasing pure DNA, which can then
be concentrated and collected for further study.
The presence of sperm cells on a piece of evidence may complicate the extraction
procedures just described. Sperm cells are more resistant to attack than other cells,
requiring a modified approach to extraction. In this approach, the piece of evidence
containing both sperm and non sperm cells is exposed to organic extraction, as already
described. That extraction removes both types of cells from the material on which they are
deposited. The resulting mixture is then centrifuged, causing it to separate into a clear
solution containing non sperm DNA and a clump of material at the bottom of the centrifuge
1. Forensic Chemistry “ Facts on File Science Library” by David E. Newton; published 2007 pp
11 – 31 & pp 131- 168
2. http://www.enote.com
3. http://www.detectopoint.com
4. http://www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup
5. http://www.scribd.com
6. http://www.fbi.gov