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A Brief Guide To Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeroes
A Brief Guide To Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeroes
Vin
Vout
Vin
Vout
1
1
jC
=
=
1
1 + jRC
+R
jC
Vout
1
(this is the transfer function)
=
Vin 1 + sRC
where s = j represents a steady state (i.e. constant amplitude) sinusoidal
frequency.
H ( s) =
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j t
or
H ( s) =
N ( s ) a 0 + a1 s + a 2 s 2 + ...a m s m
=
D ( s ) b0 + b1 s + b2 s 2 + ...bn s n
s4 + 3.2s3 + s2 + 1
s5
s 4 + s3 + s 2 + s + 1
H (s ) =
s2 + 2s + 1
H (s) =
(order 5, realisable)
(order 2, not realisable)
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Now H(s) describes the complex frequency response; that is, for any given
frequency s = j +, H(s) is a complex quantity which, if considered in polar
form, gives the magnitude of the gain and the phase shift of the system (or, if
considered in rectangular form, the so-called in-phase and quadrature
gains).
Imaginary
H(s)
magnitude
"quadrature"
phase
Real
"in phase"
The following may help you to visualise the in-phase and quadrature gains of
a system: if a linear system has an input vin = 1sin( t) that is, a peak
amplitude of 1 at frequency , then the output can always be written in the
form vout = Asin( t + ), where A is the magnitude of the gain and is the
phase shift at frequency .
The output can also be represented in the form vout = A1sin( t) + A2cos( t).
The in-phase gain is then A1, and the quadrature gain is A2. Notice that the
in-phase part (that is, A1sin( t)) is in phase with the input, while the
quadrature component is shifted by 90. (In communications and signal
processing disciplines, the in-phase and quadrature components of a signal
are often denoted as I and Q.)
H ( s) =
a m ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...
bn ( s p1 )( s p2 )...
where the complex numbers pi are called the poles and the zi are the zeroes.
Of course, they are simply the roots of N(s) and D(s). So, H(s) is, apart from
a
a real constant multiplying factor m , completely defined by the collection
bn
of poles and zeroes.
The above factorisation gives us some insight into how H(s) behaves you
must remember that it is a complex function of a complex variable, so it is
not easy to imagine. However, visualising some aspects of it is not too hard.
Note that
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s=j
3 poles
s=
2 zeroes
H ( s ) = 0
2
2
e0 + e1 s + e2 s g 0 + g1 s + g 2 s
The individual second order factors are referred to as biquadratic (that is,
the ratio of two quadratic) functions. Since the roots of quadratics come in
complex conjugate pairs, poles and zeroes come in complex conjugate
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zero pair
S=
pole
pole pair
Note the various regions of the s-plane and the types of signals they
represent:
s = j
on axis
< 0; decaying
on axis
s=
> 0; growing
To be stable, a system must have its poles in the left-half plane only.
Zeroes can be anywhere.
The following two quantities are also useful:
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Pole frequency:
Pole Q factor:
Qp =
(distance from s = 0)
p
2 Re(p)
R2
P2
2
R1
P1
R3
P3
s=
R1, R2 and R3 are the distances from a specific value of s to the poles. 1,
2 and 3 are the angles between these lines and the real axis (remember
anticlockwise is positive in the complex number plane, starting from the
east-facing direction).
Now
H ( s) =
1
, hence
( s p1 )( s p 2 )( s p3 )
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H ( s) =
and
1
R1 R2 R3
arg(H(s)) = -1 -2 -3
and
arg(H(s)) = + 1 + 2 + 3
In summary:
For the magnitude, multiply by the distances to the zeroes and divide
by the distances to the poles.
For the phase shift, add the angles subtended at the zeroes and
subtract the angles subtended at the poles.
Example 1:
A system has two poles at 2 j and a single zero at 1 +0j. What is the
magnitude and phase shift of the gain at (a) = 0 and (b) = 3 rad/sec?
(Assume that the constant multiplying factor in the transfer function is 1.)
The basic pole-zero diagram looks like this:
s = j
= 3 rad/sec
-2 +1j
-1+0j
=0
s=
-2 -1j
The construction lines, lengths and angles for the two values of look like
this:
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s = j
s = j
R = 2 2 + 22 = 2.83
= tan-1(2/2) = 45
= tan (-1/2) = -26.6
-1
R = 2 + 1 = 2.24
2
R = 22 + 42 = 4.47
=0
R = 12 + 32 = 3.16
= tan-1(3/1) = 71.6
s=
s=
R= 1
= tan-1(1/2) = 26.6
= tan-1(4/2) = 63.4
1.00
=0.2,
2.24 2.24
b) At = 3 rad/sec.
3.16
Magnitude =
=0.250,
2.83 4.47
Example 2:
What does the pole-zero diagram for a simple RC low-pass filter look like?
Can we use it to simply predict the filters behaviour?
The transfer function is:
1
1
1
RC
H ( s) =
= RC =
1
1
1 + sRC
+ s ( s (
))
RC
RC
Note that we have rearranged the equation to have factors of the form (s
p)..etc. From this we can see that there is a pole at s = -1/RC; that is, the
pole-zero diagram looks like this:
s = -1/RC
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It is also not too hard at this point to geometrically derive the equations for
the magnitude and gain as a function of frequency. Try this as an exercise.
In general:
If s is at a large distance from a group of n poles, there is a -6n
dB/octave or -20n dB/decade falloff with distance from the group.
If there are n poles and m zeroes near each other, the asymptotic
falloff at large distances is -20(n-m) dB/decade or -6(n-m) dB/octave.
This is referred to as the ultimate attenuation rate.
If there are n poles and m zeroes near each other, the asymptotic
phase shift at large distances is 90(n-m) degrees.
If n = m then the poles and zeroes tend to cancel (that is, H(s) 1)
until we get near them, at which point the relative distances to each
pole and zero become significantly different.
What do we mean by "near" or "far away"? Basically, if the distance to a
group of poles or zeroes is large compared to the separation of the poles or
zeroes, then we get near the asymptotic behaviours outlined above. In the
case of a single pole or zero, we would compare the distance with the
distance of the pole or zero from the origin.
Exercises:
1.
For each of the following four cases, what happens to H(s) as s moves
along the imaginary axis? Qualitatively plot the magnitude and phase
shift, and estimate the ultimate attenuation rate.
j
two zeroes
at origin
2.
Calculate the poles and zeroes and draw pole-zero diagrams for the
following transfer functions:
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1
,
2
s + 2s + 1
3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
s2 1
,
s3 + s2 + s + 1
4s2 (s2 + 1)
3(s + 0.5)
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Further resources:
Note: If you are hunting down material on transfer functions and poles
and zeroes (particularly on web sites), take note of the following:
Poles and zeroes also appear in the context of digital signal
processing (DSP), which, although related to the analog material
here, has a different treatment. Take care not to become confused
between the two. Specifically, the DSP material deals with concepts
such as the z-plane and z-transform. At this stage this is not of
interest to us.
It is common to find the notation T(s) or G(s) (rather than H(s)) for
analog transfer functions, and H(z) for digital transfer functions.
The complex frequency variable is sometimes called p rather than s
in analog transfer functions.
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