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Grouptheory1 PDF
Grouptheory1 PDF
14)Suppose a finite set G is closed under associative product and both cancellation laws
hold. PT G is a group
Since G is finite let G={x1,x2..xn}
Look at S(x1)= {x1.x1, x1.x2, x1.x3,..x1.xn}
All these are distinct because of left cancellation law
So S (x1) in some order is G
Let xi be the element such that x1.xi=x1
Claim:For all y in G y.xi=y
Proof:
Any y can be written as y1.x1 (because look at
Z(x1)={x1.x1, x2.x1xn.x1}.By similar reasoning Z=G (right cancellation
law). So y.xi=y1.x1.xi=y1.x1=y.
Also by looking at S(y),we know that given any y,there exists y such that
y.y=x1 .
Hence done by prev problems
15) So look at nonzero integers relatively prime to n.PT they form a group under
multiplication mod n
Multiplication is associative.And a,b relatively prime to n =>ab is also relatively
prime to n.There are only finite residues mod n.And cancellation laws hold
(because of relative primeness)Hence by 14 done
18)Construct a non abelian group of order 2n (n>2)
D(n)={e,x,..xn-1,y,yx,yx2..yxn-1} xyxy=e
*26)Done in vector spaces chapter
*PT e=e
e.e=e
hence done
Equivalence relations,partitions:
Partitions:
S = union of nonempty disjoint subsets.the set of these subsets forms a partition of S
Relation:
Relation on S is a subset of S X S
Equivalence relation:
a~a(reflexive)
a~b => b~a (symmetric)
a~b , b~c => c~a (transitive)
An eq relation on a set S defines a partition of S:
Eqclass(a) = { x in S | x~a}
Note that a is in Eqclass(a)
And if x belongs to Eqclass(a) and Eqclass(b)
=> x~b ,x~a
=>a~b
=>Eqclass(a) = Eqclass(b)
So Eqclasses form a partition of S
A partition of S defines an Eq relation
a~b iff a and b belong to the same partition
Cosets:
H is a subgrp of G
aH={ah|h in H} is a left coset of H. Similarly right cosets can be defined
Properties:
1)eH = H
2)hH=H
3)aH = bH iff ba is in H
If aH = bH
o a = bh
o ba = h
if ba = h
o a = bh
o ah1 = bhh1 = bh2
o aH is a subset of bH
bh1= bhhh1 = ahh1 = ah2
o bH is a subset of aH
4)every coset of a subgrp has the same number of elements
X:aH bH
ah bh.
This map is one one onto
5)G is union of left(right)cosets of H
Claim:cosets form equivalence classes (verify)
6) |aH| =|Ha| (ah ha)
Index:No of left(right) cosets of a subgrp in a grp is called index of the subgrp in the grp
Index of H in G = [G:H]
Lagranges theorem:
|G|=|H|[G:H]
Proof:
G = U (left cosets of H)
|aH|=|H|
So G = (no of cosets)|H|
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2) Let G be a group such that intersection of all non {e} subgrps is non {e}.PT every
element in G has a finite order
If x is an element with infinite order,{ .x,e,x,x2,x3} is a subgrp
So intersection of all subgrps contain xk.
Now consider subgrp generated by xk+1
xk belongs to the above subgrp
x(k+1)m = xk
so x has finite order -><3) If G has no nontrivial subgrps,PT G must be cyclic of prime order
G!={e}
Let a !=e belong to G
H= subgrp generated by a
H !={e}
So H=G
G is cyclic
Now if G is finite, let d/o(G)
Look at subgrp generated by ad -><If G is infinite look at subgrp generated by a2 -><4) If H is a subgrp of G and a is in G,let aHa = {aha |h in H}.PT aHa is a
subgrp,what is order of o(aHa)
Proving it is a subgrp is left as an exercise (yawn!)
o(aHa) = o(H)
aha h
it is one one ,onto
5) PT there is a one one corr bet left cosets and right cosets
aH Ha
6,7,8 enumeration , boring
9) If H is a subgrp of G such that whenever Ha!=Hb , then aH!= bH.
PT gHg is contained in H for all g
Ha!=Hb => aH!=bH
aH=bH => Ha=Hb
ab is in H => ab is in H
a = g b =gh
So ghg is in H
10) H(n) = { kn | k in Z}.index of H(n)? right cosets of H(n)
Index H(n) = n
Cosets = 0+H, 1+H, 2+H, ..n-1+H
11) what is H(n)H(k)?
l=[k,n]
{ml|m in Z}
12) If G is a grp, H,K are finite index subgrps.PT HK is of finite index in G.can you
find an upper bound
a1H U a2HU ahH = G
b1K U b2KU bkK = G
(a1H U a2HU ahH) (b1K U b2KU bkK) = G
U (aiH bjK) = G
(25,26 I got discouraged inspite of what herstein had to say :P (see exercises on finite
abelian groups for this)
27)PT subgrp of a cyclic grp is cyclic
let G = cyclic grp generated by a , H be a subgrp
let H = { x| ax is in H}
and d = HCF of elements in H
claim : H = <ad >
if we PT ad belongs to H, then we are done as H is a subgrp and any
element of H = ax = (ad)x
Note that if ax , ay belongs to H, then a HCF(x,y) belongs to H
Hence done
28) How many generators does a cyclic grp of order n have?
U(n) = { x |x<=n, (x,n)=1}
|U(n)| is the answer
let G = <a> and o(a) = n
if G = <ax> then a is in G, so (ax)y = e
xy = 1 mod n
(x,n) = 1
and once a is in G, then rest are in G
35)Hazard a guess at what all n such that Un is cyclic
chk no. theory book as herstein suggests :P
36)If a is in G, am = e.PT o(a) | m.
o(a) is the smallest integer such that ao(a) = e
let m = qo(a) + r
ar=e
r=0
37) If in group G, a5 = e, aba = b2 . for some a,b.Find o(b)
aba = b2
ab2a = b4
a(aba)a = b4
a2ba2 = b4
a2b2a2 = b8
a2(aba)a2 = b8
a3ba3 = b8
a3b2a3 = b16
a4ba4 = b16
a4b2a4 = b32
a5ba5 = b32
b = b32
b31 = e
as 31 is a prime,o(b) = 31
38) Let G be a finite abelian grp in which the number of solutions in G for xn=e is at most
n for all n. PT G is cyclic
now let o(a) =m , o(b)=n and b is not in <a>
there exists an element x such that o(x) = lcm(m,n) (see exercise on finite abelian
grp)
so for lcm(m,n) there are solutions e,x,x2x[m.n]-1
but a, b are also solutions
so a is in <x>,b is in <x>
39) Double coset AxB.
{axb| a in A, b in B}
40)If G is finite,PT no. of elements in AxB is o(A)o(B)/o(A xBx)
imitating proof for o(AB)
if y in A xBx, say y = xbx
axb* = ayxbb*
so each axb* repeated A xBx times
also if axb = a*xb*
=> a*a = xb*bx which is in A xBx
41)If G is finite and A is a subgrp such that all AxA have same number number of
elements,PT gAg = A for all g
|AxA| = o(A)o(A)/0(A xAx)
so o(A xAx) = o(A x*Ax*)
putting x = e , o(A x*Ax*) = o(A)
x*Ax* contains A
but |xAx| = |A|
map xax a
so xAx = A
Direct product
External direct product:
G = A X B.
A,B are groups => under pointwise multiplication G is also a group
(can be extended to any finite number of groups)
e,f are identity elements in A,B respectively
A={(a,f)|a in A}
A is normal in G:
(a,b).(a1,f).(a,b)=(aa1a,f) and aa1a belongs to A
A is isomorphic to A:
(a1,f)-> a1
Internal direct product
If g = h1h2hn = x1x2xn
Rearranging terms(Note G is abelian) we get h1x1=(h2x2)(hnxn)
Order of h1x1 is a power of p1 whereas RHS terms order is product of powers of
p2,..pn
hi=xi
Hence done
6)PT G =Zm X Zn is cyclic iff (m,n)=1
If (m,n)=1 then na is 1 mod m and mb is 1 mod n
Claim: (1,1) generates group
(1,0) = (1,1)na
(0,1) =(1,1)mb
(x,y)=(1,0)x(0,1)y
If (m,n)=d
If (x,y) generates G
=>(1,0)=(x,y)k
Note y cant be 0 as then elements like (1,1) cant be generated
k is a multiple of n say kn
x(kn) is 1 mod m
xnk = qm +1
d/n , d/m =>d/1
7)Using 6 PT chinese reminder theorem(ie) (m,n)=1 and given u,v in Z there exists x in Z
such that x = u mod m and x=v mod n
As (1,1) generates Zm X Zn,
(u,v) = (1,1)x where u=u mod m (u<m) and v=v mod n (v<n)
x=u mod m
x= v mod n
8)Give an ex of a group G and normal subgroups N1,N2..Nk such that G=N1N2..Nk and
Ni Nj = {e} for i!=j and G in not the internal direct product
G = { e, a, a2,b,b2,ab,a2b2} (ab=ba,a3=b3=e)
N1={e,a,a2} N2={e,ab,a2b2} N3={e,b,b2}
All are normal as G is abelian
ab= a.e.b = e.ab.e (no unique representation)
9)PT G is internal direct product of Nis (normal) iff G=N1..Nk and
Ni N1N2..Ni-1Ni+1..Nk ={e} for all i
Note : xi belongs to Ni for any variable x in the following
If G is internal product ,then clearly G=N1N2..Nk
If the second condition isnt true
ni = n1n2..ni-1ni+1..nk = e.e.e.ni.e.e.e..e = n1n2ni-1.e.ni+1.nk
(no unique rep)
If the two conditions hold , PT any g in G has a unique rep as n1n2..nk
If n1n2..nk=w1w2wk
n1w1=n2..nk.wkw2
n2nk-1(nkwk)..w2 = n2..nk-1(xk)wk-1..w2
= n2(nk-1(xk)nk-1)nk-1wk-1w2 = n2..nk-2(yk)(xk-1)wk-2..w2 (as Nk is
normal)
= n2nk-3(nk-2yknk-2)(nk-2xk-1nk-2)(nk-2wk-2)wk-3..w2
=n2..nk-3(lk)(yk-1)(zk-2)wk-3..w2
= sksk-1..s2
w1n1=s2sk
w1=n1 etc(due to second cond)
10)Let G be a group .K1,K2..Kn be normal subgroups.K1K2..Kn ={e}.Vi=G/Ki
PT there is an isomorphism from G into V1 X V2..Vn
Phi:G V1 X V2..X Vn
g (gK1,gK2gKn)
Phi is a homomorphism
It is one one as
If (gK1,gK2gKn)=(hK1,..hKn)
hg is in K1,K2..Kn
hg= e
h=g
11,12 I dont know
13)Give an example of a finite nonabelian group G which contains a subgroup H0 != {e}
such that H0 is contained in all subgroups H !={e}
G={e,a,a2,a3,b,b2,b3,ab,ba,ab3,ba3}
Where a2=b2,a4=b4=e and ab3=ba
(Hopefully this is a group .And H0 ={e,a2=b2})
Note {e,ab,a2,a3b} is a group etc
14)PT every group of order p2 is cyclic or direct product of 2 cyclic groups of order
p(prime)
G of order p2 is abelian(proved earlier..using conjugacy of classes)
And any element has order 1,p or p2
If there is one element of order p2 then cyclic
Else pick an element g of order p ,let H be the subgrp generated by g
And pick h not in H and let K be the subgrp generated by h
As G is abelian,H,K are normal
Also H K ={e}.So G = HK (the usual o(G)=o(H)o(K) )
Also if x=gahb= gchd => ga-c = hd-b => a=c, b= d (unique rep)
internal direct product
15) Let G =A X A whereA is cyclic of order p, p a prime.How many automorphisms?
p2 ? ( this is a star problem !!)
(e,a) (e,ai) (a,e)(aj,e) fixes the automorphism
16) If G = K1 X K2..X Kn what is center of G?
Zi = center of Ki
center of G = Z1 X Z2Zn
((k1,..kn)(g1,..gn) =(g1,..gn)(k1,..kn) for all gi )