Journal of Government Information, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.

4771, 1998
Copyright 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in the USA. All rights reserved
1352-0237/98 $19.00 1 .00
PII S1352-0237(97)00085-3

POLISH AMERICAN WOMEN: TRACING ETHNIC ACHIEVEMENT

IN PUBLISHED U.S. GOVERNMENT SOURCES

THOMAS DUSZAK*
Head, Cataloging Section, State Library of Pennsylvania, P.O. Box 1601, Harrisburg, PA 17105-1601, USA

Abstract Barbara Mikulski and Marcy Kaptur are the only two Polish American
women who have been elected to the U.S. Congress. Besides the achievements of these
women, the lives of other Polish American women have been recorded in U.S. docu-
ments. Using print and nonprint indexes, this article cites evidence of their presence in
the form of accomplishments, tributes, commemorations, and dedications with an em-
phasis on what has been recorded in the Congressional Record, congressional hearings
and reports, publications of the U.S. Census Bureau, Library of Congress, and other
government agencies. 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd

Keywords Polish women, Immigrants

INTRODUCTION
Polish immigrant women were conditioned in ways different than men. Polish Amer-
ican women were conservative and expressed themselves in an ethnic context. Ignored
by native born female activists, they sought equality and organized mutual aid societies
to promote their interests. This is the thesis of William Galushs Purity and Power:
Chicago Polonian Feminists, 18801914 [1]. Although class and ethnicity have affected
the behavior of immigrant women, it has also been argued that the culture of country of
origin is the primary determinant of ethnic behavior. This article attempts to find evi-
dence for these themes in government documents [2]. It also fills a gap in the literature
about Polish American women. Donna Gabaccias bibliography, Immigrant Women in
the United States [3], for example, contains a disproportionately small number of cita-
tions about Polish women compared with the number for Irish or Italian women.
It is arguable whether census data reveal an accurate count of the number of Polish
American women. In the censuses from 1870 to 1910 when Poland did not exist as a
sovereign country, Poles in the United States were counted as subjects of Prussia, Aus-
tria, and Russia. Some had Polish surnames, but other names were Anglicized, Russi-
fied, or Germanized. Basing ethnicity on country of birth has the effect of combining
Polish Jews, Ukranians, Lithuanians, and other groups. Valid estimates are also im-
peded because the U.S. Census Bureau has counted native language differently from
census to census.
Congressman John Fary sponsored House Joint Resolution 333 in 197778 to pro-
vide for an accurate counting of Slavic Americans. The officers of the Polish American

*Thomas Duszak is a life member of the Catholic Library Association and the Polish American Historical
Association. He is head, cataloging section, State Library of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

47
48 T. DUSZAK

Congress testified at a House hearing in 1977 and before the U.S. Commission on Civil
Rights in 1979 to urge the Census Bureau to use adequate procedures for counting Pol-
ish Americans. Representatives of the Polish American Congress testified that failure
to collect data on Euro-ethnic Americans thwarts the progress of southern and eastern
European Americans in the job market. The Polish American Congress recommended
that the government implement separate categories for white ethnic groups in the col-
lection of demographic data.
The 1960 census counted 378,833 women born in Poland and 1,029,645 women with
at least one parent who was Polish. The 1970 census counted 1,804,000 women in the
United States as Polish. Their median age was 47.8 years. The 1990 census counted 205,
180 Polish women. The 1990 figures excluded ancestry of parents in the calculation.
These statistics must be viewed with skepticism. The New York Times [4] noted that
eight percent of the 1.8 million who said they were American Indians in the 1990 census
also identified themselves as members of the Haitian, Polish, African-American, His-
panic, or Arab tribe. Required reading on the use of census data and ethnic background
includes William Douglasss Ethnic Categorization in the 1980 U.S. Census: The
Basque Example [5] and John Kromkowskis A Compendium of Social, Economic
and Demographic Indicators for Polish Ancestry and Selected Populations in the United
States [6].

METHODOLOGY
The majority of the citations in this article are to the Congressional Record where
searches under Polish and Poland in the print indexes found many citations. The
Congressional Record indexes from 19921996 and the Congressional Record for 1994
1996 were also searched electronically on databases made available as result of the
Government Printing Office Electronic Information Access Enhancement Act of 1993.
The search polish adj women on GPO Electronic Access yielded the essay about the
70th anniversary of the Polish Womens Club of Three Rivers, Massachusetts in the
Congressional Record 1994. The search Polish and three on the CIS Congressional
Masterfile [7] covering 19831995 was an attempt to track down additional information
about the Three Rivers club in the CIS CD-ROM database, which has congressional
hearings, reports, and prints as its scope.
The serendipitous find in this search was the three Polish members of the Con-
cerned Citizens of Greenpoint (Brooklyn) who testified about the toxic effects of incin-
eration emissions in the largest Polish neighborhood in the New York City metropoli-
tan area. Irene Klementowicz, Elizabeth Roncketti, and Stella Harmatiuk joined the
director of the Polish Slavic Center Community Services to voice their concern for pub-
lic health in Greenpoint. Irene Klementowicz is listed as past director of the Polish
Slavic Center. No citations were found about the Polish Womens Club of Three Riv-
ers, Massachusetts on the CIS CD-ROM.
To locate sources about Representative Marcy Kaptur and Senator Barbara Mikul-
ski, their names were searched on Congressional Masterfile 2: 19831995. The search
Mikulski found 53 citations; the search Kaptur found 85 citations. Not all citations
found for Mikulski and Kaptur are cited in this article. The search Kaptur and eth-
nic on CIS Congressional Masterfile 2: 19831995 yielded two hits: her testimony on
the Ukraine famine and her testimony on East European refugees.
The search Polish and veterans on CIS Congressional Masterfile 2: 19831995
found Wanda Swieckis testimony to grant a federal charter to the Polish Legion of
 Polish American Women 49

American Veterans. Wanda Swiecki is president of the Polish Legion of American Vet-
erans Ladies Auxiliary. The search Polish and American and women yielded
five hits on CIS Congressional Masterfile 17891969. A curious find on this search also
came up on the search Polish and American and congress which itself yielded 16
hits. What was found was Aloise Wozniaks testimony before a congressional hearing in
Gary, Indiana about public policy in the East European countries annexed by the So-
viet Union. What was curious was that Aloise Wozniak, president, Polish American
Congress, Indiana Division, although having a feminine sounding name, is in fact male.
Another find on the CIS Polish and American and congress search was Hedwig
Galinskas testimony about her enslavement in Russian labor camps.
Auto-Graphicss Government Documents Catalog Service [8] is a Government Print-
ing Office index on CD-ROM. The keyword search Polish and American and
women proved fruitless. The keyword search Polish and American and con-
gress yielded five hits, none relevant to the present study. The keyword search eth-
nic and women yielded five hits including the Preliminary Report to the Task Force
of the D.C. Circuit on Gender, Race, and Ethnic Bias. Although this report did not men-
tion Polish American women, the report found that the number of women in the fed-
eral judiciary contributed to the degree to which female members of the bar felt com-
fortable and able to participate. The keyword search Mikulski yielded the testimony
of Senator Mikulski at a hearing. The keyword search Kaptur yielded two hits: one
NASA document on KAPTUR software and one General Accounting Office study re-
quested by Congresswoman Kaptur.
Other search strategies were used. Knowing, for example, that the Felician sisters
were founded in Poland with provinces in the United States, the search Felician in the
Congressional Record 1994 on GPO Electronic Access found Congressman William Lip-
inskis tribute to Sister Rosanne Klimasz. Lipinskis tribute does not mention the word
Polish. The inference is made from Sister Rosannes surname and her affiliation with
the Felician religious life. As of January 1, 1996, GPO Electronic Access did not list the
page numbers for references in the Congressional Record 1994, but it did list page num-
bers for the Congressional Record 1995 effective with the issue of January 4, 1995. Check-
ing the paper copy of that issue of the Congressional Record verified the page number.
Critics, including Milton Gwirtzman [9], have objected to material inserted in the
Congressional Record that does not pertain to matters pending before Congress.
Gwirtzman calls the Congressional Record a phantom document in which (o)nly a
small part of its contents is actually heard on the floor of Congress. Gwirtzman de-
nounces the practice of including extensions of remarks as wasteful of taxpayers
money. Michelle Springer [10] has added that although the cost of printing nonspoken
material in the Congressional Record is high, reform is unlikely to occur as long as mem-
bers retain the privilege to send selections as franked mail. Springer discusses the vari-
ous reform efforts to curtail misuse of the Congressional Record.
During the 104th session of Congress in 1995, Porter Goss proposed a resolution to
halt the printing of matter not related to legislative business in the Congressional
Record. House Resolution 18 would require members to pay a $600 printing fee and
was not adopted. Notwithstanding these criticisms and reform measures, the Congres-
sional Record is useful for documenting the contributions of individuals and groups.
Members of Congress who insert remarks in the Congressional Record about Polonia
are generally from states with large concentrations of Polish Americans.
ERIC [11] on CD-ROM was also searched. The search Polish and woman led to
Helen Geracimos Chapins paper on the Polish American novels, Our Natupski Neighbors
50 T. DUSZAK

by Edith Miniter and Pulaski Place by Ruth Tabrah Robert. The ERIC search also
found Robert Hills paper on the Polish American underclass in Pittsburgh. Robert
Hills paper is also cited in Manuel Lopezs bibliography, The Polish-American Woman
[12]. Searching the name Curie found two papers on women scientists. Nobel laure-
ate Marie Curie was a Polish physicist.
Blacks Law Dictionary [13] defines private law as distinct from public law. Private
law means that part of the law which is administered between citizen and citizen, or
which is concerned with the definition, regulation, and enforcement of rights in cases
where both the person in whom the right inheres and the person upon whom the obli-
gation is incident are private individuals. Thousands of private bills have been intro-
duced and hundreds became law affecting U.S. residency and immigration quotas for
Polish women who became citizens. Many of these women were refugees displaced af-
ter World War II. The private bills that were enacted are recorded in the Statutes at
Large in a separate section after the public laws. See, for example, Private Law 83-264
approved February 27, 1954 for the relief of Helena Lewicka. This paper does not at-
tempt to document the displaced persons mentioned in private bills and private laws.
Two print indexes, Index to Government Periodicals and CIS Executive Documents,
17891909, were not helpful in locating sources for this paper.

CONGRESSIONAL LEADERS
Biographical sketches of Marcy Kaptur and Barbara Mikulski are found in Bio-
graphical Directory of the United States Congress 17741989 and Women in Congress,
19171990. Marcy Kaptur of Toledo, Ohio, an assistant for urban affairs in the Carter
administration, defeated Republican Edward Weber in her first bid for elective office
in 1982. She has represented the Ohio ninth congressional district since the 98th ses-
sion. She reminisces on growing up in Toledo and listening to the polka radio program
of Chet Zablocki in a tribute to Zablockis 40th anniversary of broadcasting. Zablocki
and his first wife, Helen Zdawczyk, hosted Helen-n-Chets Polka Party until 1968
when Helen died. Zablocki remarried in 1973 and the show became Sharon and Chets
Polka Party.
Congresswoman Kaptur appeared before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources
Committee to move two companion bills to authorize the construction of a World War
II memorial in Washington, DC. and to mint three commemorative coins to pay for its
construction. The idea for this legislation came from one of her constituents who said
there was no memorial for World War II veterans in Washington. The constituent con-
sidered the Iwo Jima Memorial as a commemoration of one battle, not World War II it-
self. Kaptur testified that the legislation had the support of the Veterans of Foreign Wars,
the Polish Legion of American Veterans, and other veterans organizations. President
Bush signed the World War II 50th Anniversary Commemorative Coins Act in 1992.
Kaptur introduced House Joint Resolution 388 in the 103rd Congress, which recog-
nized the anniversary of the Warsaw Uprising and the Polish resistance to the occupa-
tion forces during World War II, an important commemoration for her constituents.
She also testified that she opposed the Mexican peso bailout. When the Economic Sta-
bilization Fund is used as a form of foreign aid, congressional appropriationnot exec-
utive discretionshould be required. She noted that the U.S. Treasury would not lend
funds to help Poland stabilize the zloty after the fall of Communism.
Senator Mikulski represented the Maryland third congressional district during the
95th-99th sessions of the U.S. House of Representatives. She was elected to the U.S.
 Polish American Women 51

Senate in 1986. The Ethnic American, delivered in an address at a conference orga-

nized by Monsignor Geno Baroni and recorded in print in a number of versions when
she was assistant professor of urban affairs at the Community College of Baltimore, ap-
peared in the Congressional Record in 1971. Mikulski said, For our protection, we
formed our own institutions and organizations and clung together in our own neighbor-
hoods. We created communities like Little Italy and Polish Hill in which to live and
raise our families. The ethnic parish church and the fraternal organizations like the Pol-
ish Womens Alliance and the Sons of Italy became the focal points for the preserva-
tion of our culture and provision of community services. It was these institutions that
helped set up citizen classes that established nursing homes for the elderly sick and pro-
vided educational opportunities for the young.
As a member of the U.S. Senate Character Counts Coalition, Senator Mikulski re-
peated her espousal of the value of personal responsibility and self-reliance. I believe
we need to concentrate on community building and building individual capacity among
our young people so they can be part of a larger community. When my great-grand-
mother came to this country, she did not come in search of guarantees, but in search of
opportunities. In her eulogy for her former colleague, Congresswoman Barbara Jor-
dan (19361996), Mikulski said, Barbara inspired us because she was a visionary who
firmly believed in this nations potential.
Senator Mikulskis legislative work has included testimony before the Senate For-
eign Relations Committee in favor of the ratification of the convention to eliminate po-
litical, economic, social, and cultural discrimination against women. She was also the
catalyst for the background paper on Menopause, Hormone Therapy, and Womens
Health prepared for the congressional caucus for womens issues. There is room for lev-
ity in Senator Mikulskis speeches. She related the success of the Mikulski Bammers,
her Senate staff softball team, in the Congressional Record.
Aldona Leszczynska Appleton [14] was the first Polish American woman to be a
candidate for the U.S. Congress. Appleton, a Democrat from Perth Amboy, New Jer-
sey, was defeated by Peter Hood Ballantine Frelinghuysen, Jr. for a seat in the New Jer-
sey fifth congressional district in 1952. Appleton was a graduate of the New Jersey Col-
lege for Women and the New Jersey Law School and a member of the National
Association of Women Lawyers. She was New Jerseys first woman jurist.

PRESIDENTIAL APPOINTMENTS AND HIGH ACHIEVERS

Other Polonians who have attained influential positions include Janice Obuchowski,
Cynthia Maleski, Carol Los Mansmann, Melanie Cyganowski, Clara Swieczkowska,
Mary Anne Krupsak, and Marie Knaszak. Janice Obuchowski, Assistant Secretary for
Communications and Information in the Commerce Department for the Bush adminis-
tration, was responsible for The NTIA Infrastructure Report. Cynthia Maleski, Pennsyl-
vania Insurance Commissioner from 19921995 during the administration of Governor
Bob Casey, is a member of the Polish Falcons of America. One of her main accomplish-
ments in the Casey administration was the development of a program of comprehen-
sive health insurance for uninsured children. She testified at a House congressional
hearing about deceptive sales practices in marketing life insurance.
Carol Los Mansmann [15] and Melanie Cyganowski are judges. President Reagan
appointed Carol Los Mansmann to the U.S. Court of Appeals Third Circuit in 1982. A
native of the Polish Hill section of Pittsburgh, Judge Mansmann was a law school pro-
fessor at Duquesne Law School and participated in the revision of the Pennsylvania
52 T. DUSZAK

Rules of Criminal Procedure for the protection of victims in rape trials. Judge Donetta
Ambrose, U.S. district judge, Western District of Pennsylvania, gave credit to Judge
Mansmann for guiding her in the law. Carol Mansmann was someone I really looked
up to. She was a law student when I was an undergraduate. She had been my resident
advisor. I watched her and talked to her frequently. I thought Carol had some of the
best qualities I had ever seen in anyone. She was such a genuinely good person. And
she was enthused about the study of the law. She was really the individual who con-
vinced me, even though she didnt know that she was doing it, to go to law school [16].
Melanie Cyganowski [17], daughter of Bishop Daniel Cyganowski of the Polish Na-
tional Catholic Church, was appointed federal bankruptcy judge for the eastern district
of New York and sworn in on March 1, 1993. Since bankruptcy judges are appointed
based on the recommendation of the Merit Selection Panel of the U.S. circuit courts,
her name was not placed before the Senate for confirmation. Other high achievers in-
clude Clara Swieczkowska, appointed jury commissioner for Detroit by Governor Mur-
phy in 1939; Mary Anne Krupsak, former New York state senator and lieutenant gov-
ernor; and Marie Knaszak, lieutenant colonel in the Womens Air Corps. Searching the
CIS Masterfile on CD-ROM revealed no citations for these three women.

RELIGIOUS WOMEN
The Polish American Catholic tradition is steeped in Marian devotion. Countless
churches are named in honor of Mary, such as St. Marys Polish National Catholic Church
in the anthracite coal region in Pennsylvania. The Mother of Jesus is often depicted as
Our Lady of Czestochowa, also known as the Black Madonna. The shrine of the Black
Madonna is located in Czestochowa, Poland. Its American equivalent has the same
name and is located near Doylestown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Father Majka pre-
sents a history of the devotion to the Black Madonna in an article transcribed in the
Congressional Record by Congressman Lee.
The first Polish settlement in the United States was founded by the Franciscan friar
Father Leopold Moczygemba in 1854 at Panna Maria, Texas, located 47 miles from San
Antonio. Panna Maria is Polish for the Blessed Virgin Mary. Congressmen Radwan
and Machrowicz introduced bills for the issuance of a commemorative stamp for the
centennial of Panna Maria in 1954.
Two Polish female religious orders are significant for their ministry which promoted
social harmony among immigrant families through education in the parochial school
system. These orders are the Felician sisters founded by Sophia Truszkowska (1825
1899) and the Nazarene sisters (see Figure 1) founded by Frances Siedliska (1842
1902). Modeled on the Franciscan discipline of St. Felix of Cantalice, the Felician order
includes thousands of women in seven provinces. The sisters take vows of poverty,
chastity, and obedience in the vocation of teaching and care for the aged and infirm.
The Felicians had 5,000 members in 1973. The first five sisters came to the United
States in 1874.
The Felician centenary in the United States was celebrated in 19731974. New Jersey
Congressman Henry Helstoski noted the omnipresence of the order in New Jersey pa-
rochial schools by reprinting an article from the Messenger (Garfield, New Jersey) in
the Congressional Record. The Immaculate Conception province with headquarters in
Lodi, New Jersey was the orders fourth province in the United States to be established.
Among the schools in New Jersey the Felicians served are St. Anthony, Jersey City
(1897); St. Stanislaus, Newark (1897); St. Joseph, Camden (1901); St. Joseph, Passaic
 Polish American Women 53

Figure 1. The Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth are shown in the community room of the new convent at Our
Lady of Calvary Roman Catholic Church, Philadelphia in 1959. From left to right are: Sister Mariella, Sister Martin,
Sister Noemi, Sister Noreen, Sister Louise, Sister Josepha, and Sister Helena.

(1902); Holy Cross, Trenton (1902); Our Lady of Mt. Carmel, Bayonne (1902); Sacred
Heart, South Amboy (1902); St. Stephen, Perth Amboy (1906). The press release for
the celebration of the 75th anniversary of the Felicians Mother of Good Counsel Prov-
ince appeared in 1985.
Congressman Lipinski called attention to the accomplishments of Sister Rosanne
Klimasz, Superior of the Felician Sisters Generalate in Rome, who celebrated her 50th
anniversary at a Mass of Thanksgiving on May 29, 1994. The religious life can lead to
martyrdom, as seen in the murder of the Felician turned Franciscan nun in 1993. Sena-
tor Mikulski eulogized the native of Fels Point, Baltimore, Sister Mary Ann Glinka, who
was murdered in her convent. Sister Mary Ann Glinka, an educator in Maryland and
Virginia, graduated from Felician College in Lodi, New Jersey in 1970. The Felician sis-
ters were named Polish Americans of the Year in 1995 in Wisconsin.
Another pioneer in the development of leadership roles for women in teaching and
medical care was Frances Siedliska, who was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1989.
Mother Mary Frances crossed the Atlantic three times to visit the convents she estab-
lished in the United States. She became a naturalized citizen on July 20, 1897. Her beati-
fication is a step in the process toward canonization. Mother Mary Frances Siedliskas
Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth, also known as the Nazarenes, teach in the con-
gressional districts of Congressman Solarz in Brooklyn and Congressman Borski in
Philadelphia, which explain their tributes to the beatified nun. In Philadelphia the sis-
ters staff Nazareth Hospital, St. John Neumann Nursing Home, Holy Family College,
and Nazareth Academy Elementary and High School. The photograph shows the sis-
ters at the convent of Our Lady of Calvary Roman Catholic Church in 1959.
54 T. DUSZAK

Tributes to religious women in secular life include Congressman Boniors salute to

Alfreda Kemp, who was named Mother of the Year by St. Barbaras Group 481 of the
Polish Womens Alliance. Frances Sikorski Dulski (18921972), active in the Villa
Maria Ladies Auxiliary, attended Transfiguration School and was a member of St.
Lukes Church, Buffalo, New York. She was a member of the Polish Womens Alli-
ance, Group 376, and the mother of Congressman Thaddeus Dulski (19151988) who
served during the 86th93rd sessions of Congress.

ATHLETES, SCHOLARS, PROFESSIONAL WOMEN, ARTISTS

Stanislawa Walasiewiczona (19111980), better known as Stella Walsh, was born in
partitioned Poland on April 11, 1911 and moved to the United States when she was two.
She was raised in Cleveland. On May 30, 1930, she became the first woman to break 11
seconds in the 100-yard dash. She held the world 200-meters record at 23.6 seconds,
which stood for 16 years. Olympic regulations at the time of the 1932 Olympics disqual-
ified Stella Walsh from competing for the United States because of employment in
physical education. Walsh obtained a job with the Polish consulate in New York and
competed under the Polish flag. Walsh placed sixth in the discus in the 1932 Olympics
in Los Angeles. She won the gold medal in the 100 meters in the 1932 Olympics and the
silver medal in the same race in the 1936 Olympics in Berlin. She won 41 Amateur Ath-
letic Union titles. On December 4, 1980 Stella Walsh was caught in the crossfire of a
holdup and fatally wounded. An autopsy revealed that Stella Walsh had male sex or-
gans [18], a fact unknown to Senator Metzenbaum when he paid her tribute in 1979.
Marie Elizabeth Zakrzewska (18291902), a physician who founded womens hospi-
tals and established the first American school for women nurses, was a pioneer in the
movement to offer equal opportunity for women in medical education. Her autobiogra-
phy is A Womans Quest: The Life of Marie E. Zakrzewska, M.D. [19]. Barbara Mikul-
ski initiated the drive to issue a commemorative postage stamp for Dr. Zakrzewska
during the 96th and 97th Congresses, but the stamp was never approved. Caroline V.
Still (18481919), one of the first Afro-American women to enter the medical field, was
an intern in a hospital founded by Dr. Zakrzewska.
There is a great admiration among Polish Americans for Maria Sklodowska. The
youngest of five children of Wladyslaw and Bronislawa Bogucka Sklodowska, Maria
Sklodowska is more widely known as Madame Marie Curie (18671934). She and her
husband announced the existence of the element polonium, named for Poland, in 1898.
Later that year they discovered radium. Marie Curie shared the Nobel Prize in physics
with her husband in 1903 and won the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1911. Madame Curie
coined the word radioactive. Her discoveries led to the development of radiation
therapy for the treatment of cancer. Her laboratory always had a large number of
women. In 1931, 12 of the 37 researchers at her lab were women.
President Herbert Hoovers remarks at the National Academy of Sciences on Octo-
ber 30, 1929 during the presentation of 1 gram of radium to Madame Curie are re-
corded in his Public Papers. Congressmen from districts with large Polish popula-
tionsPucinski of Chicago, Meskill of Connecticut, Derwinski of Chicago, Zablocki of
Milwaukeegave salutary remarks on the centennial of her birth in 1967. Congress-
men Helstoski and Minish of New Jersey were the prime sponsors of two bills in the
90th Congress to issue a commemorative stamp in her honor. The Polish American
Heritage Committee of Bayonne, New Jersey sponsored a ceremony at the Bayonne
Public Library on April 26, 1987 to sign a contract for a Curie monument to be designed
 Polish American Women 55

by Andrew Pitynski. Illinois Congressman Thomas Sylvy Gordon inserted a tribute to

Marie Curie reprinted from the Polish American Journal in the Congressional Record
in 1953. An ERIC search of Curie yielded two papers on women as scientists.
David H. Kraus pays tribute to Dr. Janina Wojcicka Hoskins in the foreword of her
last book, Visual Arts in Poland [20]. Dr. Hoskins discussed various Polish artists,
among them Anna Bilinska (18571893) whose portrait, George Grey Barnard, is in
the collection of the State Museum of Pennsylvania. Dr. Hoskins also compiled works
on Polish books in English translation, Tadeusz Kosciuszko, Casimir Pulaski, Ignacy
Jan Paderewski, and Polish genealogy. During her career at the Library of Congress
she helped Quincy Mumford and the director of the librarys overseas office negotiate
the Public Law 480 program with the Polish government. Public Law 480 permitted the
repayment of United States aid after World War II through Polish publications given to
libraries in the United States. She died in Menlo Park, California on October 19, 1996
(see Figure 2).
President Eisenhower was presented with a painting of the Battle of Monte Cassino
on May 27, 1953 as a token of appreciation for signing legislation to admit 11,000 exiled
Polish soldiers to the United States. Irena Piotrowskas critique of Feliks Topolski, the
artist, is included in Congressman Sadlaks remarks in the Congressional Record about
the ceremony.
Arden, the California home of Helena Modrzejewska (18401909), Shakespearean
actress, has been a national historic landmark since 1972. The national historic land-
mark designation commemorates her theatrical achievements. As part of a landmark
study of sites associated with immigrants, this designation honors Polands most famous
actress who lived at Arden with her husband, Karol Bozenta Chapowski, from 1888 to
1906. Correspondence between Minnie Maddern Fiske and Helena Modjeska in the
18,000 items of the Fiske collection at the Library of Congress spans 18841932.
Modrzejewskas surname was truncated to Modjeska for her stage name. Modjeska
named her home Arden after the forest of Arden in As You Like It in which she

Figure 2. Dr. Janina Wojcicka Hoskins was a member of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences.
56 T. DUSZAK

played a lead role. Designed by Stanford White, the house was purchased in 1986 by
Orange County and dedicated on May 18, 1994. Terry DiMattio, Superintendent, Na-
tional Park Service, presented the historic landmark plaque on May 18, 1994. The
plaque reads: Arden, the Helena Modjeska Historic House and Gardens, has been
designated a National Historic Landmark. This property possesses national significance
in commemorating the history of the United States of America. 1994 National Park
Service, United States of the Interior. Jan Szewc, General Consul, Republic of Poland,
and Pamela Harrell, President, Helena Modjeska Foundation, were among those who
addressed the assembly. For more information, write to the Helena Modjeska Founda-
tion, P.O. Box 9582, Newport Beach, California 92658 or call 714-855-2028.
The Flowers of Freedom (Kwiaty Wolnosci), a song composed by Joan Baldwin
Zalewski, appeared twice in the Congressional Record in 1982. The idea for the compo-
sition originated with the imposition of martial law during the Solidarity era. The lyrics
are:
Years ago in Poland, red flags consumed the land.
Papa spoke of a garden, with flowers rare and grand.
He said: Grow up, my brave one. Grow quickly as you can.
Then find my special garden, when you become a man.
Chorus One
Go and find the freedom flowers,
Plant them deep so they will grow.
Shade them for the summer sun,
Shelter them from winter snow.
Harvest time will come, my son,
In our land, twas ever so.
Ah, how fair the freedom flowers!
How I pray one day youll know.
Kwiaty Wolnosci, dla Polakw, dla mnie.
Chorus Two
I have found the freedom flowers
Blooming in the eyes of men.
They remember years gone by,
Polish hearts were happy then!
Harvest time will come, my friends,
One day soon, I know not when.
Guard them well, the freedom flowers,
Til my land is free again!
Kwiaty Wolnosci, dla Polski, dla Polski.
Kwiaty Wolnosci, dla Polakw, dla mnie.
Flowers of freedom, for Poland, for Poland.
Kwiaty Wolnosci, for my people, for me.

CHRISTIANITY, FOREIGN OPPRESSION, NAZI PERSECUTION

The woman named Piasecka led a protest against German school officials in Prussian
Poland on May 20, 1901 after authorities banned Polish as the language of instruction
and caned pupils who refused to respond to questions during religion class conducted in
German. At the trial held in Gniezno in November, 1901, Piasecka was sentenced to a
prison term of 2 1/2 years. The trial aroused worldwide sympathy for the Poles against
the domination of Prussian oppressors. German Catholic and socialist blocs in parlia-
ment criticized the school language policy. The Wrzenia Strike was reported in the im-
migrant press in the United States as another struggle against foreign oppression. The
 Polish American Women 57

story in the Congressional Record originally appeared in John Kulczyckis Polish Chil-
drens Strike in Wrzenia in 1901 in Zgoda, the organ of the Polish National Alliance,
on June 15, 1986.
Congressman Lester Wolff gave a tribute to Irene Kucharzak, who saved the lives of
13 Jews in Nazi occupied Poland from 19431945. Kucharzak was recognized as one of
the Righteous among the Nations on November 11, 1969, and a tree has been planted
in her honor at Yad Vashem in Israel. Congressman Peter Visclosky noted the gallantry
of Rosa Robota, Ester Wajcblum, Ala Gertner, and Regina Safirztain who led the re-
volt at Auschwitz. The Rosa Robota Foundation was founded to educate Americans
about their heroism.
Congressman Alfred F. Beiter of Buffalo, New York inserted a resolution adopted
by the Polish womens organizations in Buffalo condemning the Nazi execution of Pol-
ish women in occupied Poland. The protest about the slaughter of Polish women was
observed in Buffalo on July 30, 1942. Among the signatories of the resolution dated
July 30, 1942 were Emilia J. Linetty, Polish Womens University Club; Helena Urban-
owicz, Kolko Polek Charity Organization; Cecylia Szelaczkiewicz, Polish Singers Alli-
ance of America; Jozefina Judkiewicz, Kalina Singing Society; Wladyslawa R. Runni-
ska, Midway Girls Drum Corps of Erie County; Stefania Przewozna, Polish Army
Veterans Ladies Auxiliary; Rozalia Biedrow, Polish Womens Alliance of America;
Zofia Schoen, Polish Federation of Womens Clubs; Katarzyna L. Wozniak, Polish Na-
tional Alliance; Maria Marlinska, Polish Union of America; and Agnieszka Jarnczak,
Polish American Womens Democratic Club of Erie County.
The Ravensbrueck Lapins were survivors of medical and surgical experimentation
by Nazi doctors during World War II in the concentration camp at Ravensbrueck.
Thirty-five women, subjected to bone transplant experiments and other barbaric war
crimes, were brought to the United States in 1959 for reconstructive surgery. Other ex-
amples of the suffering of Polish women include Congresswoman Marcy Kapturs state-
ment that her Polish great-grandmother died trying to save orphan children during the
Ukraine famine. Hedwig Galinska, secretary, Polish American Congress, recounted
her enslavement in Russian labor camps during a House hearing in Washington, DC on
December 1, 1953.

HEROES, LEADERS, COMMUNITY ACTIVISTS

The youngest hero is 13-year-old Marlene Ann Zolnowski, an eighth grade student
at Our Lady of Czestochowa School in suburban Buffalo, New York who won an essay
contest How I Can Make a Better America. Zolnowskis essay, reprinted in the Con-
gressional Record, resonates with the theme of Senator Barbara Mikulskis speech on
character building.
Other heroes include Ursula Preebe, Helen B. Karpinski, Loretta Chmura, Nancy
Szwec Czarnecki, Carol Cichowski, Mary Pankala Barr, Jane Droby, Florence Dom-
rois, Sue Mikolajczyk, Janet Banach, Eleanor Konieczka Kahle, Christine McMullan,
Marion Sobanski, and Janina Igielska. Ursula Preebe is known for her philanthropic
work at Marymount Hospital in Ohio. Helen B. Karpinski served as chair of the 1970
campaign to elect the first woman as State Treasurer of Ohio. Loretta Chmura, hon-
ored for her work as director of volunteers at St. Stanislaus Medical Care Center and
the General Pulaski Committee of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, is active in the Dem-
ocratic Party.
58 T. DUSZAK

Nancy Szwec Czarnecki was the first woman president of the Jefferson Medical Col-
lege Alumni Association in Philadelphia. Carol Cichowski, a member of the Polish
American Veterans Ladies Auxiliary, was honored as a fundraiser for leukemia. Mary
Pankala Barr and Jane Droby were two winners of the Rhode Island Polish American
Award for 1992. Florence Domrois, a member of St. Joseph Womens Club and St.
Francis Hospital Auxiliary, was named 1994 Woman of the Year by the Polish National
Alliance Ladies Auxiliary in Milwaukee. Sue Mikolajczyk, a member of the Polish
American Congress and Polish Womens Alliance, received the Pulaski Council of Mil-
waukees 1995 Polish Heritage Award. Janet Banach, a member of the St. Vincent De
Paul Society and the American Red Cross, was named 1995 Woman of the Year by the
Polish National Alliance Ladies Auxiliary in Milwaukee. Eleanor Konieczka Kahle was
a member of the Toledo, Ohio city council.
Christine McMullan, the Pulaski Associations Woman of the Year, is regional presi-
dent of the Polish National Alliance and president of the Krakowianki & Grale Chil-
drens Polish Folk Dance & Song Ensemble. Marion Sobanski was honored with her
husband, Ted, as the Outstanding Couple of the Year by the Polish Legion of Ameri-
can Veterans in northern New Jersey. Janina Igielska was the grand marshal of the
60th Annual General Pulaski Memorial Parade on Fifth Avenue in New York City.
Before James Florio was elected governor of New Jersey, he paid a tribute to the
mayor of Clifton, Gloria Kolodziej. Mayor Kolodziej was active in the Polish Scholar-
ship Club which provided scholarship aid to students of Polish ancestry. Angela Turo-
chy, the most prominent woman of Delaware Polonia, is listed as an officer of the
Council of Polish Societies in remarks of Senator J. Caleb Boggs. Mary Poburka, a Pol-
ish immigrant in Chicago, became a United States citizen at age 100. Congressman Ed
Bonin, the first Polish American elected to the U.S. Congress from Pennsylvania, lists
Mrs. Anna Paruch and Mrs. John Wojcik as members of the Flag Day committee. Anna
Kostanski, a member of the Polish Womens Circle, was honored as a political ally of
Massachusetts Congressman Silvio Conte.
Barbara Walewicz, one of Congressman Les Aspins constituents in Wisconsin,
wrote an essay about the anniversary of the Polish Third of May Constitution of 1791.
Helen Szymanowicz, vice president, Polish National Alliance, also wrote on the Third
of May celebration. The Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 has a special significance in
the history of Polonia because it is the second oldest constitution in modern history af-
ter the U.S. Constitution. The Polish Constitution marked the final step in the long pro-
cess of limiting the power of the king. An annual tradition in cities with large Polish
American populations is the commemoration of what in Polish is known as Trzeciego
Maja.
Congressman Harold Donohue included an address by Margaret Law in the Con-
gressional RecordAppendix. The address was originally heard on the Justice for Po-
land radio program sponsored by the Polish American Congress. The theme of Laws
address is a reminiscence of her 1929 visit to Poland and a commentary of the Poles
yearning for freedom and its relevance to the Polonian spirit in the United States.

WOMEN AND ORGANIZATIONS

The membership of the Polish Womens Alliance includes Senator Barbara Mikulski
and her mother, Christine. Senator Mikulski paid tribute to the Polish Womens Alli-
ance, which sponsors a number of important programs, including support for hospi-
tals, orphanages, and religious and educational institutions . . . . In the 19th and early
 Polish American Women 59

20th centuries, when Polish women had great difficulty getting insurance, the founders
of the Polish Womens Alliance got together and helped Polish American women to
help themselves. The alliance focused on activities outside the home and helped to
broaden involvement in Polonian affairs.
Founded in 1898, the Polish Womens Alliance provided burial insurance for women.
Other Polish fraternal aid societies offered insurance to women, but only through their
husbands. The Polish Womens Alliance offered an option for women to sustain them-
selves, independent of their spouses [21]. This small step helped to shape the identity of
immigrant women. As Polish Womens Alliance national president for 24 years, Adela
Lagodzinska (18951990), epitomized the proactive character of the association.
Council 4-A of the Polish Womens Alliance held its 17th annual Polonaise ball in
Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania in 1983. Twenty-six students were awarded scholarships.
The 26th annual convention of the Polish Womens Alliance, held in Hartford, Con-
necticut in 1971, featured Barbara Mikulski as the guest speaker. The Polish Womens
Alliance helped to finance the opening of a prosthetics factory in Katowice, Poland.
The president of the Polish Womens Alliance in Connecticut was Julia K. Leniart.
The Polish American Congress is a federation of Polish American organizations and
associations located in 30 states. The Polish American Congress, founded in 1944 in
Buffalo, lobbied for the admission of 140,000 Polish displaced persons to the United
States after World War II. The Polish American Congress also backed the creation of
Radio Free Europe. Its leaders include Helen Zielinski, who served as vice president in
1983. She was also president of the Polish Womens Alliance from 19711987. Zielinski
is a signatory to the Polish American Congress position paper which opposed lifting of
U.S. sanctions against Poland when martial law was imposed in December, 1981. The
Polish American Congress argued that suspension of U.S. sanctions would legitimize
the totalitarian regime of General Jaruzelski.
The largest Polish fraternal insurance association is the Polish National Alliance. In
1995 it had 245,000 men, women, and children as members and more than $300 million
in assets. The PNA granted full membership rights to women in 1900. PNA women
played a lead role in resettling Polish orphans and the displaced persons who sought
refuge in the United States after World War II. They conducted classes in Polish his-
tory, language, and music [22]. A number of citations in the Congressional Record men-
tion the PNA and women. Mary Grabowski is commissioner of the Polish National Al-
liance, District 9. Congressman Boland attended the testimonial for Alice A.
Nahormek, the commissioner of Polish National Alliance, District 1. Nahormek was
the first woman police officer in Chicopee, Massachusetts. Congressman Weller com-
memorated the 80th anniversary of the Polish National Alliance, Group 1837. This par-
ticular group was all male when it was founded on August 22, 1915, but admitted 35
women as members on September 1, 1942.
Another fraternal association, the Alliance of Poles of America founded in Cleve-
land on September 22, 1895, held its 35th Quadrennial Convention in Cleveland on
September 57, 1982. The governing board included Genevieve Sandej, Marie Kroll,
Stella Reklinski, Estelle Kar, and Stella Czarnecki.
Other associations include the Polish Roman Catholic Union, the Polish Beneficial
Association, the Ladies Auxiliary of the Polish Army Veterans of America, and the
Polish Womens Club of Three Rivers, Massachusetts. The Polish Roman Catholic
Union is a fraternal association based on Catholicism. The 50th anniversary of the
Michigan Womens Division of the Polish Roman Catholic Union, which sponsors an
annual Wigilia (Christmas dinner) and Swiconka (Easter blessing of food), was held in
60 T. DUSZAK

1988. Helen Zimlong is president of the Polish Beneficial Association. Zimlong is also
recording secretary of the Polish American Heritage Society, Inc. and active with the
Union of Polish Women in America, Group 5. Her daughter, Arlene Zimlong Powers,
has served as chair of the Outstanding Polish Americans of the Year banquet.
Congressman Robert Menendez saluted Clara Wozniak, the first commander of the
Polish Veterans Ladies Auxiliary in his congressional district in northern New Jersey.
Congressman Matthew Rinaldo presented the history of the Ladies Auxiliary of the
Polish Army Veterans of America, Post 91 in Elizabeth, New Jersey on the occasion of
its 25th anniversary in 1974. The past presidents of Post 91 have included Veronica Mi-
siur (19491951), Mary Wlazlowska (19511953), Mary Simmons (19531954), Vera
Kloza (19541955), Wanda Starosciak (19551957), Rosalie Misiur (19571959 and
19691971), Gertrude Polny (19591961 and 19681969), Adele Lakatos (19611963),
Joan Androlowicz (19631965), Anne Regit (19651967 and 19711973), Blanche
Miksiewicz (19671968), and Catherine Kraus (19731974).
Helen Kiczek, president, Ladies Auxiliary of the Polish Army Veterans of America,
was honored with the presence of Czeslawa Durska at her testimonial dinner in Eliza-
beth, New Jersey. Congressman Roman Pucinski called the election of Jewel Fifielski,
the newly elected national President of the Ladies Auxiliary of AMVETS, significant
because it . . . . emphasizes the increasing importance being played by women of abil-
ity in high administrative positions throughout the country.
Congressman Edward Boland and Richard Neal presented the history of the Polish
Womens Club of Three Rivers, Massachusetts. Established in 1924, the 58 founding
members adopted the name the Polish American Women Citizens Political Club of
Three Rivers and Thorndike. The primary purpose was to help Polish women become
citizens, to take an active role in politics, and to support businesses owned by people of
Polish extraction. Politically, the group has supported both Democrat and Republican
candidates. In 1933, the club joined the Massachusetts Federation of Polish Womens
Clubs, Inc. The club had been involved in relief work during World War II and as fund-
raisers for the Blind Children of Poland and Pope John Paul IIs Endowment Fund.
Mary A. Socha, Esq. delivered the address entitled Womens Organization in Todays
World at the 50th anniversary banquet on April 27, 1974. Judge Elizabeth A. Porada
was the keynote speaker at the 55th anniversary banquet on October 27, 1979. Past
presidents have included Anna Rusek, Nellie Motyka, Stephanie Kolbusz, Mary Ja-
juga, Anna Kulig, Genevieve Janosz, Sophie Zerdecki, Julie Midura, and Edna Pytka.
The president in 1994, Helen Grzywna, served as president for 22 years.
Mrs. Francis P. Tarnapowicz, chair of the U.S. Treasury Nationality Groups Divi-
sion, led the campaign of 101 ethnic groups that sold $269 million war bonds used for
the construction of two Veterans Administration hospitals in western Pennsylvania.
Her papers (MG-215) are located in the State Archives, P.O. Box 1026, Third and
North Streets, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17108-1026.

CONCLUSION
One of the earliest references to Polish American women is the 1914 report of Le-
Roy Hodges who stated that the Poles on farms in Texas produce a much larger yield
of cotton per acre than the average native Texan. This is possible, first, because the
Poles work in the fields themselves, while the native Americans generally employ ne-
groes to do their work; and, second, because the Polish women and children work with
 Polish American Women 61

the men in the fields, thereby more than doubling the labor force without an increased
labor expense.
Whether working in the cotton fields or on the floor of Congress, the story of Polish
American women has not been fully told. For Polish American women, some born in
the United States and others born abroad, Polonia is neither a nation nor a slogan on a
bumper sticker. Polonia is the ideal of a millenium of history and religious tradition.
The use of government documents can help to uncover the story of this tradition.

NOTES
1. William J. Galushs Purity and Power: Chicago Polonian Feminists, 18801914, Polish American
Studies 47 (Spring 1990):524 was awarded the Joseph Swastek Prize as the best essay published in Pol-
ish American Studies in 1991. Jo Anne Schneiders Patterns For Getting By: Polish Womens Employ-
ment in Delaware County, 19001930, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 114 (October
1990):51741 discusses the themes of family structure, community needs, and the availability of net-
works for different kinds of work women did in small textile communities near Philadelphia.
2. Thomas Duszak, Polish Americana in Government Documents, Documents to the People 20 (June
1992):8892 and 21 (June 1993):8695. The authors The Polish Presence in North America, Choice
32 (November 1994):399419 is a bibliographic essay about books on Polish Americana.
3. Donna R. Gabaccia, Immigrant Women in the United States: A Selectively Annotated Multidisciplinary
Bibliography. Bibliographies and Indexes in Womens Studies, vol. 9 (New York: Greenwood Press,
1989).
4. Felicity Barringer, Ethnic Pride Confounds the Census: So Who Are We? New York Times, May 9,
1993, section 4, p. 3.
5. William A. Douglass, Ethnic Categorization in the 1980 U.S. Census: The Basque Example, Govern-
ment Publications Review 12 (July/August 1985):28996.
6. John A. Kromkowski, A Compendium of Social, Economic and Demographic Indicators for Polish Ances-
try and Selected Populations in the United States, Polish American Studies 47 (Autumn 1990):574.
7. Congressional Information Service, Inc., Congressional Masterfile 17891969 and Congressional Master-
file 19831995 (Bethesda, MD: CIS, 1988) CD-ROM v.2.23.
8. Auto-Graphics, Inc., Government Documents Catalog Service (GDCS) (Pomona, CA: IMPACT/
GDCS, 19871995) CD-ROM v.7.04.
9. Milton Gwirtzman, Congresss Daily Advertisement for Itself, Wall Street Journal, October 8, 1992, p.
A14.
10. Michelle M. Springer, The Congressional Record: Substantially a Verbatim Report? Government
Publications Review 13 (May/June 1986):37178.
11. SilverPlatter Information Service, ERIC (CD-ROM)(Boston: SPIRS, 1986).
12. Manuel D. Lopez, The Polish-American Woman, Her Antecedents and Her Immigrant Sisters: A Select
Bibliography, Polish Room Bibliographical Series, No.6 (Buffalo: State University of New York, 1978).
13. Henry Campbell Black, Blacks Law Dictionary, 5th ed. (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1979),
1076.
14. Polonias Woman of the Week, Polish American Journal 41 (24 May 1952):1.
15. Jim Davidson, The Trials and Era of Judge Carol Los Mansmann, Pttsburgh Press Sunday Magazine,
October 26, 1986, pp. 813, 16.
16. In Chambers: A Conversation with Judge Donetta Ambrose, Western District Court of Pennsylva-
nia, Pennsylvania Law Weekly 19 (February 5, 1996): 5, 26 (weekly ed.).
17. Melanie Cyganowski and H. A. Zionts. Survey: The Buffalo Polish-American Legal Experience, Buf-
falo Law Review 30 (Winter 1981):16184; Melanie Cyganowski, New York Law Journal 209 (March
2, 1993):1; and U.S. Administrative Office of the United States Courts, The Third Branch 25 (April
1993):8(SuDoc: Ju 10.3/2).
18. Mary Walton, Olympic Star Stella Walsh: She Ran FastLike a Man, Philadelphia Inquirer, Decem-
ber 14, 1980, pp. 1A,2223A.
19. Marie Zakrzewska, A Womans Quest: The Life of Marie E. Zakrzewska, M.D. Ed. and trans. by Agnes
C. Vietor (New York: Arno Press, 1972).
20. U.S. Library of Congress, Visual Arts in Poland: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Holdings in the
Library of Congress, Comp. by Janina Hoskins, (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993). Anna
Bilinska (18571893) painted the portrait of George Gray Barnard in Paris in 1890. George Gray
Barnard (18631938) was a sculptor who designed the statuary that flanks the main entrance to the Cap-
itol in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Hoskins features a self-portrait of Bilinska on p. 68.
21. U.S. Library of Congress, National Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections: Index 19911993, 491,
refers to National Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections: Catalog, 1992, 167. MS92-1139 contains
62 T. DUSZAK

correspondence, constitutions, sheet music and scores, Polish song title and composer indices, Polish
playlets and verses for children, Polish grammars, readers, and histories, awards, testimonies, docu-
ments, programs, and photos, relating to [Anne J. Wosachlo] Rychlicki, Polish National Alliance, Polish
Womens Alliance, and other womens and youth organizations in the Detroit . . . .
22. Women of the PNA, Zgoda 114 (August 15, 1995):12 (Special ed.).

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64 T. DUSZAK

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 Polish American Women 65

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66 T. DUSZAK

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 Polish American Women 69

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 Polish American Women 71

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14, 1992), 106 United States Statutes at Large, 210611.