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4-Quadratic Surfaces PDF
4-Quadratic Surfaces PDF
4-Quadratic Surfaces PDF
Lecture 4
4.1
Quadratic Surfaces
Quadratic Functions
f (x0 )
,
2
f (x0 ) 2
x0
2
and the
1
e(x, x0 ) = f ()(x x0 )3
6
tends to 0 even faster than the quadratic function (x x0 )2 as x tends to x0 , i.e.
lim
xx0
e(x, x0 )
= 0.
(x x0 )2
This has been used to investigate critical points for local maxima and minima.
Since the graph of a quadratic function is a parabola with an absolute minimum
at its vertex if a > 0 or a maximum if a < 0 one concludes that a function that
is two times differentiable has a local minimum or maximum at a critical point if
0)
0)
a = f (x
> 0 or a = f (x
< 0. Indeed, if f (x0 ) = 0 (for x0 being critical) we have
2
2
1
f (x) f (x0 )(x x0 )2 + f (x0 ).
2
The situation of many variables is similar, but slightly more complicated because
of the large amount of possible quadratic terms. Let us look first into the case of
two variables.
f (x, y) = ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f.
We introduce a more systematic notation that uses indices and turns out to be
even more useful in higher dimensions. Denote the first variable x by x1 and the
second variable y by x2 . Then denote a = a11 , b = 2a12 = 2a21 , c = a22 , d = a1 ,
e = a2 , f = a. The indices of the new as tell us immediately how many and which
factors x1 or x2 follow. Also we dont need to invent new letters for the huge amount
23
of coefficients that occur in higher dimensions, and we may use sigma notation. The
equation becomes
f (x1 , x2 ) =
2 X
2
X
aij xi xj +
i=1 j=1
2
X
ai xi + a.
i=1
3 X
3
X
aij xi xj +
i=1 j=1
3
X
ai xi + a.
i=1
n X
n
X
aij xi xj +
i=1 j=1
4.2
n
X
ai xi + a.
i=1
Quadratic Curves
(4)
(5)
y = sin u + cos v
where x, y are the old coordinates and u, v are the new coordinates. You may check
that the unit vectors ~i = h1, 0i and ~j = h0, 1i are mapped to a pair of mutually
perpendicular unit vectors.
5
Quadratic curves are often called conic sections because they arise when a cone and a plane
intersect in 3-space.
24
Theorem. By a suitable rotation of the form (5) the equation (4) turns into
A u2 + C v 2 + D u + E v + F = 0,
where A , C , D , E , F are some new coefficients.
Proof. By plugging the expressions (5) for x, y into the equation (4) we find the
coefficient in front of uv to be
B = 2A cos sin + B(cos2 sin2 ) 2C sin cos = (A C) sin 2 + B cos 2.
Here we used standard trigonometric formulae. To make this expression zero we
need
C A
.
cot =
B
If B 6= 0 this determines a unique angle between 0 and . If B = 0 the mixed
term didnt occur in the first place.
2
Without developing the relevant theory (this will be left to Linear Algebra
Pmth213) we notice that the new coefficients written as a matrix can be computed
in the following way:
A
B
2
B
2
cos sin
sin cos
A
B
2
B
2
cos sin
.
sin cos
E 2
D2
E2
D 2
) + C(y +
) +F
= 0.
2A
2C
4A 4C
You may recall the concept of eigenvalues from Math101. A more thorough theory of eigenvalues will be developed in Pmth213.
25
D2
4A
E2
4C
F.
Ellipse:
(x x0 )
(y y0 )
+
=1
2
a
b2
b
a
Parabola: y y0 = a(x x0 )
A
and y0 = FE .
Here a = E
(a>0)
x x0 = b(y y0 )
C
Here b = D
and x0 = FD .
(b>0)
26
=
1
Hyperbola:
a2
p
p b2
5. If A > 0, C < 0 and F < 0 (or A < 0, C > 0 and F > 0) we divide by F
and find again a hyperbola.
(x x0 )2 (y0 y0 )2
= 1
b2
p a2
p
Here a = F /A, b = F /C.
6. The remaining cases are in some sense degenerate and not really quadratic
curves. We list them for the sake of completeness.
(a) If A > 0, C > 0, F = 0 (or A < 0, C < 0, F = 0), the equation becomes
A(x x0 )2 + C(y y0 )2 = 0, which is a single point. (Which?)
(b) If A > 0, C < 0, F = 0 (or A < 0, C > 0, F = 0), the equation
2
A(x x0 )p
+ C(y y0 )2 = 0 describes a pair of crossing lines, namely,
y = y0 A/C(x x0 )
(c) If A > 0, C > 0 and F /A < 0 (or A < 0, C < 0 and F /A < 0) we get
A(x x0 )2 + C(y y0 )2 = F , which is the empty set.
27
4.3
Quadratic Surfaces
Ellipsoid:
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2
b
c
Hyperboloid
of
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 2 =1
a2
b
c
one
sheet:
o
Hyperboloid
of
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 2 = 1
a2
b
c
two
sheets:
o
Elliptic cone: z 2 =
x2 y 2
+ 2
a2
b
Elliptic paraboloid: z =
x2 y 2
+ 2
a2
b
28
y 2 x2
2
Hyperbolic paraboloid: z =
b2
a
The most important quadratic surfaces for this unit are the paraboloids because
they approximate the graphs of functions at its critical point and show whether the
critical point is a maximum, a minimum or neither of them. Clearly,
(z z0 ) = A(x x0 )2 + C(y y0 )2
is a cup-like elliptic paraboloid with vertex at (x0 , y0 , z0 ), i.e (x0 , y0, z0 ) is a local
minimum if both A, C are positive and an upside down cup-like elliptic paraboloid
with vertex at (x0 , y0 , z0 ), i.e (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is a local maximum if both A, C are negative.
If A and C have opposite sign then the resulting surface is the saddle-like
hyperbolic paraboloid, i.e we have neither maximum nor minimum.
The cases when A or C (or both) are zero are indecisive.
If we started with a paraboloid of the form
(z z0 ) = A(x x0 )2 + 2B(x x0 )(y y0 ) + C(y y0 )2
we can perform a rotation in the x, y plane about (x0 , y0) exactly in the same way as
in the classification of quadratic curves to get rid of the mixed term 2B(xx0 )(yy0 ).
Without doing this we can decide whether the critical point (x0 , y0 ) is a maximum,
minimum or saddle point by looking at the determinant
A B
= AC B 2
det
B C
4.4
Sketching Surfaces
Sketching the graph of a surface is usually much more difficult than sketching a
curve. One practical way to sketch a surface is by using a method called mesh
plot: one builds up the shape of the surface using curves obtained by cutting the
surface with planes parallel to the coordinate planes.
29
The curve of intersection of a surface with a plane is called the trace of the
surface in the plane.
Let us now look at several examples to see how the mesh plot method can be
used in sketching surfaces.
Example 1. Sketch the graph of the surface x2
y2
+ z 2 = 1.
4
y2
4
which gives a circle (for fixed y) in the xz-plane. If we take y = k, and put the
circle in the plane y = k (by moving the one in the xz-plane and keeping the motion
parallel to the y-axis), then when we choose different k, we obtain many circles
which
are parallel but with different radii (the circle on the plane y = k has radius
r
k2
1 + ).
4
Solution: For any fixed y value, the equation can be written as x2 + z 2 = 1 +
k=2
k=-2
k=-1
k=0
k=1
The above graphs show the circles (k = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2) and a sketch of the surface
obtained by smoothly connecting these circles.
2
Example 2. Sketch the graph of z =
y 2 x2
.
4
9
2
x2 , which is of the
Solution: Take y = k. Then the equation becomes z k4 = 1
9
form (z z0 ) = ax2 and hence is a parabola. The following graphs show various
parabolas obtained by varying k and a sketch of the surface by connecting these
parabolas.
30
or
(z 2)2
= 1.
4
Thus we know it represents an ellipsoid with center (0, 1, 2).
x2 + (y + 1)2 +
z
z
x
y
z 2
= 1.
4
We can use the mesh plot method to sketch the surface in the x y z -coordinate system and then move it to the xyz-coordinate system according to the relationship
x = x, y = y + 1 and z = z 2.
2
Write x = x, y = y+1 and z = z2. Then the equation becomes x2 + y 2 +