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Explosive Volcanic Eruptions - II The Atmospheric Trajectories of Pyroclasts
Explosive Volcanic Eruptions - II The Atmospheric Trajectories of Pyroclasts
1. Introduction
In the first paper in this series (Walker, Wilson & Bowel1 1971, hereinafter
referred to as Paper I), the terminal velocities at sea level were calculated for wide
ranges of diameter and density of solid particles, using three simple particle shapes,
classified as (i) smooth spheres, (ii) rough spheres, and (iii) cylinders. Terminal
velocities were measured for pumice and lithic fragments, and sanidine crystals, and
compared with the corresponding calculated values. It was found that these particles,
all being representative examples of pyroclastic dCbris, behaved aerodynamically as
cylinders. With this essential identification of effective particle shape it is possible,
using appropriate experimental data on aerodynamic drag forces, to compute the
trajectories of pyroclastic fragments under almost all circumstances of eruption and
subsequent movement in the atmosphere. This paper describes the general numerical
solution of the equations of motion of pyroclastic particles.
The methods of determining physical. parameters of explosive eruptions are
discussed. It is shown that the most important calculable quantities required are
(a) the ranges in air of particles ejected at various velocities from a vent, and (b) the
times of fall of particles released at various heights from an eruption column and
cloud. Values are presented for these quantities, using wide ranges of particle size,
density, launch velocity and release height.
As an example of the use of particle ranges, the values deduced by Fudali & Melson
(1972) for the launch velocities of fragments ejected explosively from the Arena1
volcano (at least 600 m s-') are shown to be too small due to the neglect of compressibility effects at particle velocities near Mach number 1.0. After a re-discussion of
the analysis, revised values of at least 660 m s- are found.
381
Summary
382
L. Wilson
383
moving along a path inclined at angle 8 to the x-axis (horizontal) and experiencing a
total drag force W(u). It is justifiable, in the case of pyroclastic particles, to neglect
lift forces, as noted in Paper I. The acceleration due to gravity is -g(y) in the positive
y-direction (vertically upwards) and the origin of co-ordinates coincides with the
Earth's surface, the curvature of the Earth being neglected. Let us define:
= ucose
(1)
e = u sin8
(2)
F(u) = W(u)/mu.
(3)
(4)
dt
de
dt
- --
-eF(u)-g
(5)
dx
-=z
dt
dY = e,
-
(7)
dt
subject to
u = (2 e2)*.
W(u) depends in general on the shape of the particle as well as on u, and also on
properties of the Earth's atmosphere. There is, however, a considerable body of
experimental data on drag phenomena (Hoerner 1965) and it is well established that
the problem is greatly simplified by defining the drag coefficient, C, and Reynolds
number, R , thus:
(10)
where p and v are the density and viscosity of air, both in general being a function of
position, and u is a typical radius of the particle. With these definitions, C can be
expressed as a function of R alone, for any one particle shape, for a wide range of all
the parameters as long as v is rather less than the local speed of sound, i.e. as long
as M , the Mach number, is less than about 0.7. Hoerner (1965) gives (graphically)
the function C(R) for several basic particle shapes, together with correction factors
K ( M ) for values of M up to at least 5. We are specifically concerned here with
C(R) and K ( M ) for cylindrical objects.
For the present purpose it has been assumed that p varies only with height, and
that v varies only with absolute temperature, T, in turn related uniquely to height.
The variations of p and T have been taken from Allen (1963) and v obtained from
T using the formula given by Sutherland (1893) for air:
T
( Ty:17)(z)
.
1.5
= O~OoO172
- -- -zF(u)
384
L. Wilson
D i= R i l / 6 + R i 2 / 3 + R i 3 / 3 + R , 4 / 6 ,
where
Rll
=zt;
R31
R41
= -F(J(Z2+e2))eT-gT
R12
= (Z+*R31)
R32
= -
R42
R2,
= eT
-~(J(z+e~))z~
T;
R22
i = I , 2, 3 , 4
( 14 4
(e+!TR41)
R13
= (Z+!ZR32)
R33
= -F(J((z+*R32)2+(e+3R42)2))
R43
= -
R14
= (z+R3,)7;
R34
R44
= -F(J((z+R33)2+(e+R43)2))(e+R43)T-g7.
T;
(J(( z +!!R3
- F ( J(<z
R23
2)
= (e++R42)
( z +$R 3 2 )
+ (e +1R42)2))
R24
(e +!lR42)
(e+R4,)z
+R33I2+ (e+R43Y))
( z + R33) 7
(13)
-gT
( 14b)
144
(1 4 4
For any initial set of values xo, yo, uo, Bo and to, values of zo and e, can be found
from equations (I) and (2). Successive increments D, can be obtained from the
above set of equations (14) using a suitable time step T until any specified criterion
applies-for example until the particle reaches the ground. Furthermore, since the
value of z may be changed between steps, z can be decreased when large velocities or
accelerations occur, to maintain accuracy, or increased when only small positional
changes are occurring, to minimize the amount of calculation needed.
In practice, values of T leading to 1 per cent computational accuracy in all the
final parameters have been used. This means that the true accuracy is limited by
385
(a) the extelit to which real pyroclasts behave as cylinders; (b) the accuracy with
which C ( R ) and K ( M ) ate determined by the experimenters. Both of these quantities
are hard to estimate. It was found in Paper I that computed terminal velocities of
small particles agreed with experimental values to within 10 per cent (often to within
5 per cent). It would be realistic, therefore, to estimate that parameters presented
here for the smallest particles are within 10 per cent of the true values. The accuracy
of the parameters of larger particles will be progressively greater, however, as the
ratio of gravitational forces to drag forces rises.
The above method of solution of the equations of motion has been programmed
in FORTRAN. When implemented on the University of Lancaster's I.C.L. 1905F,
the program required 5056 core locations. The computation of the trajectory of a
O.Ol-cm radius particle launched at high speed near the ground (the worst case),
required 10 s; the time of fall of such a particle from a height of 50 km could be
obtained in 20 s.
lo00
600
300
100
30
10
Velocity
(m s- l)
1.9034
1.7745
1.4089
1.1222
2.1256
1'9872
1.6042
1.3105
2.3078
2.1661
1.7773
1.4810
3.5
2.5
1.0
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.4782
3.3455
2.9794
2.6982
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
3.8625
3.7348
3.3844
3.1161
3.8196
3.6939
3.3484
3.0832
3.4446
3.3133
2.9501
2.6706
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.7677
3.6448
3.3058
3.0447
3.4054
3.2759
2.9165
2.6391
3.3201
3.1106
2.8461
2.5741
4.3426
4.2100
3.8477
3 ' 5749
4.2959
4.1652
3.8073
3.5373
4.2389
4.1110
3.7592
3.4931
4.0418
3.7372
3.6042
3.3549
3.6440
3.5719
3.3383
3.1364
3.1424
3.0324
2.7128
2.4556
4.8275
4.6948
4.3231
4.0479
4.7744
4.6458
4.2817
4.0098
4.7075
4.5849
4.2319
3.9647
Radius in centimetres
1.0
3.0
2.9556
2.9369
2.8559
2.7579
0.3
2.7439
2.6772
2.4490
2.2380
0.1
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
0.01
(g cm- '1
Density
5.2112
5.0861
4.7517
4.5032
5.1323
5.0139
4.6933
4.4526
5.0257
4.9177
4.6183
4.3891
4.6867
4.6173
4.3999
4,2139
3.9315
3.9208
3 ' 8680
3.7965
3.0032
3.0017
2.9914
2.9760
10.0
5.6581
5.5914
5.3732
5.1779
5.9162
5.8157
5.5245
5.2928
6.1029
5.9760
5.6329
5.3772
5.5404
5.4302
5.1087
4.8524
5.6510
5.5273
5.1810
4.9130
4'9660
4.9514
4.8817
4.7912
3.9583
3.9571
3.9483
3.9356
3.0075
3.0070
3.0060
3.0043
100.0
5.3861
5.2957
5.0127
4.7744
30.0
Logarithms (to base 10) of ranges (in centimetres) of particles launched at 45 deg.
Table 1
6.5651
5.9630
5.0088
3.9630
3.0088
range, cm)
log (vacuum
loo0
600
300
100
30
10
Velocity
(m s - l )
(g
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.5
2.5
1.0
0-5
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
Density
4.0410
3.9111
3.5575
3.2906
4.0926
3.9602
3.6013
3 * 3309
4.1354
4.0014
3.6384
3.3654
3.6220
3.4949
3.1454
2.8771
3.6605
3.5317
3.1781
2.9072
3.2378
3.1043
2.7359
2.4528
3.2684
3.1339
2.7631
2.4788
4.8673
4.7573
4,4499
4.2103
4.9631
4.8427
4.5155
4.2660
5.0348
4.9075
4.5670
4.3108
4.5111
4.3852
4.0304
3.7590
4.5719
4.4406
4.0758
3.8005
4.6207
4.4857
4.1139
3.8358
4.5529
4.4821
4.2548
4.0556
3.8644
3.7468
3.4194
3.1673
3.1260
2.9768
2.6403
2.3629
2.0813
1.9382
1.5462
1.2474
3.5759
3.4512
3.1073
2.8423
3.8010
3.7897
3.7329
3.6544
3.4896
3.4235
3.1834
2.9752
2'9670
2.8521
2.5202
2.2552
1.9068
1.7658
1.3775
1.0807
3.2023
3 .0702
2.7047
2.4232
2.8736
2.8719
2.8601
2.8427
2.8261
2.8073
2.7242
2.6222
2.5946
2,5230
2.2805
2.0581
10.0
2.7003
1.5668
1.1906
0.8980
Radius in centimetres
3.0
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.3
5.5274
5.4571
5.2261
5.0199
5.7887
5.6795
5.3690
5.1253
5.9963
5.8474
5.4732
5.2033
5.3820
5.2624
4.9256
4.6621
5.4885
5.3542
4.9921
4.7173
4.8358
4.8195
4.7461
4.6504
3.8290
3.8276
3.8180
3.8036
2.8786
2.8785
2.8770
2.8753
100.0
5.2357
5.1368
4.8381
4.5920
30.0
Table 2
6.8799
6.4362
5.8341
4.8799
3.8341
2.8799
log (vacuum
range, cm)
388
L. Wilson
I--[--
-I
10gi,
( p a r t i c l e radius In centimetres)
The values of C which they assumed are apparently too low. At speeds above
200 m s- ', compressibility effects increase the drag coefficient, the maximum factor
being about 2 at Mach numbers around 0.95; this effect is neglected in their calculations, as is the variation of C with Reynolds number. Also, in order to obtain
minimum values for the launch velocities, they use values of C appropriate to
spheres. In the present calculations, the more realistic non-spherical shape deduced
in Paper I is used.
Using Table 1, interpolating for particle density equal to 2 ~ 6 g c m - ~the
, values
in Table 4 are found. Final kinetic energies were obtained from the computer program
described in Section 4. A kinetic energy at impact of lOI4 erg, at a range of 5 km,
corresponds to the launching of an 88.6-cm diameter block at 1090ms-'. This
velocity is almost double that found by Fudali & Melson, and, if used to calculate the
magma chamber pressure and total kinetic energy of the explosion would lead to
values greater than theirs by a factor of 3-35 in each case. Yet by comparing the
Arena1 explosion crater with the Sedan nuclear event, Fudali & Melson show
that the value of total kinetic energy they derive is apparently correct.
-2
1000
600
300
100
30
10
(m s-l)
Velocity
2.1219
2.0048
1 * 6670
1.3979
1.0359
0.8312
0.4997
0.2001
1.2041
1.0596
0.6644
0.3640
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
2.4043
2.2687
1 .8948
1 6082
3.5
2.5
1.0
2.3756
2.2409
1.8690
1.5834
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
2.3424
2.2090
1.8396
1.5554
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
2.2716
2.1415
1 * 7793
1.4991
1.7530
1.6816
1.4373
1.2204
0.8395
0.7028
0.3195
0.0220
3-5
2.5
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.01
Density
'
(g cm- 1
2.7997
2.6703
2.3152
2.0430
2.7638
2.6361
2.2847
2.0148
2.7211
2.5955
2-2492
1.9823
0.3
3.2755
3.1407
2.7752
2.5003
3.2356
3 * 1024
2.7404
2.4679
3.1877
3.0568
2-6997
2.4302
3.0228
2.9034
2-5717
2.4068
2.6641
2.5897
2.3479
2.1373
1 * 9790
1.9614
1.8830
1.7846
3.7693
3-6332
3.2547
2.9732
3.7238
3.5912
3-2191
2.9400
3.6669
3 * 5394
3.1770
2.9015
Radius in centimetres
1.0
3-0
4.1881
4.0573
3-7089
3.4489
4.1204
3.9964
3.6607
3.4069
4.0293
3.9157
3 * 5993
3.3549
3.7156
3.6437
3.4116
3.2078
2.9505
2.9395
2.8843
2.8070
2.0211
2.0207
2.0099
1.9937
10.0
4.6906
4.6212
4.3900
4.1815
4.9575
4.8464
4.5308
4.2831
5.1767
5.0191
4.6333
4.3578
4-5432
4.4227
4.0836
3.8174
4 * 6482
4.5119
4.1463
3 * 8687
3.9873
3.9721
3.9026
3.8097
2.9775
2.9762
2.9673
2.9540
2.0268
2.0267
2.0254
2,0236
100.0
4.3988
4.3000
4.0006
3.7521
30.0
Logarithms (to base 10) of ranges (in centimetres) of particles launched at 87 deg.
Table 3
6.0279
5.5843
4.9822
2.0279
log (vacuum
range, cm)
w
00
W
15
390
L. Wilson
3
3
3
--
-2
-I
log,,
(particle radius
in
centimetres)
0
-2
-I
391
Table 4
Parameters of blocks with density 2.6 g ern- reaching 5 k m when launched at
elevation 45"
Diameter
(m)
1.60
1.24
1.00
0.60
Launch velocity
(m s-l)
488
660
870
2760
Final kinetic
energy (erg)
1014.89
1014.50
1014.19
1013.39
The solution to this dilemma seems to lie in consulting their Fig. 5. This figure
gives the energy required to excavate a secondary crater as a function of the displaced mass of crater material. Fudali & Melson estimate the displaced mass from a
typical secondary crater to be 1.2 x lo6 g, and deduce that this corresponds to a
cratering energy of about IOI4 erg. In fact, careful examination of the figure shows
that a value of 10'4.5 would be more accurate. Table 4 (of this paper) demonstrates
that the launch velocity needed for blocks to reach 5 km varies rapidly with final
kinetic energy. Using 1014.5instead of IOl4 erg for the final kinetic energy of blocks,
the best solution corresponding to the launching of a 1-24-m diameter block at
660ms-'. This velocity is, as it happens, very close to that found by Fudali &
Melson (600 m s-'), so that the present calculations may be regarded as confirming
their estimates of magma chamber pressure and total kinetic energy.
392
L. Wilson
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Science Research Council through a
research fellowship. Computations were carried out on the IBM 1130 at the
University of London Observatory, on the IBM 360/65 at University College
London and on the ICL 1909 and 1905F at the University of Lancaster, all of which
establishments are thanked for providing facilities. I also thank Dr G. P. L. Walker,
Dr. J. E. Guest and E. L. G. Bowell for discussions on various aspects of this work.
Department of Environmental Sciences,
University of Lancaster,
Bailrigg, Lancaster.
References