UNIT 2

SEISMIC METHODS IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Though expansive, seismic methods provide more and better structural
information than geophysical methods in areas suited to their use.
Basic Principles
The sudden release of energy from, for example, the detonation of an explosive
charge in the ground or mechanical pounding of the ground surface, generates
seismic shock waves in effect a rapidly travelling series of compressions and
rarefactions of the rock which move out in hemispherical wave-fronts the
point of energy release.
The speed at which these seismic waves travel is mainly dependent on the
elasticity of the rock; it tends to be low in uncompacted clays and sands and
high in igneous and the older indurated sedimentary rocks. When, after passing
through low-speed rocks, the seismic wave fronts encounter the upper
surface of a high speed rock formation some energy is reflected directly
back to the surface while the remainder is refracted into the high speed
formation. One ray of this refracted energy which has approached the high
speed formation along its upper boundary. The material at the boundary is
thereby subjected to oscillating stress from below, this generates new
disturbances along the boundary which travel upwards through the low speed
rocks and eventually reach the surface. Reflected seismic waves but not
refracted waves may also reach the surface from the lower boundary of a high
speed formation.
Figure 2. shows the paths of seismic waves which have reached the surface
again after reflection and refraction on encountering a high speed formation at
depth. Measurement of the time taken for such reflected and refracted waves
to reach detector arrays at the surface is the basis of the two main methods of
seismic exploration seismic reflection and seismic refraction.
The seismic reflection method
In this, the most extensively used of all geophysical methods, the detectors are
placed relatively close to the explosion point to exclude refracted waves. The
depths to the reflecting layers and their dips can be computed, knowing the
speed of seismic waves in the rock formations, from the times taken to travel
from the explosion point to the reflecting layers and back again to groups of
detectors at the surface. The method is thus analogous to echo sounding at
sea.
The seismic refraction method

In the simple case of refraction by a single high speed formation at depth, the
travel times for the seismic wave which proceeds directly from the shot point
to detectors placed on a straight wave to arrive at shot point and the travel
times for the first refracted wave to arrive at the detectors are plotted on a
graph against shot- detector distances. The depth h to the high- speed
formation can be calculated from the graph using the formula

Where Vo and V1 are the speeds of the seismic waves in the low speed and
high- speed formations respectively and xc is the distance to be point where
direct and refracted waves arrive simultaneously.
Exercises
2.1 skimming
Read the text quickly. Do not attempt to understand every word but aim for
general understanding.
Now answer the following:
1. Seismic methods, as described in the text, are used to investigate:
(a) Oil deposits

(b) rock formations

(c) earthquakes

2. The most common seismic method is:

(a) Mechanical (b) refraction (c) reflection

2.2 Understanding the text true or false?

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)

Detonations create shock waves. T

Seismic methods are inexpensive. F
Igneous rocks form high speed formations. T
Reflected rays are those which approach a high speed formation at the
critical angle. F
Refracted waves strike the lower boundaries of high speed formations. T
Reflected wave detectors are placed closer to the shot point. T
Seismic information is gathered from the distance travelled by the
waves. T
The formation depth can be calculated using the formula. F
At a given point reflected and refracted waves simultaneously. F
Seismic wave fronts are rectilinear. T

2.3 Word skills I: words beginning exFind the 6 words beginning ex- which are similar in meaning to the following, as
used in the text.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Widely
ex
Avoid
ex
Investigation ex
Detonation
ex
Costly
ex
Instance
ex

2.4 Word skill II.

Choose the words closest in meaning to the following, as they are used in the
text.
Elasticity
(a) electricity

(b) mobility (c) facility

Rarefaction
(a) refraction

(b) reflection (c) decompression

Analogous
(a) comparable (b) incomparable (c) incompatible
Array
(a) arrangement

(b) aerial

(c) arrow

Boundary
(a) bonding

(b) interface

(c) barrier

Oscillation
(a) reverberation

(b) repercussion

(c) vibration

2.5 Information transfer

Name a - f using the information given in the text