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Politi2009 PDF
Politi2009 PDF
Politi2009 PDF
I. INTRODUCTION
UANTUM technologies offer significant opportunities
for information and communication technologies, as well
as profound insight into the fundamental workings of nature.
This pioneering field of research is at the interface of physical and information science and promises to revolutionize information technology based on harnessing the unique properties of quantum mechanics to encode, transmit, and process
information.
Quantum photonics is recognized as fundamental to explore
quantum science and is expected to play a central role in advancing future technologies. Single photons are repeatedly used for
breakthrough experiments verifying uniquely quantum mechanical phenomena together with many highly successful proof-of
principle demonstrations of emerging quantum technologies,
Manuscript received February 20, 2009; revised April 12, 2009. This work
was supported by the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, the Quantum Information
Processing Interdisciplinary Research Collaboration, and by the Leverhulme
Trust.
A. Politi, J. C. F. Matthews, and J. L. OBrien are with the Centre for
Quantum Photonics, H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory and Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1UB,
U.K. (e-mail: alberto.politi@bristol.ac.uk; jonathan.matthews@bristol.ac.uk;
jeremy.obrien@bristol.ac.uk).
M. G. Thompson is with the Centre for Quantum Photonics, H. H.
Wills Physics Laboratory and Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1UB, U.K., and also with the
Toshiba Research and Development Centre, Kawasaki 212-8582, Japan (e-mail:
Mark.Thompson@Bristol.ac.uk).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSTQE.2009.2026060
each offering profound improvement over their classical counterpart. To date, quantum photonic demonstrations have been
realized using large-scale (bulk) optical elements, bolted onto
sizeable optical benches in the laboratory. Due to the physical
size and the inherent instability of these individual components,
this approach now hinders the development of more complex
quantum optical schemes, and currently prevents the realization
of fully scalable quantum optic devices.
We review in this manuscript a novel approach for alleviating
the issues of stability and allowing accurate control of the path
length through the implementation of quantum optic circuits using photonics integrated waveguides. Our demonstrations of reliable and repeatable, high performance on a nonclassical single
photon level within silica-on-silicon waveguide circuits begin a
new line of research in quantum optics. The underlying components for quantum technologies based on linear optics (directional couplers (DCs) and MachZehnder interferometers) are
fabricated and verified to yield high-visibility nonclassical and
classical interference, respectively. In turn, these components
are used together to form multiphoton entangling gates [1] as
well as the core components used for fully reconfigurable quantum circuits. The reconfigurable aspect of our devices allow
us to perform integrated quantum metrology experiments to a
high degree, by directly manipulating entangled states generated
directly on-chip [2].
This review begins with an introductory background in quantum information science based on single photons. Section III describes the fabrication process and materials used to realize the
single photon waveguide circuits, while the core integrated linear optical components are described in Section IVdescribing
the use of DCs to provide nonclassical interferenceand in
Section Vdetailing the use of integrated MachZehnder interferometers manipulating quantum states. Section VI brings
together the constituent quantum waveguide components in the
construction of two-photon quantum logic gates with the focus
on an integrated realization of an optical quantum controlledNOT gate. Section VII describes the future directions for integrated quantum optical devices. Section VIII summarizes and
concludes the paper.
II. PHOTONIC QUANTUM INFORMATION SCIENCE
To date, the principles of quantum mechanics provide deep
physical understanding into the nature of matter and light on
the atomic and subatomic scale, yielding prediction and subsequent observation of wave-particle duality in systems, and
phenomena such as a single entity existing in superposition
of multiple distinct states and nonlocal, instantaneous interaction between many entangled systems, referred famously by
Fig. 1. (a) Logical states of a classical bit. (b) Arbitrary state of a quantum
qubit may be represented as any position on the surface (in the case of pure
states) or within (for mixed states) the Bloch sphere.
(1)
Fig. 2. Silica on silicon waveguide for quantum photonic circuits. (a) Simulation of the transverse profile of the guided mode in the waveguide. (b) Schematic
of the structure of the chip.
was deposited by flame hydrolysis. The 3.5 m wide waveguides structures were patterned into this core layer via standard
optical lithographic techniques (III). An upper cladding (IV) of
16 m was overgrown in phosphorus and boron-doped silica.
This layer had a refractive index matched to the lower cladding
layer. Metal patterned on the top of the devices provided resistive heaters, metal connections and contact pads that can be
used to control locally the temperature of part of the chip. The
wafer was diced into individual chips, each containing typically
several devices. The facets of some chips were polished to enhance coupling of photons from fibers to the input and output
waveguides.2
A number of devices were designed and fabricated, including
DCs with various coupling ratio, MachZehnder interferometers
(consisting of two DCs), and more sophisticated devices built
up from several DCs with different reflectivities.3
The experiments we review were conducted using degenerate single photon pairs at a wavelength of 780 or 804 nm
produced via spontaneous parametric down conversion (SPDC)
from a type I phase matched bismuth borate (BiB3 O6 ) (BiBO)
nonlinear crystal. The crystal was pumped using a 402 nm continuous wave (CW) laser for two-photon experiments, or by
a 390 nm, 150 fs pulsed laser beam for multiphoton experiments. The 390 nm pump was prepared using a further BiBO
crystal, phase matched for second harmonic generation (SHG)
to double the frequency of a 780 nm mode-locked Ti:Sapphire
laser. Degenerate photon pairs created by the SPDC crystal
pass through 3 nm interference filters and are collected into
single mode polarization maintaining fibers (PMFs). The photons coupled in the PMFs were launched into the chip and
then collected at the outputs using two arrays of eight PMFs,
with 250 m spacing, to match that of the waveguides, and
detected with fiber-coupled SPCMs. The PMF arrays and chip
were directly buttcoupled, with index matching fluid, to obtain
an overall coupling efficiencies of 70% through the device
(input+output insertion losses = 30%, propagation losses are
negligible). Fig. 3 shows a schematic picture of the source and
the fiber array used to couple the photons into and out the desired
chip.
2 All
3 We
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of (a) single photon source and (b) experimental setup used to couple the photons into the integrated circuit.
Fig. 4.
i 1
.
.
(2)
UDC =
i 1
2(1 )
1 2 + 2 2
(4)
and in experiments it can be reduced by any process that limits the indistinguishability of the single photons. The measured
visibility V = 94.8 0.5% quantifies the quality of the interference and demonstrates very good quantum behavior of photons
in an integrated optics architecture.
Fig. 5(b) shows the measured visibility for the quantum interference for ten couplers on a single chip with a range of
design s from 0.22 to 0.6. A best fit was performed on the
experimental data points to produce the curve in the figure. The
theoretical model has two fitting parameters: one to take into
account mode mismatch, that provides deviation from the ideal
relation of (4); the other includes the difference between the designed and real reflectivity of the coupler. The latter parameter,
found to be = 3.4 0.7%, does not introduce any limitation
of the quantum interference, but give a small translation of the
curve to the right. The mode mismatch parameter is used to include the nonperfect visibility of the quantum interference. The
best fit, however, does not give any information about the reason
for the mode mismatch, since a mode mismatch in any degree
of freedom is completely equivalent to mode mismatch in any
other degree of freedom [36]. Some of the possible phenomena that can contribute to the reduced visibility are: polarization
mismatch given by misalignment of PMF fibers in the array
(specified to be < 3 ); spatial mode mismatch given by weakly
guided higher order modes propagating across the relatively
short devices; frequency mismatch given by a nonperfect filtering of the photons
at the source. The average relative visibility
V
/V
Vav = 1/N N
id , a measure of the global performance of
i
the couplers, was found to be Vav = 95.0 0.8. These results
demonstrate the high yield and excellent reproducibility of the
devices for quantum optic applications.
Fig. 6. Schematic of an integrated MachZehnder interferometer with a variable phase shifter realized using a resistive heater.
V. MACHZEHNDER INTERFEROMETERS
Integrated arbitrary qubit preparation is a key capability
for both the development and characterization of integrated
photonic quantum devices. Mathematically, it is possible to
map arbitrarily from the logical qubit |0 to the general
state cos /2 |0 + ei sin /2 |1 by applying the operation
Uprep = ei Z /2 Hei Z /2 H and controlling the two real free
parameters [0, 2) and [0, ), where H is the Hadamard
operation and Z is the third Pauli operator. The unitary nature of quantum mechanics therefore allows Uprep to map from
the computational basis {|0, |1} to any other given basis,
eg |1a |0b |1c |0d + i|0c |1d . The relative optical phase
is controlled by the parameter i.e., |1c |0d + i|0c |1d
|1c |0d + ei i|0c |1d before the two modes are recombined
at the second coupler. Any small variation in the relative optical
path of the interferometer hinders the accurate control of the
phase , and hence, renders such a scheme realized using individual bulk optical components inherently unstable such that it
will not scale favorably for incorporation into larger and more
complicated experiments and devices. The monolithic nature
of integrated waveguide optics using 50% splitting ratio DCs
solves the problem of constructing completely stable Mach
Zehnder interferometers (see Fig. 6), and local control of the
phase between the waveguides inside the interferometer enable
accurate control over the output state. It is interesting to note
that the mathematical description of quibit rotations can be generalized to states that live in bigger Hilbert spaces. If we use
the path encoding to describe an N -dimensional state over N
waveguides, it is possible to use several MachZehnder interferometers and additional phase shifters to realize any arbitrary
N -mode unitary operator [38].
The metallic layer deposited on the top of the silica chip is
used to provide resistive heaters, metallic connections and contacts to physically control the phase inside the interferometer.
When a voltage is applied across the contact pads p1 and p2 ,
Fig. 8. Integrated quantum metrology. (a) Single photon count rates in the
outputs g and h as the phase (V ) is varied. (b) Two-photon coincidental count
rate between the outputs g and h when the state |1a |1b is launched in the
interferometer and varying the phase (V ). (c) Four-photon detection rate of
the output state |3g |1h when inputting the four-photon state |2a |2b .
(5)
2
= sin
.
(8)
2
We performed multiple quantum interference experiments in
which two photons were launched into inputs a and b of the
device. While scanning through the relative arrival time with
an off-chip optical delay, we measured the rate of simultaneous
detection of a single photon at both outputs g and h. Each experiment resulted in a quantum interference dip in this rate
of simultaneous photon detection. The main panel in Fig. 9
plots the quantum interference visibility observed for different
values of and hence . In Fig. 9, we also show two examples of the raw data used to generate this curve: Fig. 9(c) =
0.49 0.01 rad, V = 0.129 0.009; Fig. 9(b) =
1.602 0.01 rad, V = 0.982 0.009.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 12. Fidelity of the C-NOT gate as a function of the reflectivity of the
couplers that constitute the device.
Fig. 13. On-chip estimation of the density matrix for the entangled state
|20 |02, ideal (left) and estimated (right).
the actual components of the device), it is simple to understand that the fidelity value is not enough to fully characterize
the quantum gate. To perform such a characterization, quantum
process tomography is needed. Unfortunately, at the present
stage process tomography for a two qubit operation is hard to
implement in path encoding, directly on the chip, since it requires many MachZehnder interferometers and phase shifters
to be controlled at the same time. An experimental method
was conceived to confirm on-chip coherent quantum operation
and entanglement, the most important properties of the C-NOT
gate.
Two single photons were launched into the T0 and T1 waveguides. The state after the first 1/2 coupler should evolve to
final density matrix show a fidelity with the expected entangled state |20 |02 of > 92%. This high fidelity generation
of the lowest order maximally path entangled state confirms coherent quantum operation and entanglement generation in the
chip.
Other simple quantum photonic circuits were tested to show
the flexibility of the integrated approach. The devices, shown
in Fig. 11(b) and (c), consist of a C-NOT gate and Hadarmard H gates each implemented with a 50:50 coupler between
the C0 and C1 waveguides. We quantify the agreement between the experimental data and the ideal operation by using
the average classical fidelity between probability distributions
S [52], [53]. For the data shown in Fig. 11(b), that should produce equal superpositions of the four computation basis states
|00 |01 |10 |11, the average classical fidelity with the
ideal case was measured to be S = 97.9 0.4%. The device
shown in Fig. 11(c) is an interesting device, since it should produce the four maximally entangled Bell states |10 |01
and |00 |11. For this device, the similarity with the
ideal case was measured to be S = 91.5 0.2%. While the
presence of the entangled state at the output cannot be confirmed directly on-chip, the aforementioned demonstrations of
excellent logical basis operation of the C-NOT and coherent
quantum operation provides great confidence.
VII. FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF QUANTUM INTEGRATED
TECHNOLOGIES
The results presented in this paper are the first demonstrations
of quantum information science experiments using an integrated
waveguide platform. The devices investigated were fabricated
using well established processing techniques, originally developed for the manufacture of components for the telecommunication market. Although the silica-on-silicon material system is
an excellent choice for fabrication of these devices, future integrated quantum photonic devices are likely to take advantage of
the wide range of material systems currently available for the
fabrication of classical photonic devices.
The challenges for the next generation of quantum photonic
devices will focus on increasing the component density, adding
functionality and integrating both active and passive quantum
elements onto a single device. To achieve this goal, a fully integrated quantum photonic circuit is envisaged; a discrete device
comprising single photon emitters, single photon detectors, and
quantum logic processing circuits, all integrated onto a single
chip.
High component density and compact circuits are crucial for
the realization of quantum circuits with complex functionalities.
Material systems such as InP, GaAs, or silicon allow the fabrication of waveguides with much higher refractive index contrasts
than typically possible with silica waveguides. It is, therefore,
possible to fabricate waveguides in these material systems that
tightly confine the optical mode and allow for very small bend
radius, and thus ultracompact circuits can be realized. Photonic crystal structures are the ultimate approach to reducing
the device dimensions, and provide unprecedented control over
the propagation of the light on a wavelength scale [54]. These
10
The circuits presented in this paper have demonstrated a modest level of component integration, with the C-NOT gate comprising a total of seven directional couplers. In terms of the
possible levels of integration that could be achieved in the near
future, we can look towards a selection of recent achievements
in integrated telecommunications devices. Using the InP material system, Luxtera have developed a fully integrated silicon
based 40 Gb/s transceiver, compatible with the CMOS technology and enabling both optical and electronic functionality to
exist on a single chip [66]. Large-scale integration in optically
active material systems such as InP and GaAs have been realized
by companies such as Infinera, who have achieved component
densities in excess of 240 per device [67]. These world-leading
technologies demonstrate the levels of integration that are currently possible in classical photonics, and paves the way for the
realization of equally large-scale and complex quantum photonic devices. Applying these concepts to quantum optics circuits will not only provide similar advantages in terms of size
and scalability, but will also allow for precision, control and
complexities previously not possible in quantum optic circuits.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented a new approach in the way optical quantum information science experiments are conducted.
Quantum optics experiments have typically been performed
with large-scale (bulk) optical elements, and although these systems provide proof-of-principle experiments, they are limited in
terms of scalability, stability and complexity and will ultimately
hinder the development of more advanced quantum circuits.
For quantum optic technologies to flourish, an integration approach must be taken, enabling the development of compact and
efficient quantum optic components with unprecedented complexity.
We have presented a selection of proof-of-concept experiments, highlighting the potential of the integration technology for key quantum technologies. On-chip quantum interference has been demonstrated with a maximum visibility
of 0.982 0.009. Quantum metrology experiments has been
demonstrated using a MZI and two and four photons entangled states, showing fringe contrast of C = 98.2 0.3% and
C = 92 4%, respectively. A quantum logic C-NOT gate has
also been realized, showing a fidelity in the computational basis of F = 94.3 0.2%. These components form the building
blocks required to realize more complex quantum integrated
circuits.
This on-chip control of light at the quantum level will enable
new scientific developments in the field of quantum optics, as
well as the development of advanced quantum systems for the
purposes of quantum metrology, quantum communications and
quantum computation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank A. Laing, M. J. Cryan, J. G.
Rarity, and S. Yu for helpful discussions.
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Alberto Politi received the B.Eng. degree in electrical engineering and M.Phys.
degree from the University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy, in 2003 and 2005, respectively.
He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree at the Centre for Quantum
Photonics, H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory and Department of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K.
His current research interests include nanostructured devices for light manipulation and photonic integrated circuits for quantum science applications.
Mark G. Thompson received the M.Phys. degree in physics from the University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K., in 2000, and the Ph.D. degree from the
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K., in 2006, for his work on ultra-fast
semiconductor optoelectronic devices.
He is currently a Lecturer in the Department of Physics and of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering at the University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K, and also
a Toshiba Research Fellow with Toshiba Research and Development Centre,
Kawasaki, Japan. As a Research Scientist with Bookham Technology Ltd.,
Oxfordshire, U.K., he was engaged on the development of silicon integrated
photonic devices during 20002002. He then joined the University of Cambridge, first as a Ph.D. Student and then as a Research Fellow from 2006 to
2008, where he was engaged on the research in quantum-dot optoelectronic
devices. His research interests include photonic devices, particularly ultra-fast
photonic devices, short pulse generation, silicon integrated photonics, and integrated quantum photonic circuits.
Jeremy L. OBrien received the Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of
New South Wales, Sydney, N.S.W., in 2002 for experimental work on correlated
and confined electrons in organic conductors, superconductors, and semiconductor nanostructures, as well as progress toward the fabrication of phosphorus
in a silicon quantum computer.
He is currently a Professor of physics and electrical engineering in the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, and the H. H. Wills Physics
Laboratory, University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K. As a Research Fellow at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld., Australia, he was engaged on quantum
optics and quantum information science with single photons during 20012006.
At CQP, he has been engaged on the fundamental and applied quantum mechanics at the heart of quantum information science and technology, ranging from
prototypes for scalable quantum computing to generalized quantum measurements, quantum control, and quantum metrology.