i Second EditionInformation contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. 2 Sw L==4) Tata McGraw-Hill © 2000, 1981, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited Seventeenth reprint 2006 RAXLCDRKRQAYR No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior writien permission of the publishers This edition can be exported from India by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ISBN 0-07-463010-5 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typeset at Anvi Composers, A1/33 Pashchim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at A P Offset Pvt. Ltd., Naveen Shahdara, Delhi 110 032 The McGraw Dae FContents Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition ix List of Principal Symbols xxi == 1 Be Ll __A Brief History of Refrigeration _/ 1,2 Systeme International d’Unites (SI Units) 4 1.3 Thermodynamic Systems, State, Properties, Processes, rand Wi J 14 _ First Law of Thermodynamics 10 1.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics 1] L6__Non-flow Processes 12 -L7__ Steady-Flow Processes _13 - 1.8 Thermodynamic State of a Pure Substance _/4 1,9 Heat Exchange Processes /8 = 1.10 Production of Low Temperatures _/9 1.11 Saturation Pressure Versus Saturation Temperature Relationship 23. 1,12 The Gaseous Phase: Equation of State 25 1.13. Clapeyron Equation 27° 1.14 Property Relations 28 1.15 ‘Thermodynamic Properties of Refrigerants 29 1,16 Modes of Heat Transfer _37 1 2 ti 1.18 Electrical Analogy! 42 1.19 Steady-State Conduction 44 1 dy 21 Unsteady-State Conduction 57 1.22 Forced Convection Correlations 58 1 .23_Free Convection Correlations 59 ‘1.24 Design of Heat Exchangers 60 1.26 Analogy between Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer _62 References 65 Problems 66 Refrigerating Machine and Reversed Carnot Cycle 68 .2.1 Refrigerating Machines 68 Copyrighted materialGy] Contents 2.2 __A Refrigerating Machine—The Second Law Interpretation 69 2.3 Heat Engine, Heat Pump and Refrigerating Machine _72 2.4 Best Refrigeration Cycle: The Carnot Principle 76 2.5 Vapour as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 86 2.6 Gas as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 83 2.7 Limitations of Reversed Camot Cycle 90 2.8 ‘Actual Refrigeration. Systems 9] Problems 92 Vapour Compression System 94 3.1 Modifications in Reversed Carnot Cycle with Vapour - asaRefrigerant_ 94 3.2__ Vapour Compression Cycle 96 3.3 Vapour Compression System Calculations 98 3.4 Ewing’s Construction 106 3.5 Standard Rating Cycle and Effect of Operating Conditions 110 3.6 Actual Vapour Compression Cycle 120 3.7 Standard Rating Cycle for Domestic Refrigerators 124 3.8 HeatPump 128 3.9 Second Law Efficiency of Vapour Compression Cycle _129 ‘References 130 Problems 131 EE Refrigerants 135 = A Survey of Refrigerants 135 __ Designation of Refrigerants 137 = ; Comparative Study of Methane Derivatives in 4.4 Comparative study of Ethane Derivatives in Use 4.5 Selection of aRefrigerant_140 4.6 ‘Thermodynamic Requirements 143 4.7__Chemical Requirements _152 4.8 Physical Requirements 156 4.9 Refrigerant Piping and Design 159 4.10 Lubricants in Refrigeration Systems 171 4.11 Secondary Refrigerants 172 : 4.12 Ozone Depletion Potential and Global Warming Potential of CFC Refrigerants 174 4.13 Substitutes for CFC Refrigerants 775 4.14 Substit ites for C FC 2. 178 4.16 Atmospheric Gases as Substitutes for CFC Refrigerants 193 4.17_Using Mixed Refrigerants 195 - 4.18 Binary Mixtures 195 Copyrighted materialContents [xili] 4.20 Evaluation of Thermodynamii 4.21 Azeotropic Mixtures 2/] (4.22 Use of Minimum and Maximum Boiling Azeotropes 213 4.23 Non-Isothermal Refrigeration 2/5 References 222 Problems 224 it Multipressure Systems _ 5.1__Introduction 227 5.2 Multistage or Compound Compression _227 5.3 Multi-Evaporator Systems 236 (5.4 Cascade Systems 240 : - 5.5 Solid Carbon Dioxide—Dry Ice 243 5.7 System Practices for Multi-Stage Systems 249 References 250 Problems 250 Ht Refrigerant Compressors 6.1 _Typesof Compressors 252. 6.2 Thermodynamic Processes during Compression 255. 6.3 Volumetric Efficiency of Reciprocating Compressors 258 6.5 _ Principal Dimensions of Reciprocating Compressor _264 227 252 6.6 Performance Characteristics of Reciprocating Compressors 265 6.7 Capacity Control of Reciprocating Compressors 271 6.8 Construction Features of Reciprocating Compressors 273 6.9 Rotary Compressors 274 6.10 Screw Compressors 275 6.11 Centrifugal Compressors _ 276, 6.12 Class of Service of Centrifugal Compressors 284 6.13 Performance Characteristics of aCentrifugal Compressor 285 6.14 AlternativestoR 11 (CFC 11) 292 6.15 Comparison of Performance of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors 295 References 297 Problems 298 7.1___Heat Rejection Ratio _307 7.2__ Types of Condensers 307 Copyrighted materialContents 74_Wilson’s Plot _318 References 318 Problems 319 == Expansion Devices" 321 8.1 Types of Expansion Devices 32] 8.2 Automatic or Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve 322 8.3 Thermostatic-Expansion Valve 323 8.4 Capillary Tube and Its Sizing 337 References 337 Problems 338 =3= Evaporators 339 9.1 Types of Evaporators 339 9.2 Heat Transfer in Evaporators 342 9.3 Extended Surface Evaporators 350 : 9.4 Augmentation of Boiling Heat Transfer _ 356 9.5 Pressure Drop in Evaporators 362 References 371 Problems 372 =i@ Complete Vapour Compression System 373 10.1__TheComplete System 373 10.2 Graphical Method _ 373 10.3 Analytical Method 376 10.4 _Newton-Raphson Method _ 380 10.5 Optimal Design of Evaporator 383 ‘References 384 Problems 385 SEE Gas Cycle Refrigeration 386 11.1 Limitations of Camot Cycle with Gas as a Refrigerant _ 386 11.2 _ Reversed Brayton or Joule or Bell Coleman Cycle 386 11.3 Application to Aircraft Refrigeration 397 11.4 _Ranque-Hilsch Tube _405_ 1 ent. version Curve 407 11.6 Reversed Stirling Cycle 4/2 References 424 Problems 424 a= Vapour-Absorption System 427 12.1 Simple Vapour-Absorption System _ 427. - 12.2 _ Maximum Coefficient of Performance of a Heat Operated Refrigerating Machine 429Contents [xv ] 12.3 Common Refrigerant-Absorbent Systems 43] 12.4 Modifications to Simple Vapour-absorption System 432 12.5 Actual Vapour-Absorption Cycle and Its Representation on Enthalpy-Composition Diagram 438 12.6 Representation of Vapour Absorption Cycle on In p- 4 Diagram 446 12.7__ Practical Single-Effect Water-Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller 457 12.8 Double-Effect H,O - LiBr, Absorption System 456 12.9 Electrolux Refrigerator 459 12.10 New Mixtures for Absorption System 467 References 462 Problems 463 BEE Ejector-CompressionSystem 466 13.1 Water as a Refrigerant 466 13.2 Steam Ejector System 467 13.3 Theoretical Analysis of the Steam Ejector 468 References 475 Problems 476 a Properties of Moist Air 477 14.1 Brief History of Air Conditioning 477 14.2 Working Substance in AirConditioning 478 14.3 Psychrometric Properties 483 14.4 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) 492 14.5 Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature or Temperature of Adiabatic Saturation 495 14.6 PsychrometricChart 498 14.7 Application of First Law to a Psychrometric Process 504 References 507 Problems S07 335: Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 509 15.1 Mixing Process 509 15.2 Basic Processes in Conditioning of Air 514 15.3 Psychrometric Processes in Air Conditioning Equipment _ 519 15.4 Simple Air Conditioning System and State and Mass Rate of Supply Air 532 15.5 Summer Air Conditioning-Apparatus Dew Point 537 15.6 Winter Air Conditioning 549 Problems 553 38 Design Conditions 556 16.1 Choice of Inside Design Conditions 556Contents 16.2 Comfort 560 16.3 Outside Design Conditions 561 16.4 Choice of Supply Design Conditions 563 16.5__Critical Loading Conditions _567 16.6 Clean Spaces 569 References 570 Problems 570 Solar Radiati 571 17.1 Distribution of Solar Radiat 571 17.2 Earth-Sun Angles and Their Relationships 577 17.3. Time 584 17.4 Wall Solar Azimuth Angle and Angle of Incidence 585 17.5 Direct Solar Radiation on a Surface 586 17.6 Diffuse Sky Radiation on a Surface 588 17.7__Heat Gain through Glass 591 17.8 Shading from Reveals, Overhangs and Fins 595 17.9__ Effect of Shading Device 599 17.10 Tables for Solar Heat Gain through Ordinary Glass 601 17.11 The Flat-Plate Solar Collector 615 References 619 Problems 620 S485 Heat Transfer through Building Structures 622 8.1 Fabric Heat Gain 622 82 Overall Heat-Ti ission Coeffici 22 18.3 Periodic Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs 629 18.4 Finite Difference Approximation of One-dimensional Heat Transfer through Wall _ 632 18.5 Empirical Methods to Evaluate Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs 644 18.6 Natural Ventilation through Infiltration 658 18.7__ Passive Heating and Cooling of Buildings 664 18.8 Water Vapour Transfer through Structures 668 References 672 Problems 673 =ES= Load Calculations and Applied Psychrometrics 675 19.1 Preliminary Considerations 675 19.2 Internal Heat Gains 676 19.3 System HeatGains 679 19.4 Break-up of Ventilation Load and Effective Sensible Heat Factor 682 19.5 Cooling Load Estimate 682 19.6 Heating Load Estimate 683Contents 19.7 Psychrometric Calculations for Cooling 690 19.8 Selection of Air Conditioning Apparatus for Cooling and Dehumidification 696 19.9 Evaporative Cooling 707 19.10 Building Requirements and Energy Conservation in Air Conditioned Buildings 7/0 References 716 Problems 716 =2 Design of Air Conditioning Apparatus 719 20.1 Air Conditioning Apparatus__7/9 20.2__Heat and Moisture Transfer in Air Conditioning Apparatus _7/9 20.3 Coil Equipment—Design of Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils 725 20.4 Optimal Design of Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils _74/ 20.5 Spray Equipment—Design of Air Washers and Cooling Towers 742 References 754 Problems 755 Se yp sie i Distribution of A 156 211 R ir Distribution 757 21.2 Total, Static and Velocity Pressures 766 Friction Loss inD 77 21.4 Dynamic Losses in Ducts 775 21.5 Air Flow through aSimple Duct System 789 21.6 Air-Duct Design 792 21.7 Processing, Transmission and Distribution f Air in Clean R 806 21.8 Air Locks, Air Curtains and Air Showers 808 References 809 Problems 810 = Fans 812 22.1 Typesof Fans 812 22.2 FanCharacteristics 812 22.3 Centrifugal Fans 8/3 22.4 Axial-flow Fans 8/8 22.5 SystemCharacteristics 81/8 22.6 FanArrangements 625 References 831 Problems 831Exit contents Bz Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Control 833, 231 Basic E rc 933 23.2 DetectingElements 835 23.3. Actuating Elements 839 23.4 Electric Motors and Controls 842 23.5 Controls in Refrigeration Equipment 849 23.6 Controlling Room Conditions at Partial Load 851 23.7 InductionSystem 858 References 864 Problems 864 =2& Applications in Food Processing and Preservation 866 24.1 Typical Examples of Food Processing by Refrigeration and Storage 866 24.2 TransportRefrigeration 876 24.3. Cooling and Heating of Foods 880 24.4 Freezing of Foods 884 24.5 FreezeDrying 897 24.6 Heat Drying of Foods 907 References 916 Problems 917 Appendix A_Thermodynamic Properties Correlations for Refrigerants 919 A.1_ Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R12 9/9 A.2_ Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 134a__922 A.3_ Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 152a 924 A4 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R22 925 A.5_ Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 290 and R 600a_ 928 Appendix B_ Tables 931 B.1_Thermophysical Properties of Air at Atmospheric Pressure 93/ B.2_Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water and Steam 932 B.3_Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants 933 B.4 Thermodynamic Properties of R 744 (Carbon Dioxide) 935 B.S. Thermodynamic Properties of R290 (Propane) 937 Bo B.7_ Thermodynamic Properties of R717 (Ammonia) 945 B.8 Thermodynamic Properties of R12 948Contents [xix] B.9 Thermodynamic Properties of R134a 949 B.10 Thermodynamic Properties of R152a 953 B.11 Thermodynamic Properties of R 600a (Isobutane) 957 B.12 Thermodynamic Properties of SaturatedR11 96/ B.13 Thermodynamic Properties of R290/ R600a Mixture 962 B.14 Thermodynamic Properties of Water-Lithium Bromide Solutions 967 B.15 Thermodynamic Properties of R718 (Water) 968 B.16 Outdoors Design Data 979 B.17 The Error Function 980 B.18 Conversion Tables 98] Appendix C Charts Ex. Sheet C-1 Pressure Enthalpy Digram for CO, C2. Pressure Diagram of R22 Vapour C-3 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram of R717 (Ammonia) Vapour C-4 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram of R11 Vapour C-5 Inp-1/T Digram for H,O-LiBr, Solutions C-6 Enthalpy-concentration Diagram for H,0-LiBr, Solutions C-7 Psychrometric Chart Barometric Pressure 101.325 kPa C-8 _Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCLF,) Refrigerant-12 C-9 Enthalpy-Composition Diagram for NH,-H,O SystemList of Principal Symbols Capital letters A Ar c S7TABMOS ao 3 ONen rea es KES SCN eR Area Face area Velocity, thermal conductance, concentration (in mass transfer), clearance factor, heat capacity rate Diameter, diffusion coefficient, mass of vapour distilled from generator Emissive power Force, genometric factor, rich solution circulation Mass velocity Enthalpy, head Solar radiation intensity Intensity of direct solar radiation Identity of diffuse solar radiation Dynamic loss coefficient Fin width, length, air mass Molecular weight, stability criterion in finite difference approximation Number of tubes Perimeter, power requirement Heat transfer rate Latent heat transfer Sensible heat transfer Volume flow rate Gas constant, thermal resistance Entropy Absolute temperature Internal energy, overall heat transfer coefficient Volume Piston displacement Work, moisture content of material Bypass factorList of Principal Symbols Small letters a Velocity of sound, absorptivity d Solar declination angle Ff Heat transfer coefficient, friction factor, specific rich solution circulation g Acceleration due to gravity h Specific enthalpy, heat transfer coefficient, hour angle iy Mass transfer coefficient k Thermal conductivity k, — Diffusion coefficient ky Diffusion coefficient based on specific humidity l Fin height, tube length m Mass, polytropic index of expansion nn Polytropic index of compression, number of moles, recirculation number Pp Pressure Ap Pressure loss Ps Static pressure Pr Total pressure Py Velocity pressure q Heat flux, heat transfer per unit mass r Radius, compression ratio, reflectivity s Specific entropy t Celsius temperature ¢, — Sol-air temperature At, Equivalent temperature difference u Specific internal energy, tangential velocity v Specific volume w Specific work, moisture removal x Distance, dryness fraction, liquid phase mole fraction y Vapour phase mole fraction z Height above datum Greek letters Thermal diffusivity, wall solar azimuth angle Coefficient of thermal expansion, solar altitude Adiabatic index, solar azimuth angle Joule Thomson coefficient Coefficient of performance Emissivity, heat exchanger effectiveness Decrement factor Efficiency Polytropic efficiency Flow coefficient, relative humidity, time lag Stefan-Boltzman constant, surface tension Dynamic viscosity, head coefficient, degree of saturation EACSIA&S eR orx weList of Principal Symbols. frxdii] Kinematic viscosity Density Zenith angle Concentration by weight Time, transmissivity Angle of incidence, excess temperature Specific humidity, angular velocity Lockhart-Martinelli parameter for two phase turbulent flow RSE QarMed < Dimensionless numbers Bi Biot number Bo Boiling number Co Condensation number Fo Fourier number Gr Grashof number K; Load factor in boiling Le Lewis number Nu_ Nusselt number Pr Prandtl number Re Reynolds number Se Schmidt number Sh Sherwood number St Stanton number @ — Trouton number Subscripts Absorber Convective Infiltration Radiative Apparatus dew point, wetted surface two phase Ambient, poor solution, dry air Black body Cold, clearance, condensate, critical Dynamic loss. diffusion, vapour from generator, dew point, discharge Entrainment Friction, saturated liquid, fin, fouling, fluid Vaporization Glass, saturated vapour, air-side h Generator, hot i Inside. initial is Isentropic k Heat rejection serene Te ANA ODList of Principal Symbols m max min rel sat sd B Bxecer Log mean Maximum Minimum Nozzle, normal to surface Outside, heat absorption or refrigeration, molar, stagnation Radial, refrigerant-side, rich solution Relative Suction, at normal boiling point, saturation, saturated solid Saturation Shading Sublimation Total, based on extended surface side area Tangential Vapour, volumetric Wall, water x-direction Free stream Superscripts * L v Per ton refrigeration, thermodynamic wet bulb Wet bulb Saturated liquid mixture Saturated vapour mixtureChapter Introduction i=2 4A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION The methods of production of cold by mechanical processes are quite recent. Long back in 1748, William Coolen of Glasgow University produced refrigera- tion by creating partial vacuum over ethyl ether. But, he could not implement his experience in practice. The first development took place in 1834 when Perkins proposed a hand-operated compressor machine working on ether. Then in 1851 came Gorrie’ air refrigeration machine, and in 1856 Linde developed a machine working on ammonia. The pace of development was slow in the beginning when steam engines were the only prime movers known to run the compressors. With the advent of electric motors and consequent higher speeds of the compressors, the scope of appli-cations of refrigeration widened. The pace of development was considerably quickened in the 1920 decade when du Pont put in the market a family of new working substances, the fluoro-chloro derivatives of methane, ethane, etc.—popularly known as chloro fluorocarbons or CFCs—under the name of Freons. Recent developments involve finding alternatives or substitutes for Freons, since it has been found that chlorine atoms in Freons are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. Another noteworthy development was that of the ammonia-water vapour absorption machine by Carre. These developments account for the major commercial and industrial applications in the field of refrigeration. A phenomenon called Peltier effect was discovered in 1834 which is still not commercialized. Advances in cryogenics, a field of very low temperature refrig- eration, were registered with the liquefaction of oxygen by Pictet in 1877. Dewar made the famous Dewar flask in 1898 to store liquids at cryogenic temperatures. Then followed the liquefaction of other permanent gases including helium in 1908 by Onnes which led to the discovery of the phenomenon of superconductiv- ity, Finally in 1926, Giaque and Debye independently proposed adiabatic de- magnetization of a paramagnetic salt to reach temperatures near absolute zero.2) Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Two of the most common commercial refrigeration applications, viz.,a wind- ow-type air conditioner and a domestic refrigerator, have been described in the fol- lowing pages. 1.1.1 Room Air Conditioner Figure 1.1 shows the schematic diagram of a typical window-type room air con- ditioner, which works according to the principle described below: Consider that a room is maintained at constant temperature of 25°C. In the air conditioner, the air from the room is drawn by a fan and is made to pass over a cooling coil, the surface of which is maintained, say, at a temperature of 10°C, After passing over the coil, the air is cooled (for example, to 15°C) before being supplied to the room. After picking up the room heat, the air is again returned to the cooling coil at 25°C. Now, in the cooling coil, a liquid working substance called a refrigerant, such as CHCIF, (monochloro-difluoro methane), also called Freon 22 by trade name, Heated Air at 55°C tt t Condenser 1. High Pressure i 4 , Outside Air at Outside Air at High Pressure ; Ligidateore ~j- 48°C “—* Electric Motor Partition Fan PN a Wall Motor | Lf Return Air 7 Return air Compressor at 25°C Kat 25°C a © lve 4 Low Pressure = Vapour at tow Prossure Low 10- 20°C erature case csteeescoraaa eS Evaporator tht ‘Supply Air to Bure 15°C Fig. 1.1 Schematic Diagram of a Room Air Conditioner or simply Refrigerant 22 (R 22), enters at a temperature of, say, 5°C and evapo- rates, thus absorbing its latent heat of vaporization from the room air. This equi ment in which the refrigerant evaporates is called an evaporator. After evaporation, the refrigerant becomes vapour. To enable it to condense back and to release the heat—which it has absorbed from the room while passing through the evaporator—its pressure is raised by a compressor. Following this,Introduction (“S7] the high pressure vapour enters the condenser. In the condenser, the outside at- mospheric air, say, at a temperature of 45°C in summer, is circulated by a fan. After picking up the latent heat of condensation from the condensing refrigerant, the air is let out into the environment, say, at a temperature of 55°C. The conden- sation of refrigerant may occur, for example, at a temperature of 60°C. After condensation, the high pressure liquid refrigerant is reduced to the low pressure of the evaporator by passing it through a pressure reducing device called the expansion device, and thus the cycle of operation is completed. A partition wall separates the high temperature side of the condenser from the low tempera- ture side of the evaporator. The principle of working of large air conditioning plants is also the same, except that the condenser is water cooled instead of being air cooled. 1.1.2 Domestic Refrigerator The working principle of a domestic refrigerator is exactly the same as that of an air conditioner. A schematic diagram of the refrigerator is shown in Fig. 1.2. Like the air conditioner, it also consists of the following four basic components: (i) Evaporator; Compressor; (iii) Condenser; (iv) Expansion device. But there are some design features which are typical of a refrigerator. For example, the evaporator is located in the freezer compartment of the refrigerator. It forms the coldest part of the cabinet with a temperature of about -15°C, while the refrigerant evaporates inside the evaporator tubes at -25°C. Just below the Refrigerator Cabinet L = 18 ; Air out | Evaporator sec ft | (Freezer) | a | | | \ ! =2eC | | | \ a | =e Oy re U1 , Le Capillary —- i Tube i E | | 1 | | e 7 1 t--~__ 4 Airin w Compressor Fig. 1.2 Schematic Diagram of a Domestic RefrigeratortT Refrigeration and Air Conditioning freezer, there is a chiller tray. Further below are compartments with progres- sively higher temperatures. The bottom-most compartment which is meant for vegetables is the least cold one. The cold air being heavier flows down from the freezer to the bottom of the refrigerator. The warm air being lighter rises from the vegetable compartment to the freezer, gets cooled and flows down again. Thus, a natural convection current is set up which maintains a temperature gradient between the top and the bottom of the refrigerator. The temperature maintained in the freezer is about—15°C, whereas the mean inside temperature of the cabinet is 7°C. The design of the condenser is also a little different. It is usually a wire and tube or plate and tube type mounted at the back of the refrigerator. There is no fan. The refrigerant vapour is condensed with the help of surrounding air which rises above by natural convection as it gets heated after receiving the latent heat of condensation from the refrigerant. The standard condensing temperature is SSG: Note 4: In both the room air conditioner as well as the refrigerator a long narrow bore tube, called the capillary tube, is employed as the expansion device. In the modern no-frost refrigerators, the evaporator is located outside the freezer compartment. The cold air is made to flow by forced convection by a fan. Working Substances in Refrigerating Machines Presently, the working substance being used in air conditioners is R22, and that in refrigerators is R12. R12 is a CFC (chloro-fluoro carbon). Because of the ozone-layer deple- tion problem, alternatives such as the following are being used in place of R12. 1. Refrigerant 290 or R290, viz., Propane (C3H,). 2. Refrigerant 134a or R134a, viz., Tetra-fluoroethane (C)H5F,) 3. Refrigerant 600a or R 600a, viz., Isobutane (C,Hg)- 352 SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL D'UNITES {SI UNITS) SI or the International System of Units is the purest form and an extension and refinement of the traditional metric system. In SI, the main departure from the traditional metric system is in the use of Newton as the unit of force. There are six basic SL units as given in Table 1.1. The units of other thermody- namic quantities may be derived from these basic units. Table 1.1 Basic SI Units Quantity Unit Symbol Length metre m Mass kilogram kg Time second s Temperature kelvin K Electric current ampere A Luminous intensity candela cdIntroduction [8 _] The unit of temperature is kelvin which measures the absolute temperature given by T=t+273.15 where ¢ is the Celsius temperature in °C. 1.2.1 Unit of Force Force F is proportional to mass m and acceleration a, so that F=C(m) (a) (LD where Cis a proportionality constant. The SI unit of force, viz., Newton denoted by the symbol N is derived from unit values taking the proportionality constant as unity. Thus, one newton is IN=(1kg) (1 3) =1 22 Ss Ss The MKS unit of force, kgf, defined by Eq. (1.1) is 1 9.80665 which represents a unit weight or the gravitational force on one kilogram mass. In the above definition, the value of the constant C is taken as equal to the recip- rocal of the standard gravitational acceleration so that one kilogram mass has one kilogram weight. It can be seen that kgf = (kg) (9.80065 3) = lkef Ss 1 kgf = (1 kg) (s.8066s 3) = 9.80665 N s Also, we known that I Ibf = 0.453592 kgf 1.2.2 Unit of Pressure The SI unit of pressure p can also be derived from its definition as force per unit area. Thus fF [A] The unit is also called pascal and is denoted by the symbol Pa. Another common SI unit of pressure is bar which is equivalent to a pressure of 10° Nim? or 0.1 MN/m? or 100 kN/m’. Its conversion to MKS and FPS. units is as follows |p|= => =Nim? _ 10°/9.80665 kef ~~ 108 em? _ 102(2.54)” ~~ 0.453592 1 bar = 1.0197 kgff/em’ or ata = 14.5 Ibffin?Refrigeration and Air Conditioning It can be seen that one standard atmosphere is given by 1 atm = 1.033 kgf/cm? = 14.696 Ibfin? = 1033 _ 1.01325 bar 1.0197 = 760 mm Hg or 760 torr Accordingly, Ltorr = 1 mm Hg = — atm = 133 N/m? 760 The conversion of one technical atmosphere, i.e. ata is obtained as: 1 ata = 1 kgf/cm? = (9.80665) (104) = 980665 N/m? = 0,980665 bar = (0.980665) (14.5) = 14.22 Ibfvin? 2 280665 736 ton or mmHg 133 The conversion of other units of pressure are 10* x1 m 3 Lem H0 = | Tp9-] ks (9.80665 3) = 98.1 Nim’ Ninn? ) = 3390 Nim? mm Hg 1 in Hg = (25.4 mm) (=X 1.2.3 Unit of Energy (Work and Heat) The unit of work or energy is obtained from the product of force and distance moved. The SI unit of work is Newton metre denoted by Nm or Joule denoted by J. Thus 1 Nm= lJ =(1 kg m/s?) (1 m) = 1 kg. m/s? Since both heat and work are energy, the SI unit of heat is the same as the unit of work, viz., joule. The conversion of the MKS unit of heat, viz., kcal, is ob- tained from its mechanical equivalent of heat which is 427 kcal/kgfm. Thus: 1 kcal = 427 kgf m = (427) (9.80665 N)m = 4186.8 Nm or J = 4.1868 kJ Also I keal = (1 s of rae arc) —— x = |b °F = 3.968 Btu ay a x Hence I kcal = 4.1868 kJ = 3.968 Btu 1 kJ = 0.948 Btu = 0.239 ical 1 Btu = 0.252 keal = 1.055 kJIntroduction C7] 1.2.4 Unit of Power The SI unit of power iswatt, denoted by the symbol W. It is defined as the rate of doing 1 Nm of work per second. Thus 1W=13/S=1Nm/s It may also be noted that watt also represents the electrical unit of work de- fined by 1 W =1 (volt) x 1 (ampere) = 1 J/s The conversion of the horsepower unft can also be obtained Lhp = 550 ftbf _ (650 x0.3048 m) (0.453592 x 9.80665 N) Ss (imperial) = 746 Nm/s or J/s or W hp =75 gfm _ 75 x 9.80665 N) Ss s (metric) = 736 Nm/s or J/s or W Further, the units of energy can be derived from those of power. Thus 1J=1Ws 1 KWH = 3,600,000 J = 3,600 kJ = 860 kcal = 3,410 Btu 1 hp/hr = 746 x 3,600 J = 2,680 kJ = 641 kcal = 2,540 Bru (imperial) I hp/hr = 736 x 3,600 J = 2,650 kJ = 632 kcal = 2,510 Btu (metric) 1.2.5 Unit of Enthalpy The interconversion of units of enthalpy are as follows 1 kJ/kg = 0.239 kcal/kg = 0.42 Btu/Ib Lkcal/kg = 4.19 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/llb 1 Buu/lb = 0.556 kcal/kg = 2.33 kJ/kg Note #2: The definition of enthalpy (H) (and specific enthalpy (h)) is obtained by the application of the First Law of Thermodynamics to a thermodynamic process. 1.2.6 Units of Entropy and Specific Heat These are expressed as 1kJ/kg.K = 0.239 keal/kg°C or Btu/Ib°F I kcal/kg°C = | Btu/Ib°F = 4.1868 kJ/kg.K Note 4; The definition of entropy (S) (and specific entropy (s}) is obtained by the application of the Second Law of Thermodynamics to a thermodynamic process.Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 1.2.7 Unit of Refrigerating Capacity The standard unit of refrigeration in vogue is ton refrigeration or simply ton denoted by the symbol TR. It is equivalent to the production of cold at the rate at which heat is to be removed from one US tonne of water at 32°F to freeze it to ice at 32°F in one day or 24 hours. Thus: 1x 2,000 Ib x 144 Btu/Ib 24 hr = 12,000 Btu/hr = 200 Btu/min where the latent heat of fusion of ice has been taken as 144 Btu/Ib. The term one ton refrigeration is a carry over from the time ice was used for cooling. In general 1 TR always means 12,000 Btu of heat removal per hour, irrespective of the working substance used and the operating conditions, viz., temperature of refrig- eration and heat rejection. This unit of refrigeration is currently in use in the USA, the UK and India. In many countries, the standard MKS unit of kcal/hr is used, It can be seen that 1 TR = 12,000 Btu/hr = 12.000 _ 3,024.2 keal/hr 3.968 = 50.4 keal/min = 50 keal/min Also, since 1 Btu = 1.055 kJ, the conversion of ton into equivalent SI unit is: 1 TR = 12,000 x 1.055 = 12,660 kJ/hour = 211 kJ/min = 3.5167 kW LTR= Example 1.1 The performance test of an air conditioning unit rated as 140.7 kW (40 TR) seems to be indicating poor cooling. The test on heat rejection to atmosphere in its condenser shows the following: Cooling water flow rate: 4Ls Water temperatures: In 30°C: Out 40°C Power input to motor: 48 kW (95% efficiency) Calculate the actual refrigerating capacity of the unit. Solution Heat rejected in condenser Qeonienser = ty Cy Aby = 4 (4.1868) (40 — 30) = 167.5 kW Work input W = 48 (0.95) = 45.6 kW Refrigeration capacity (by energy balance)Introduction Qretrigeration = condenser ~ W = 167.5 — 45.6 = 121.9 kW (34.7 TR) The unit is operating below its rated capacity of 40 TR. 38 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS, STATE, PROPERTIES, PROCESSES, HEAT AND WORK Thermodynamic systems are of two types. They are either closed or open as illustrated in Fig. 1.3. A closed system is one across whose boundary only heat Qand work W flow. In an open system the working fluid also crosses the control surface drawn around the system. Everything outside the system is surround- ings. The system plus surroundings combine to make the universe. Control Surface system 7 \ Working | Working Boundary Closed \ Substance in Open Substance out ™ ‘System = ——*| System > \ Surroundings \ y | | — 7 Q Q Fig. 1.3 Closed and Open Systems The state of a thermodynamic system is characterised by its properties. The change of state of the working substance represents a thermodynamic process. ‘Thermodynamic processes occurring in a closed system are called on-flow proc- esses. Likewise, thermodynamic processes occurring in an open system are called flow processes. Further, the processes that can be reversed such that the system and environ- ment, both, can be restored to the initial state are called reversible processes. The processes which, when reversed, will not restore both the system and envi- ronment to the initial state are called irreversible processes. The properties are either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties do not depend on the size of the system. These are, e.g., pressure p and temperature T. The extensive properties depend on the size of the system, e.g., volume V, inter- nal energy U, enthalpy H, entropy S, etc. Their numerical values per unit mass of the working substance are called the specific properties denoted by lower case symbols, viz., 0, u, h, s, etc. The specific properties are intensive properties. A thermodynamic process is accompanied with heat and work interactions between the system and the surroundings. The heat added to the system is consid- ered as positive, and that rejected by the system as negative. The sign conventionRefrigeration and Air Conditioning for work is the opposite. The work done by the system is positive and the work done on the system is negative. The heat and work interactions per unit mass of the working substance in the system are denoted as q and w. Note: The work done in a reversible process in a simple compressible system is given by we J pdv Note that in an irreversible process, the work is not given by fp dV. £4 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The first law of thermodynamics is mathematically stated as follows: § 6a=f ow (2) Accordingly, during a thermodynamic cycle, viz., a cyclic process the system undergoes, the cyclic integral of heat added is equal to the cyclic integral of work done. Equation (1.2) can also be written for a cycle as f 6-6) =0 Equation (1.3) below isa corollary of the first law. It shows that there exists a property U, named internal energy of the system/substance, such that a change in its value is equal to the difference in heat entering and work leaving the sys- tem. Accordingly, for a process in aclosed system, the first law can be written as: 6Q = dU + dW (1.3) For the change of state of a system from initial state | to final state 2, this becomes Q=U,-U,+W Another property named enthalpy H can also be defined now as acombination of properties U, p and V, H=U+pV,h=utpv For a reversible process, since SW = pdV, the first law can also be written as 5Q = dU + pdV, dy =du + pdv (14a) 6Q = dH - Vip, 6¢ =dh-v dp (4b) The first law can be applied to a process in an open system. Figure 1.4 repre- sents an open system undergoing a steady-state steady-flow (SSSF) process. For the process, the first law takes the form of a steady-flow energy equation as in Eq, (1.5)Introduction {irq O = rally — uy) + (p20) P12) + Fcy- cy te(q—c))+W = tlh hy) + (Ch Ch) + a0ea- 2) + W (1.5) Here, in addition to change in internal energy, changes in kinetic and potential energies are also considered since these are significant. In addition, work, equal to (p2 0, — p, 0), to make the fluid enter and leave the system called the flow work is also considered. ‘Shaft Work = W t jen sve 4 Fa | “a Reference Line . Fig. 1.4 Representation of a Steady-State Steady-Flow Process Writing Eq. (1.5) on the basis of a unit mass entering and leaving the system, we have Eq. (1.6) 2 2 ath, + Ls gyahy+ 2a gaze (1.6) 358 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The second law of thermodynamics can be mathematically state for a thermody- namic cycle in the form of Clausius Inequality as given in Eq. (1.7) 6Q j= <0 (1.7) The equality holds for a reversible cycle, and the inequality for an irreversible cycle. Just as the application of first law to a thermodynamic process led to the es- tablishment of a new property, named internal energy (U), the application of the second law to a process leads to the establishment of another new property named entropy (S), defined as follows in Eq. (1.8) as= (2) (1.8)[G2) Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Thus, for a reversible process, between two given states, from initial state | to final state 2 in a closed system, or inlet state | to exist state 2 in an open system, the change in entropy is given by se i2) nell, RY It is found by applying Clausius inequality that for an irreversible process 2 2 5g (5 5-5,> f(2).n-5> (22) 2 ay S oe J - 2 Note 4: For a reversible process in a compressible system work done W = | pdV. 1 Hence, the area under the curve on P-V diagram gives work done in the process. Simi- 2 larly, for a reversible process, heat transfer Q = { TdS. Hence, the area under the curve 1 on T-S diagram gives heat transfer during the process. 4,6 NON-FLOW PROCESSES Processes in a closed system are referred to as non-flow processes. Since the velocities are small, and hence dissipation due to friction is negligible, most non- flow processes are considered as reversible. Ina reversible constant volume process, W= | pdV =0. Hence, from first law, Q = U;~U, Ina reversible constant pressure process, W = J pdV =p(V3~ V,), and from first law, Q = (U,- U,) + p(V;- V,) = Hy - Hh. Also, from second law and property relation, Q = J TdS =T(S,-S,)=H,-H, In an isothermal process, Q = T(S3 — S,) = (Uy - U,) + W- In an adiabatic process, Q = 0 and W = —(U,~-U,). In a reversible adiabatic process, in addition, we have from second law, Q = J TdS =0. Hence, S,=$,.A reversible adiabatic process is, therefore, an isentropic process A general process can be represented by the polytropic relation P, Vi" = py Vi = pV" = Constant in whichn is the polytropic index. For the polytropic process, we have Eq. (1.9) for work n We f pav= (P2V2— PiVi) l-nIntroduction =—*_ py, (2) "nd (1.9) 2% STEADY-FLOW PROCESSES The steady-flow energy equation is applicable to flow processes, viz. processes in an open system. In most flow processes, the irreversibility due to viscous fric- tion cannot be neglected on account of significant velocities encountered. It is, therefore, necessary to calculate the unknown quantity by first assuming the process as reversible, and then muitiplying or dividing the result by a process efficiency. Boiling and Condensation 1 q=—hy- hy + 3(G-C') =h,-h, as the velocities are small, and the change in kinetic energy can be neglected. If there is a significant pressure drop as in direct-expansion evaporators in re- frigeration, the process is not completely reversible. Isothermal Process Neglecting kinetic and potential energies q-weh-h Adiabatic Process n nozzles and diffusers, there is no heat transfer or work done. In these devices, there is interconversion between kinetic energy and enthalpy. Thus we have 1 7G -C)=h,-hy In turbines and compressor, assuming no heat transfer and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies, we obtain for work weh,-h, To account for irreversibility in processes, the efficiencies are defined as fol- lows: Nozzle and Turbine EfficiencyRefrigeration and Air Conditioning In these equations, h, represents the enthalphy at the énd in the actual process and h,, represents the enthalpy if the process is executed reversibly, viz., isentropically between the pressure limits p, and p,. Throttling Process It is an irreversible adiabatic process. It is employed to reduce the pressure of a fluid by introducing a restriction in the flow passage as illustrated in Fig. 1.5 (1) Restriction (2) Ar Privy Ty Cy Aas Pawar Tas Me, Co Fig. 1.5 Representation of a Throttling Process As the process is adiabatic and no external work is done, we have 2 2 ht Si =hy+ & 2 “2 Since p< p,, V3 > V,. Hence if A, = Ay, C, > C,. Making A, > A, such that C2 = C,, or since kinetic energy change is negligible, we find that ina throttling process hy =hy Accordingly, throttling is also referred to as an isenthalpic-expansion process. i=8 THERMODYNAMIC STATE OF A PURE SUBSTANCE The working substance used in refrigerating machines is called a refrigerant. A refrigerant is usually a pure substance, though research js on to use mixtures also. A knowledge of two independent properties is required to determine the ther- modynamic state of a pure substance. In the case of equilibrium between two phases of a pure substance, only one independent property is required to define the state. The equilibrium between phases, and the state of a pure substance are best described by the phase diagrams such as the p - v and T— 5 diagrams shown in Figs 1.7(a) and 1.7(b). The continuous lines on these diagrams represent the locii of equilibrium/saturation states in which phase change occurs, e.g., s and f, bet- ween solid and liquid, and f, and g between liquid and vapour. The temperature for change from solid state s to liquid state f, or vice versa, is the melting/freez- ing/fusion temperature. The temperature for charge from liquid state f, to va- pour state g, and vice versa, is the boiling/condensation temperature. SimilarlyIntroduction the temperature for change between solid state s and vapour state g is the subli- mation/ablimation temperature. Consider a unit mass of solid at S below its melting point at 1 atm pressure. Let heat be supplied to it, and let us follow the events that occur at constant pressure as shown in Fig. 1.6(a) for water and Figs 1.6(b), 1.7(a) and 1.7(b) for a normal substance. We observe the following. Ve Po= 221.2 bar Te=647.3K Critical Point 273.15 K (a) Water v— (b) Normal Substance Fig. 1.6 Temperature-Specific Volume Phase Diagrams for Water and Normal Substances (i) Temperature rises until points is reached. (ii) Further heating results in melting of solid at constant (melting point) temperature until point/; is reached.Refrigeration and Air Conditioning | Critical Point “Superheat Region Critical Point ‘Superheat Region TipT —> Saturated Solid Line Fig.1.7(b) T-s Phase Diagram for a Normal SubstanceIntroduction {a7] (iii) Change of phase from solid to liquid is complete at f,. Heating of liquid now results in rise in temperature until point f, is reached. (iv) Further heating at f, results in vaporization of liquid at constant (boiling point) temperature until point g is reached. ({v) Change of phase from liquid to vapour is complete at g. Heating of vapour/ gas at g results in rise in temperature again until, say point G above the boiling point temperature is reached. States, f,, f; and g are saturation states. f, represents saturated liquid state in equilibrium with saturated solid state s, and f, represents saturated liquid state in equilibrium will saturated vapour stage g. Now onwards, the subscripts 1 and 2 from f, and f; will be dropped, and the context will tell which one we are refer- ring to. Note that there is a large change in volume equal to vj, = v, — 0 during va- porization from f, to g. Similarly, we have latent heat of vaporization h,, = h, — hg and entropy of vaporization s;, = 5, — sp State S below the melting point temperature T,=T,, is asubcooled solid state. State G above the boiling point temperature T= T,, is a superheated vapour state. Any liquid state F between f, and f, below the boiling point temperature is a subcooled liquid state. Any state A in the liquid plus vapour (F + G) region represents a mixture of vapour at g and liquid atf,. The position of A is governed by the quality or dryness fraction x of vapour and (1 —x) of liquid. Consider now the reverse process of cooling of superheated vapour at G. The processes followed will be desuperheating from G to g, condensation from g to fy subcooling from f; to f,, freezing from f, to s, and subcooling from s to S. Consider now that the heating of solid is carried out at lower pressures. As the pressure is lowered, there is a marked decrease in boiling point temperature, and an increase in volume and enthalpy accompanying vaporization. This continues until triple point pressure py, and temperature T,, are reached. On the triple point line, all the saturation states s, f,, f, and g lie. Thus, all the three phases exist in equilibrium at the triple point. The triple point for water is at 273.16 K (0.01°C), and 0.006112 bar. Below the triple point pressure, saturated solid at s on heating directly changes into saturated vapour at g. This is called sublimation. Similarly, saturated va- pour at g on cooling directly changes to saturated solid at s. This is called ablimation or freeze-condensation. Consider now the heating at pressures above atmospheric. In general, at higher pressures, the boiling point increases, and there is a marked decrease in 04, hy, and sj. Ata certain high pressure, Uj, ly and sj, become zero, This is referred to as the critical point. The properties at this point are denoted as critical pressure P. critical temperature 7, and critical volume v,. The same for water are: P= 221.2 bar, T, = 647.3 K, v, = 0.00317 mi/kg At pressures above critical, there is no definite transition between liquid and vapour phases.