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Fluid Mechanics 433 Lecture Notes: Department of Mechanical Engineering
Fluid Mechanics 433 Lecture Notes: Department of Mechanical Engineering
Fluid Mechanics 433 Lecture Notes: Department of Mechanical Engineering
Contents
Contents
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Classification of Particles
Free Settling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hindered Settling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Background Concepts
Bernoulli Equation . . .
Viscosity . . . . . . . . .
Pressure Drop in pipes .
Turbulence . . . . . . . .
Pressure Drop in Fittings
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Pumps
Types of Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Positive Displacement Pumps . . . .
Rotodynamic Pumps . . . . . . . . .
Centrifugal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pump Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Power consumption and Efficiency .
Net Positive Suction Head . . . . . .
Pump Similarity Laws . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flow in pipe networks
Simple systems of multiple pipes . . .
Other systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other flow devices . . . . . . . . . . .
1-Dimensional pipe network software
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Fluidization
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10 Non-Newtonian Fluids
Rheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . .
Time Independent Fluids . . . .
Time dependent fluid behaviour
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13 Rheometry
Tube type viscometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coaxial cylinder viscometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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References
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iv
1 Background Concepts
Fluid Mechanics is a very broad area of engineering, covering many aspects
of fluids, flowing or otherwise. This unit is designed to be relatively practical,
emphasising pipe flow (and pipe systems), pumps and non-Newtonian fluids (such as slurries). This chapter is an overview of the important concepts
which will be built upon in the rest of the unit.
Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation is one of the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics. It can be thought of as a simplified version of the energy equation, and is
given as
v2
P + + gz = k
(1.1)
2
where P is the static pressure, v is the flow velocity, z is the height (relative
to some reference point) and k is a constant. This equation is derived by
applying conservation of energy principals to a fluid particle as it moves in
a flow. The more common form is obtained by applying the above equation
between two points, i.e.
P1 +
or, in terms of head,
v21
v2
+ gz1 = P2 + 2 + gz2
2
2
P2 v2
P1 v21
+ + z1 = + 2 + z2
2g
2g
(1.2)
(1.3)
In each of these equations the first term, P, is the called the Pressure head,
the second term, v2 /2, is called the velocity head, and the last term , gz, is
called the static head. The Bernoulli equation can be applied to one dimensional flows, or between two points along a single stream line in two or three
dimensional flow. The limiting assumptions of equations 1.2 and 1.3 above,
are that the flow is steady and that the flow is frictionless. It is generally the
second assumption which causes the most difficulty for flow in pipes and
pipe networks.
Viscosity
While it is convenient to ignore frictional forces in fluids, in general (and
especially in pipe flows) fluid friction is too great to be ignored. The frictional
(shear) forces acting on a fluid are dependent on the viscosity of the fluid in
question. To illustrate the concept of viscosity consider Figure 1.1.
This figure shows the flow occurring between two parallel plates, of which
one is moving at a velocity , and the other remains stationary. In this case the
shear stress is constant across the gap and is proportional to the velocity gradient, i.e.
1
u
y
(1.4)
or alternatively
=
du
dy
(1.5)
The constant of proportionality, , is called the viscosity (or more correctly the dynamic viscosity1 ). For most fluids the viscosity can be considered
constant with respect to shear rate. These fluids are called Newtonian fluids. Fluids for which this is not the case (for example slurries) are called
non-Newtonian. Many subclasses of non-Newtonian fluids exist, and some of
these will be examined later in the unit.
For a steadily flowing fluid, the two forces indicated (the pressure force
and the wall shear force) must be equal, ie
w cdx = dp A
(1.6)
(1.7)
(1.8)
which requires du/dr. This can be determined from the velocity profile
for the flow through the pipe. It can be shown that the velocity profile for
Newtonian laminar flow in a pipe is
"
2 #
2r
u = 2V 1
(1.9)
D
differentiating and evaluating at the wall (r = D/2) gives,
du
8V
=
dr w
D
(1.10)
where V is the bulk velocity of the flow through the pipe. Substituting
this back into Equation 1.7 results in
V L
(1.11)
D2
Equation 1.11 allows the pressure drop to be determined for laminar flow
only. To obtain a more useful form this equation is non-dimensionalised by
dividing both sides by V 2 /2, giving
p = 32
p
32V L
=
2
V /2
V 2 D2 /2
L
= 64
V D
D
64 L
=
Re D
(1.12)
(1.13)
(1.14)
Turbulence
While the analysis in the previous section allows the pressure drop for laminar flow to be predicted, in reality most engineering flows are turbulent.
Turbulence occurs when shear forces in the fluid are too great, and packets
of fluid roll-up on each other, creating random unsteady fluctuations in the
flow. While turbulent flow is inherently unsteady, the randomness of the fluctuations allows time-averaging to be used, and in general properties like the
bulk velocity can still be defined and used with good accuracy.
For pipe and pipe system analyses the chief effect of turbulence is to increase the observed pressure drop. While increasing the pressure drop is generally undesirable, turbulent flow can sometimes be beneficial, for example
in heat transfer applications, or for slurry flows. In any case due to economic,
and practical limitations, turbulent flow is the rule rather than the exception.
For pipe flows, laminar flow is observed below Reynolds numbers of ~2100,
while above Reynolds numbers of ~4000 turbulent flow occurs. The in between range is known as the transition region.
For calculating the pressure drop in turbulent flow, Equation 1.15 is sufficient, providing that a suitable value for f can be found. For laminar flow f is
simply 64/Re as developed previously, but for turbulent flow f is dependent
on both the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe wall,
e/D. The values of f for turbulent flow can be found from the Colebrook
equation:
/D
2.51
1
= 2.0 log
(1.16)
+
3.7 Re f
f
Usually though, the Colebrook equation is presented graphically as the
Moody Diagram, shown in Figure 1.3.
Moody Diagram
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.015
0.04
0.03
f
0.004
/D
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.035
0.025
0.002
0.02
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.015
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
0.01
0.008
0.00001
103
104
105
106
Reynolds Number
107
108
109
f = 0.184Re0.2
(1.17)
KL
10
0.1
0
20
40
60
80
100
% closed
2 Pumps
Pumps are a type of fluid machine1 that add energy to a fluid. Energy needs
to be added to a fluid to overcome losses in pipework, changes in elevation,
or to increase the momentum of a fluid. Pumps are a very important piece of
mechanical plant, and it is estimated that approximately 20% of the worlds
electricity supply is consumed by motors that drive pumps [1]. For this reason correct pump selection is an important consideration, and is the chief
focus of this part of the unit.
Types of Pumps
When discussing pumps, there is generally two main classes either positive
displacement pumps or rotodynamic pumps. Other types of pump exist (such
as jet pumps), though most pumps used in industry are one of the above two
types and it is these that will be discussed in the following sections.
Rotodynamic Pumps
Rotodynamic pumps differ from positive displacement pumps, the rotation
of a series of blades around an axis causes dynamic effects in the fluid that
add energy. Generally rotodynamic pumps are further separated into centrifugal pumps, mixed-flow pumps, or axial flow pumps. In reality there is
a smooth transition when moving from each of these sub groups to the next.
Figure 2.3 shows a typical centrifugal pump, identifying each of the major
components.
Centrifugal Pumps
To start the analysis of a typical centrifugal pump, consider the simplified
impeller as shown in Figure 2.4
This figure considers the flow between two vanes of a pump impeller rotating at an angular velocity of . U is the absolute velocity of the impeller
at its outside edge, W is the velocity of the exiting fluid relative to the impeller and V is the absolute velocity of the fluid. Also, it is assumed that the
fluid enters the impeller through the eye with negligible tangential velocity
and that the flow exits the impeller at an angle to the outer circumference
of the impeller. Both these assumptions are reasonable for a pump running
at its design point.
8
(2.1)
(2.2)
(2.3)
(2.4)
)
or
Tshaft = Q(RV )
(2.5)
(2.6)
(2.7)
(2.8)
If all of the work supplied to the shaft, then an ideal head rise can be
determined from
W shaft = QgH
(2.9)
Combining equations 2.8 and 2.9 gives
H=
From Figure 2.4
cot =
UV
g
(2.10)
U V
Vr
(2.11)
U 2 UVr cot
g
g
(2.12)
9
The flowrate, Q, can also be related to the radial exit velocity via
Q = 2RbVr
(2.13)
where b is the depth of the vane passage. This results in the ideal head rise of
a centrifugal pump being given by
H=
U 2 U cot
Q
g
2Rbg
(2.14)
Pump Curves
As seen in the last section, in essence a pump curve is a plot of the actual
output head, H, of a pump versus the flowrate, Q. These curves are obtained
experimentally and are only for a specific pump running at a specific speed,
though it is possible to determine the characteristics for geometrically similar
pumps running at different speeds (covered in the next section).
For design purposes additional information is also included on the curve.
This additional information is usually curves for power consumption, efficiency, different impellers, and also the required Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSH). Figure 2.6 shows a typical pump curve as supplied by a pump manufacturer.
10
Figure 2.6: Typical manufacturers pump curve, showing efficiency and NPSHR
(2.16)
where P (or H) is the pressure rise across the pump. It is necessary to supply
more than this amount of work to the shaft due to mechanical and hydraulic
losses in the pump. These losses are mostly dependent on the geometry of
the pump and thus need to be determined experimentally. As the consumed
power of a pump is an important piece of information to have when specifying a pump this information is included as a series of curves indicating the
efficiency of the pump at each flowrate, where
=
Wfluid
gHQ
=
Wshaft
Wshaft
(2.17)
This can be used to determine the shaft work at the operating point.
In addition to curves indicating the efficiency pump curves also indicate
the Best Efficiency Point (BEP). It is desirable to keep the operating point as
close to this point as possible.
the pressure at the inlet of the pump may be high, there is only a certain amount
of energy that is available in the fluid. From Bernoullis equation, P + V 2 /2 = constant (neglecting elevation), meaning that anywhere that the velocity of the fluid in the pump is high,
the absolute pressure can be much lower than the pressure at the suction side.
11
bubbles of vapour to form in the fluid, which rapidly collapse when the pressure increases above the vapour pressure again. The collapse of these bubbles
near to the pump casing or impeller causes undesirable wear, and can lead to
early failure of the pump. Also, the inclusion of vapour in the flow decreases
the volumetric efficiency of the pump. For these reasons cavitation should always be avoided. Keeping the pressure at the suction side above the NPSHR
guarantees this to be the case.
(2.18)
After non-dimensionalising each of the dependent variables, the following expressions are obtained for CH (dimensionless head increase), CP (dimensionless shaft power) and (efficiency)3
gH
l Q D2
CH = 2 2 = 1
,
(2.19)
, ,
D
D D D3
l Q D2
Wshaft
= 2
,
CP =
, ,
(2.20)
D D D3
3 D5
gQH
l Q D2
=
(2.21)
= 3
,
, ,
Wshaft
D D D3
To be usefull these laws are generally simplified further. Firstly, the influence of the viscous forces is small if the Reynolds number is high enough
(where D2 /) is a type of Reynolds number) and therefore dependence
on this term can be ignored. Secondly, the relative roughness /D is also neglected, as the irregular shape of the pump itself has a lot larger influence on
the performance than the surface roughness. Finally, if geometrically similar
pumps are compared, then l/D is constant for the analysis. This means that
the above equations simplify to
gH
Q
= 1
(2.22)
2 D2
D3
Wshaft
Q
(2.23)
= 2
D3
3 D5
Q
= 3
(2.24)
D3
3 These
are the commonly accepted forms of the terms. Other non-dimensional forms
can also be derived but are not in common usage
12
Equations 2.22, 2.23 and 2.24 are now only dependent on the flow coefficient, CQ = Q/D3 . If two pumps from the same family are operated at the
same flow coefficient, then
Q
Q
=
(2.25)
D3 1
D3 2
gH
gH
=
(2.26)
2 D2 1
2 D2 2
Wshaft
Wshaft
(2.27)
=
3 D5 1
3 D5 2
1 = 2
(2.28)
These scaling laws can be used to predict pump performance at different flowrates, pump speeds, or for different sized but geometrically similar
pumps.
13
For a fluid circuit there a balance is obtained between the pressure drop,
(3.1)
(3.2)
(3.3)
14
The other of the simple multiple pipe systems is that where pipes are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 3.1(b). In this case the governing equations become
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
(3.4)
(3.5)
Other systems
The rules described in the previous section form the basis for analysing more
complicated networks of pipes. A simple example of such a system is the
three-reservoir problem as shown in Figure 3.2.
(3.6)
if we take all flows as positive towards the junction. Note that this implies
one or two of the flows are away from the junction as expected. Also, as for
the parallel pipes above, the pressure drop along each of the three pipes must
be such that the resulting static pressure at the junction is the same in each
case. In equation form
L1 V12
= gz1 PJ
D1 2
L2 V22
= f
= gz2 PJ
D2 2
L3 V32
= f
= gz3 PJ
D3 2
P1 = f
(3.7)
P2
(3.8)
P3
(3.9)
distribution network, the rules for determining the flowrates through pipes
and pressures at the junctions can be summarised as
The net flow into any junction must be zero; and
The net head loss around any closed loop must be equal to zero
Applying these rules to each junction and loop in the network a system of
equations is obtained and can be solved by iteration to find the flowrates and
pressures in the system.
(3.10)
reason computers are usually the only practical way of solving large flow networks. Many different software packages are available both commercial and
free that can solve these networks of pipes. In the software a schematic of the
system is constructed and appropriate properties assigned to the items that
join the nodes; pumps, valves, pipes, et cetera. Most commercially available
packages have an in-built catalogue of components, which can be added to
as needed. More advanced packages account for unsteady flow, and in some
cases also include flow control devices, allowing a full system to be analysed
in real-time.
17
For a particle of diameter D p the volume and mass of the particle are
D3p
Volume =
6
D3p
Mass =
6
(4.1)
(4.2)
If the particle has reached its terminal velocity then the forces are in equilibrium and the drag force, D, can be determined from
Drag Force = Weight Force Buoyancy Force
D3p p g D3p g
D =
6
6
3
D p
D =
( p ) g
6
(4.3)
(4.4)
(4.5)
If the difference in density between the fluid and the particle is large, (such
as sand settling in a gas) the buoyancy force is small and the drag force is
approximately equal to the weight force.
18
(4.6)
Dimensional analysis of these variables results in two groups, and the dimensionless drag becomes a function of the Reynolds number.
D
= f (Re)
Vs2 D2p
(4.7)
In this case, the Reynolds number is based on the particle diameter and the
settling velocity
Vs D p
Re =
(4.8)
(4.9)
Vs D p
= KVs D p
(4.10)
(4.11)
The constant K has been determined for different shaped particles from experimental results and for a sphere has been found to be equal to 3. The
drag force is then
D = 3 Vs D p
(4.12)
Equation 4.12 is known as the Stokes Equation (as is Equation 4.14 below).
Substituting this into Equation 4.5 gives
3 Vs D p =
D3p
( p ) g
6
(4.13)
(4.14)
Drag Coefficient
The above analysis allows the settling velocity to be determined for particles
falling in the laminar regime. However, for particles falling in the transitional
or turbulent regimes, as well as for non-spherical particles, the drag coefficient
provides a more useful means for determining the settling velocity. The drag
coefficient is defined as
D
CD =
(4.15)
(Vs2 /2) A
19
where A is the projected area of the body (in this case the particle). For a
sphere
D2p
A=
(4.16)
4
and therefore the drag force is given by
D2p Vs2
D = CD
8
(4.17)
CD D2p Vs2 =
( p ) g
8
6
(4.18)
from which
4
D p ( p ) g = CDVs2
(4.19)
3
Therefore the terminal settling velocity for an arbitrary particle in terms of
the drag coefficient can be determined from
s
4 D p ( p ) g
(4.20)
Vs =
3CD
(4.21)
Figure 4.2 shows the variation of drag coefficient in terms of the Reynolds
number. As with most flows three regions can be identified from Figure 4.2,
namely
20
24
24
=
Re D pVs
(4.22)
If this expression is substituted into Equation 4.20, then the settling velocity
becomes
s
s
4 D pVs D p ( p ) g
Vs =
(4.23)
3 24
D2p ( p ) g
18
(4.24)
s
D p ( p ) g
= 1.74
(4.26)
Finally, for the transition region the drag coefficient can be described by
CD =
24
1 + 0.15Re0.687
Re
(4.27)
21
Shape factor
In order to generalise to practical cases, it is necessary to examine how particle shape affects the drag coefficient. A great deal of work has been done
on particles of regular shapes other than spheres, for example the studies of
McNown et al. [6, 7]. McNown et al. studied ellipsoids and non-ellipsoids
that were symmetrical with respect to each of three mutually perpendicular
axes as well as discs. Their approach was to assume that the drag force on the
particle could be related to that of a sphere in the stokes law regime according
to
D = K (3D pV )
(5.1)
This equation is simply the Stokes equation multiplied by a dimensionless
correction factor K, which McNown et al. suggested should be labeled the
Stokes number. Different values of K can be ascribed to different shapes.
For ellipsoids, a theoretical solution to the equation of motion is available
similar to the solution presented by Stokes for spheres, allowing values of
K to be determined for ellipsoids. McNown et al. claimed that from these
theoretical results, the drag coefficients for a wide range of shapes can be
estimated within 10 percent.
Drag coefficients associated with particles of irregular shape are of greater
interest to the pipeline designer. Albertson [8] studied the effect of shape on
gravel particles. He concluded that while it was unlikely that particle shape
could ever be accounted for by a single parameter, a shape factor (S.F) of the
form
c
SF =
(5.2)
ab
appeared to provide a satisfactory representation of particle shape. In Equation 5.2, a, b and c are the size of the particle along three mutually perpendicular axes, where a is the longest dimension and c is the shortest. This form of
shape factor had been employed previously by numerous people, including
McNown et al. The shape factor as defined in Equation 5.2 is roughly equivalent to sphericity and, as first used, axis a was taken to be the axis parallel
to the direction of motion. In the Stokes regime this can be important as at
low Reynolds numbers any orientation is stable and shape factors in excess
of unity can be obtained. However, outside the Stokes Law region, particles
22
will fall such that the maximum projected area is normal to the flow direction. Consequently, c will always be the shortest of the three dimensions and
the shape factor will be less than one in all cases.
The main conclusions of Albertsons studies are shown in Figure 5.1, which
consists of a plot of drag coefficient versus particle Reynolds number for particles of various shape factors. Particle Reynolds number is defined using the
nominal diameter of the particle as the length scale, ie
Re =
Vs Dn
(5.3)
where Dn is the diameter of a sphere having the same volume of the particle
itself. Albertsons studies showed that the shape factor defined by Equation 5.2 was able to adequately characterize the both naturally-worn gravel
and crushed gravel. However he did find that the lines of constant shape
factor for the naturally-worn particles and the crushed particles did not coincide, which is explained further in the next section.
Figure 5.1: Drag coefficient versus Reynolds number for different shape factors [8]
Generalized Curves
The end result of the generalization from spheres to irregular shaped particles
is the plot of CD versus Reynolds number shown in Figure 5.2. This plot
employs a shape factor as defined by Equation 5.2 and is a more extensive
version of Figure 5.1, referring to naturally worn particles.
Superimposed on the CD versus Re curves are the additional parameters
Cw and Cs , where
3 CD g( p )
Cw =
=
(5.4)
4 Re
2Vs3
and
Cs =
( p )gD3n
CD Re2 =
8
6
2
(5.5)
Note that Cw can be evaluated without any knowledge of the particle diameter, while Cs can be evaluated without any knowledge of the settling velocity. Thus, Figure 5.2 is a rather economical composite of a great deal of
23
Fall diameter
Another concept which is sometimes used to characterize the effect of shape
on particle fall velocities is that of fall diameter. Fall diameter is defined as
the diameter of a sphere of the same density as the particle that has the same
settling velocity as the particle under consideration. Figure 5.3 shows the
relationship between particle nominal diameter and fall diameter for various
shape factors. In reality the fall diameter is merely a substitute for the more
basic concept of fall velocity.
The ratio of nominal diameter to fall diameter has been used as a hydraulic shape factor. Again, on this basis, spheres would have a shape factor
of unity, but increasing resistance is indicated by values greater than one.
This differs from the shape factor given in Equation 5.2, where increasing resistance is indicated by values less than one. Of the two, the shape factor
given in Equation 5.2 is preferred.
Drag coefficient
The recommended procedure for finding the drag coefficient for a particle is
as follows:
1. Establish the terminal settling velocity for the particles of interest by
experiment. Since most samples contain particles of wide granulometry,
this involves separation of the solids in to their respective sieve sizes
and the evaluation of the settling velocity for several different sizes at
the coarse end of the size distribution.
2. Calculate the nominal particle diameter Dn for each different sieve size.
This is usually considered to be the geometric mean of the apertures of
the sieves between which the particles are retained.
24
25
Figure 5.2: Drag coefficient versus Reynolds number for irregular shaped particles [9]
3. Obtain the shape factor from Figure 5.2. This may vary from one size
fraction to another.
4. From the curves located by the various shape factors, obtain the drag
coefficient as needed.
For work in situations where the accurate knowledge of shape factors is
critical, it may be necessary to evaluate the settling velocities in a fluid of the
same viscosity as the slurry itself.
For preliminary designs, Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show typical experimental
results for coal, and sand and gravel particles.
(5.6)
26
Particle
Coal
Sand
Range
Ar < 24
24 < Ar < 4600
4600 < Ar
Ar < 24
24 < Ar < 2760
2760 < Ar < 46100
46100 < Ar
a
576
128
2.89
576
80.9
8.61
1.09
b
-1
-0.482
-0.0334
-1
-0.475
-0.193
0
This removes the necessity for iteration in calculating particle settling velocities. For the two sets of experimental data given, the drag coefficient can
be calculated from
CD = aArb
(5.7)
where a and b are found from a piecewise fit of the experimental data. The
values of a and b are given in Table 5.1
The coal particles were fractured by mining and cleaning processes and
are indicative of crushed or ground particles. The sand and gravel particles
were rounded to some extent and are indicative of naturally worn particles.
(5.8)
28
6 Classification of Particles
Free Settling
Consider in Figure 6.1, a particle rising on a stream of fluid.
Let U be the upward velocity of the fluid, and Vp be the absolute velocity
of the particle, then using the terminal settling velocity w as a reference, the
following limits can be set up:
U = 0,Vp = w particle falling in a stationary fluid at its terminal settling
velocity
U = w,Vp = 0 particle suspended in the fluid
U < w,Vp > 0 particle falling at an absolute velocity of Vp = w U
U > w,Vp < 0 particle rising at an absolute velocity of Vp = U w
The above limits explain the principle involved in the separation of particles of different sizes into fractions of desired characteristics. The process is
known as classification.
Particles subjected to classification may vary in density as well as size. The
separation of mixtures of this kind is called sorting, as distinct from sizing,
which is the name given to classification of particles of the same density.
The limits set up for a single particle above, or more generally for particles at infinite dilution cannot be applied to suspensions without some refinement. For the sake of simplicity however, further discussion will refer to
very dilute suspensions, when is approaching unity and particles may be
assumed to follow the pattern adopted in free settling. On the basis of this
simplifying assumption, the process of separating particles into fractions of
desired characteristics may be explained with the aid of a sorting diagram, as
follows.
Consider a very dilute suspension containing a mixture of two different
materials, A and B, with material A the lighter of the two. Let D1 and D2 be
the diameters of the smallest and largest particles of the mixture. Plotting
the terminal settling velocity against the particle diameter within the whole
range of sizes available will result in two curves, as shown in Figure 6.2.
Next it is assumed that classification of the two materials is carried out
by a rising stream of fluid. This allows two pure fractions of to be obtained,
29
4DA (A ) g
3CD,A
(6.2)
w2B =
4DB (B ) g
3CD,B
(6.3)
and
Equating the above two equations, for wA = wB , simplifying and rearranging gives
DA B CD,A
=
(6.4)
DB A CD,B
The ration DA /DB is often known as the settling ratio. In the turbulent
regime, CD,A /CD,B and Equation 6.4 reduces to
DA B
=
DB A
(6.5)
24
24
=
Re wD p
(6.6)
30
since wA = wB
CD,A DB
=
CD,B DA
(6.7)
(6.8)
Inspection of this equation and Equation 6.5 shows, at least for the two
ranges considered, and other things being equal, the sorting range can be
widened by increasing the density of the classifying fluid, . This is occasionally done by adding fine particles or some reasonably soluble and cheap
salts, such as calcium chloride, to the classifying medium.
Hindered Settling
As the proportion of solids in the pulp increases, the effect of particle crowding becomes more apparent and the falling rate of the particles begins to decrease. The system begins to behave as a heavy liquid whose density is that
of the pulp, rather than that of the carrier fluid: this condition is referred to
as hindered settling. Because of the high density and viscosity of the slurry
through which a particle must fall in separation by hindered settling, the resistance to falling is mainly due to the turbulence created and a modified
form of Newtons law can be used to determine the approximate falling rate
of the particles:
q
w=k
D p (s rho p )
(6.9)
(6.10)
The hindered settling ratio is always greater than the free settling ratio
and the denser the pulp the greater the hindered settling ratio. Hindered
settling classifiers are used to increase the effect of density on the separation,
whereas free settling classifiers use relatively dilute suspensions to increase
the effect of size on the separation.
31
Dewatering processes
Dewatering can be broadly classified into four processes. These are:
Sedimentation
Filtration
Mechanical Dewatering
Thermal Drying
The choice of process used for dewatering depends on the particle size
and solids concentration of the pulp. For instance, in the case of coarse particle sizes the dewatering process need simply be dewatering screens, such as
a vibrating screen or sieve bend where the screen aperture is chosen (down
to about 250 microns) such that it retains the solid particles but allows the
liquid medium to pass. As the particle size in the slurry decreases the screen
aperture required to retain the particles also decreases until a stage is reached
where the pressure drop across the screening surface is too large to allow free
drainage of the liquid through the screen. At this stage additional pressure
(or vacuum) is required to maintain a reasonable separation rate. The separation is then referred to as filtration.
When the solids concentration of the slurry is low, the primary dewatering
step is some sort of sedimentation settling.
The most difficult dewatering situation occurs when the percentage of
solids is low and the particle size of the solids is very low (sub-micron). This
32
presents a problem because very fine particles form a filter cake of low porosity and high pressure drop and require lengthy times for filtration separation.
When the solids concentration of the slurry is low, the primary dewatering
step is a sedimentation process such as thickening or cycloning followed by
filtration and possibly thermal drying, depending on the desired condition of
the product.
Sedimentation Separators
Sedimentation separators employ the principles of inertial or gravitational
forces acting on solid particles in a fluid to bring about settling. The velocity
at which a particle will settle out of a fluid is proportional to its density and
the square of its diameter and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the
fluid. For spherical particles
D2p
V
(7.1)
(7.2)
where k is a constant.
This relationship is valid provided the particle size is not so small that
its motion is affected by Brownian motion below this size the terminal velocity is so reduced that Brownian motion is sufficient to keep the particles
suspended indefinitely in a static fluid.
Settling equipment utilising gravitational forces to bring about sedimentation are termed clarifiers or thickeners.
Settling rates may be increased artificially by introducing a centrifugal
motion to the fluid, increasing particle velocities relative to the bulk of the
fluid. Equipment using this method are called cyclones or centrifuges.
Settling rates may also be increased by increasing the effective particle
diameter (since settling rates are proportional to D2p ) by aspects of colloidial
science referred to as coagulation and flocculation.
Continuous Sedimentation
Sedimentation may be defined as the process of separation of solid particles
from a slurry into a substantially clear liquid and a slurry of a higher concentration of solids, called the sludge. The force causing this separation may be
gravitational, centrifugal or of some other form, but the term sedimentation
generally implies settling due to gravity.
If the slurry treated in the sedimentation process contains large amounts
of solids, the operation is called thickening, otherwise it is known as clarification. Alternatively, the operation may be given either name based according
to whether the thickened slurry of the overflowing liquid is the desired product.
33
34
Thickener Sizing
The usual requirement in design practice is the specification of the crosssectional area and the depth of a thickener. A brief outline of a method leading to this specification is given below.
There may be limiting capacities in both the clarifying and thickening
zones, thus both pssibilities must be considered. There is always a clarifying zone capacity limitation, but there is not necessarily a thickening zone
capacity limit.
The cross-sectional area of a thickener must be large enough to enable
solids to settle at a rate equal to the feed rate. If this area is less, the solids
will accumulate at the transition zone with the effect that this zone will move
upwards until it reaches the overflow level. If this happens, the thickener will
not produce clear overflow.
The successful operation of a thickener also depends on its clarification capacity which, for a given throughput, is a function of its cross-sectional area.
As this area is closely related to the settling velocity of the slowest moving
particle, the problem confines itself to the evaluation of this critical velocity.
This is normally achieved by a proper interpretation of batch settling curves.
Once the cross-sectional area of the thickener is established, the depth of
the compression zone (zone D) can be determined from the retention time of
particles in this zone. This time is controlled by the rate of discharge of the
sludge, which in turn depends on the desired concentration of the product.
Having fixed this concentration, the volume of the compression zone may be
estimated from consideration of the time each layer of the sediment has been
in compression. The estimate is usually made with the aid of test data. The
full procedure is outside the scope of this course, however. A rough estimate
35
36
UD p
(8.2)
Figure 8.1 is the outcome of an excellent survey of data available on geometrically regular shapes, as well as on irregularly shaped particles.
The original plot of this data shows a curve drawn through widely scattered points, particularly in the region of high Reynolds numbers. For the
sake of simplicity however, the curve has been approximated by two straight
lines intersecting at a point corresponding to Re = 40, which is accepted as
the transition point between the laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
The two lines are approximated by the following equations: For the laminar region, Re < 40
850
f0 =
(8.3)
Re
and for the turbulent region, Re > 40
f0 =
38
Re0.15
(8.4)
37
1000
100
10
10
100
1000
Reynolds Number
The wall effect correction factor, Fw , which appears in Equation 8.1, has
been determined experimentally by Furnas for solid particles only. This factor is presented as a plot against the ratio of particle diameter to column diameter. For hollow shapes this factor is taken as unity and an alternative
correction factor, Fp , is used instead. From the correlation of data presented
by White, this factor may be evaluated in terms of the nominal particle diameter, D p using
C
Fp = 0.5
(8.5)
Dp
The constant C in the above equation has a value of 0.24 for Raschig rings or
Lessing rings, and 0.13 for Berl saddles, as shown in Figure 8.2.
In Figure 8.3, the fluid flows through a bed of solid particles contained in
a cylindrical vessel of diameter D and length h, which is also the depth of the
bed. If there is n channels formed in the bed in total, then from the definition
of voidage fraction,
=
(8.6)
d2
(8.7)
D2
If v is the average velocity through the parallel channels, then to satisfy
continuity
D2
d 2
U
= nv
(8.8)
4
4
from which
U D 2
n=
(8.9)
v d
=n
and
U
(8.10)
rH =
(8.11)
39
It follows that
rH =
NVp /(1 )
Vp
=
NA p
A p (1 )
(8.12)
(8.13)
S p (1 )
(8.14)
Sp =
then
rH =
(8.15)
[/S p (1 )](U/)
(8.16)
U
S p (1 )
(8.17)
Re =
substituting rH and v into this gives
Re =
Simplifying gives
Re =
4 f 00 h v2
2rH
(8.18)
(8.20)
100
Solid packings
Hollow Packings
fc
10
0.1
0.1
10
Reynolds Number
100
1000
fc =
5
1
+ 0.1 , Re > 4
Re Re
(8.23)
6
Dp
(8.24)
D pU
6(1 )
(8.25)
30(1 )
D pU
(8.26)
(8.27)
41
which gives the pressure drop for a packed bed of spheres in the laminar
range.
(8.28)
Nc A p
1
NcVp 1
(8.29)
a =
(8.30)
a
hU 2
(8.32)
respectively.
42
9 Fluidization
A fluidised bed is a bed of particles held in suspension by a fluid stream, as
for example a bed of coal particles in a stream of air (fluidized bed combustion), or a bed of catalyst particles in a stream of petroleum product (catalytic
cracker).
If a fluid is passed through a bed of solid particles, the pressure increases
with the velocity until a point is reached when the bed starts to expand. At
this point, the particles lose permanent contact with each other and are free
to move throughout the whole bed. The bed then resembles a boiling liquid,
and is said to be in a fluidized state.
A typical result for a gas fluidized bed is shown in Figure 9.1, which is a
plot of superficial gas velocity versus the pressure drop, and bed height.
The curve ABC in Figure 9.1 is for slowly increasing flow through a bed
which has not previously been fluidized, the point C being defied as the point
of incipient fluidization. The pressure drop at this point is just sufficient to
support the weight of the particles. If p is the pressure drop, then on the
basis of a unit cross section
p = hg ( p ) (1 )
(9.1)
43
Figure 9.1: Pressure drop and bed height for a fluidized bed
44
10 Non-Newtonian Fluids
Rheology
Rheology is defined as the science of deformation and flow of matter [14]. The
word rheology comes from the Greek words rheo, meaning to flow, and logi,
meaning science. The study of rheology deals with the stress, strain and time
relationships of any matter, although usually it deals with cohesive matter
which may be solid, liquid or gaseous. For the purposes of this study the
rheological behaviour of fluid only will be examined.
Newtonian Fluids
The simplest rheological behaviour that a fluid may exhibit is Newtonian behaviour.
To illustrate Newtonian rheological behaviour many authors use the example of a fluid being contained between two large parallel plates, as depicted in Figure 10.1 [15, 16, 17]. In this situation the plates are of area A, and
are separated by a small distance, dy. One plate is set in motion by the application of a force, F, which is applied parallel to the plate. The resulting velocity of the plate is u. If the fluid displays Newtonian rheological behaviour
then after a sufficient time, t, the steady state condition shown in Figure 10.1
will be reached. In this situation, provided the flow is laminar, the velocity of
the fluid will increase in direct proportion to the distance from the stationary
plate. The relationship between the force required to maintain the motion of
the upper plate and the velocity of this plate is given by the Newtonian law
of viscosity as
F
du
=
(10.1)
A
dy
or
du
(10.2)
=
dy
or
=
(10.3)
45
where is the shear stress in the direction parallel to the plate and is the rate
of shear in this direction. The constant of proportionality, , is the Newtonian
viscosity and is independent of any of the other terms of equations 10.1, 10.2
or 10.3. Factors such as temperature and pressure may however affect the
value of viscosity for a Newtonian fluid.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Many fluids flow under the action of an applied force, F, but do not exhibit
Newtonian behaviour. Consequently the rheological behaviour of these fluids cannot be adequately defined by a single constant viscosity. Such fluids
are broadly classified as non-Newtonian. Fluids that exhibit non-Newtonian
rheological behaviour may be further divided into three distinct groups [15,
16]; time independent fluids, time dependent fluids and viscoelastic fluids.
= f ()
(10.4)
but these two quantities cannot be related by the one constant of viscosity as
for Newtonian fluids. Instead a minimum of two constants are required to
adequately define the relationship.
Time independent fluids are generally grouped into four categories [9, 16]
1. Bingham fluids
2. Pseudoplatic fluids
3. Dilatant fluids
4. Yield pseudoplastic fluids
The general shear stress versus shear rate characteristics of each of these
groups of fluids are indicated in Figure 10.2.
Whilst it can easily be seen that a single viscosity will not define the rheological behaviour of these fluids, since the shear stress versus shear rate
relationship is no longer linear or the shear stress is no longer zero as the
shear rate approaches zero or both, it is still useful to have some method for
comparing and correlating data between these different fluids. One of the
more commonly used parameters for this purpose is the apparent viscosity, a ,
which is defined as
shear stress
a =
(10.5)
shear rate
The concept of apparent viscosity is indicated in Figure 10.3.
The value of apparent viscosity will vary with shear rate. Consequently, a
value of apparent viscosity for a non-Newtonian fluid is meaningless unless
the shear rate at which it applies is also given. In the case of Bingham and
pseudoplastic fluids, the value of apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate, whilst for dilatant fluids the apparent viscosity will increase
46
47
with increasing shear rate. As a result Bingham and pseudoplastic fluids are
termed shear thinning whilst dilatant fluids are shear thickening [9].
As the name suggests yield stress fluids require some minimum shear
stress to be applied before flow will occur; the minimum shear stress being
termed the yield stress. Fluids which exhibit a yield stress and a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate after the yield stress is has been
exceeded are known as Bingham fluids (or Bingham Plastics). These fluids are
described by the equation
= y +
(10.6)
where y is the yield stress and is known as plastic viscosity or the coefficient of rigidity [18]. Whilst few fluids exhibit exact Bingham plastic behaviour many can be approximated by this model, especially at higher shear
rates. Common examples are drilling muds, oil paints, toothpaste and sewage
sludges [15]. Wasp et al. [9] explains the cause of Bingham behaviour as being the result of a three dimensional structure which is sufficiently rigid to
resist any stress less than the yield stress. When the yield stress is exceeded
this structure disintegrates and the fluid behaves as a Newtonian fluid under
a shear stress of ( y ). The structure reforms when the applied shear stress
again falls below y . This reformation can often be a function of time which
could be virtually infinite.
Psuedoplastic fluids exhibit no yield stress but do exhibit a non-linear
relationship between shear stress and shear rate. A popular mathematical
model used to represent pseudoplastic fluid behaviour is the Ostwald-de Waele
or Power law model [19] and is expressed as
n , where n < 1
= k ()
(10.7)
In this model k and n are constant for any particular pseudoplastic fluid.
The term k is called the consistency. The term n is called the flow behaviour
index, and is an indication of the degree of non-Newtonian behaviour. The
smaller the value of n the greater the non-Newtonian behaviour. If n = 1, then
the equation represents a Newtonian fluid with a viscosity of k. Bhattacharya
[20] points out a deficiency of the power law model in the initial slope and
hence apparent viscosity at a shear rate of zero. There have been numerous
other pseudoplastic models outlined in the literature to try and overcome the
deficiencies of the power law model. Govier and Aziz [16] summarize many
of these, and the more common ones are
Prandtl
2)
= C1 sin1 (/C
(10.8)
(10.9)
(10.10)
(C2 + )
+
= C1 /
(10.11)
(10.12)
Eyring
Powell-Eyring
Williamson
Ree-Eyring
48
Whilst these models may offer an improvement over the power law model
for empirically defining the rheological behaviour of pseudoplastic fluids,
especially at very high or very low rates of shear, they are considerably more
difficult to use [15]. For engineering problems involving the flow of fluids in
pipelines the power law model gives excellent results with the advantage of
being very simple to use [16].
Another useful model for pseudoplastic rheological flow behaviour was
proposed by Cross [21] and is described by Govier and Aziz [16] as being
superior to any other models of comparable simplicity. This model uses the
relationship
h
i
a = + (0 ) / 0.66
(10.13)
where a and are the apparent viscosities at shear rates of zero and infinity
and is a coefficient related to the shear stability of the structure.
Dilatant fluids are the opposite to pseduoplastic fluids in rheological behaviour. The power law model can be fitted to dilatant fluid behaviour with
the flow behaviour index, n, being greater than 1. In a similar manner most
of the other models for pseudoplastic fluids can be fitted to dilatant fluid behaviour [20].
Certain fluids also display a combination of yield stress and pseudoplastic
or dilatant behaviour. One of the simplest models to accommodate this form
of rheological behaviour is the Herschel-Bulkley model which is an adaption
of the Bingham model to incorporate a power law term [20]. The model is
given by
= y + kn
(10.14)
Another well used and comparatively simple model for yield pseudoplastic behaviour was proposed by Casson [22] and is described as giving as good
a fit to experimental data as many more complex models. The model is described by
1
2 = y2 + k 2
(10.15)
(a)
(b)
far more rapid. Figure 10.4(b) illustrates the shear stress against shear rate
relationship of a thixotropic fluid that has been left to recover after initial
shearing. The longer the thixotropic fluid is left to recover the greater the
shear stress which will be exhibited on subsequent shearing.
Wasp et al. [9] explain thixotropic behaviour as being caused by the breakdown of a three dimensional structure within the material being sheared. The
structure rebuilds once the shearing has stopped. Examples of fluids which
exhibit thixotropic behaviour are iron oxide slurries, alumina hydrate slurries, starch pastes, clay suspensions, and many crude oils [16, 23].
The opposite time dependent behaviour to thixotropic is when the shear
stress exhibited by a fluid, at a constant shear rate, increases with time. Fluids
that exhibit this type of behaviour are often called rheopectic fluids [9, 15, 16].
Dilatancy and antithixotropy are also often used to describe the behaviour
of these fluids [23]. Bauer and Collins [23] distinguish between dilatancy
and rheopectic behaviour by defining a dilatant system as one which recovers its original state once shearing has stopped almost instantaneously,
whilst a rheopectic systems requires a finite time to recover. Fluids that exhibit rheopectic behaviour are relatively rare, although tailings from mineral
sand processing and some clay suspensions have been found to behave in
this way [16].
Whilst there are numerous models to describe the flow behaviour of fluids, some of which have been briefly outlined, they are of little value without
a means to develop data to apply these models. Later sections investigate
techniques by which the flow behaviour of fluids can be determined.
50
w =
(11.1)
Q=
(11.2)
2rvdr
0
where v is the local velocity at radial position r from the central axis of the
pipe.
Integration by parts gives:
R
Z
2
2
Q = r v r dv
(11.3)
0
Z R
r2
dv
dr
dr
(11.4)
dv
dr
(11.5)
51
(11.6)
where is the shear stress at radius r and w is the shear stress at the wall.
Therefore
Z
R3 w 2
Q= 3
(11.7)
d
w 0
Equation 11.7 is a general relationship valid for any time independent
fluid. If can be expressed as a function of shear stress, , then the equation
may be integrated. In the following the average flow velocity is defined as V ,
and the pipe diameter, D, is used instead of the pipe radius.
For a Newtonian fluid in laminar flow
=
(11.8)
8V
D
(11.9)
This is the equivalent solution to the flow between flat plates (w = V /y), but
for a pipe.
For a power law fluid in laminar flow,
= kn
(11.10)
3n + 1
w = k
4n
n
8V
D
(11.11)
n
(11.12)
3 w 3 w
(11.13)
(11.14)
3 w
This is equation is referred to as the truncated Buckingham equation, and is
much simpler to solve. Rearranging for the wall shear stress gives
4
8V
w = y +
(11.16)
3
D
52
In summary for laminar flow the following expressions for the wall shear
stress apply
Newtonian Fluid
w =
3n + 1
w = k
4n
8V
D
n
4
w = y +
3
Bingham Plastic
8V
D
8V
D
n
8V
D
n0
(11.17)
d (ln w )
d (ln(8V /D))
(11.18)
53
For shear rates close to w , n0 may be treated as a constant and then the
average shear rate, 8V /D, and the actual shear rate at the wall, w , differ only
by a constant of proportionality. Thus n0 may be obtained from a rheogram
that provides w plotted against w .
d (ln w )
(11.20)
d (ln w )
What w should be used? The wall shear rate that is actually experienced
in the pipe flow. Since this is not known prior to the solution being obtained
some iteration may be necessary.
The generalized pipe consistency, k0 , may be obtained by comparison between equations 11.12 and 11.17,
0
0
3n + 1 n
0
k =k
(11.21)
4n0
n0
where G is an unknown function of Reynolds number which must be determined experimentally. In terms of the Fanning friction factor, C f , Equation 11.23 takes the form of the familiar Darcy Equation,
L V 2
(11.24)
D 2
and the friction factor is presented graphically on the Moody diagram as a
function of Reynolds number.
For a power law fluid the parameter set is slightly different, since is no
longer well defined, and becomes
P = 4C f
F(p, ,V, D, L, n, k) = 0
(11.25)
Dn V 2n
Re =
0
k0 8n 1
0
(11.27)
Note that if n0 = 1, then Equation 11.27 reduces to the Newtonian definition of Reynolds number. Using this generalized type of Reynolds number
in Equation 11.26 can only be strictly valid if in fact the fluid is a true power
law fluid. For other fluids, its use will be approximate.
As for the generalized model, the generalized index, n0 , and consistency,
k0 , should be evaluated at the actual wall shear stress that is experienced by
the flow. Again, as this is not known before the calculation, iteration will
generally be necessary.
The form of this generalized Reynolds number is especially convenient
because it is consistent with laminar, Newtonian behaviour. Namely,
Cf =
w
V 2 /2
(11.28)
by definition.
For laminar flow, and using the generalized model, substituting Equation 11.17 into Equation 11.28 above, yields
Cf =
16
Re0
(11.29)
This is the same results that is obtained from laminar, Newtonian flow
theory.
For the generalized model, Dodge and Metzner [25] developed an equation for smooth walled pipes based on the logarithmic resistance of vonKarman (Newtonian) fluids.
n0
4
0.4
1
0 1 2
= 0 0.75 log10 Re f
0 1.2
(11.30)
(n )
(n )
f
If n0 = 1 von Karmans equation results. Equation 11.30 has been plotted
in the chart form in Figure 11.2.
The consistency between the generalized model and Newtonian behaviour
is helpful in determining transition between laminar and turbulent flow. For
Newtonian fluids the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is given by
the lower critical Reynolds number for the breakdown of laminar flow, at
Re 2100, to the commencement of fully turbulent flow at Re 3000.
Data of Dodge and Metzner [25] show critical generalized Reynolds numbers corresponding to the onset of turbulence increases with decreasing values of the flow index, n0 . Re0 critical increases from 2100 at n0 = 1 to 3100 at
n0 = 0.38, but no exact criterion has been established for Re0 critical.
55
Figure 11.2: Fanning friction factor for Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluids
56
12 Physics of Rheology
Solid Suspensions
Slurries can be divided arbitrarily into three categories; thin, thick and maximally packed. Thin slurries are such that the particles can move freely and
independently without any physical constraints from neighbouring particles,
or where the interparticle distance is greater than the mean particle diameter. The extreme case of this is the suspending fluid alone, with zero solids
concentration. Thick slurries on the other hand are where the interparticle
distance is less than the mean particle diameter and the particles experience
physical barriers to flow. Maximally packed slurries represent the other extreme, where the solid particles have no space in which to move and the
slurry is essentially a solid. Figure 12.1 shows these slurry categories.
Movement will only occur when the slurry is less than maximally packed
and the concept of maximal packing fraction, designated M , is an important rheological parameter. At concentrations less than M the material can
and will flow, but the ease of flow depends on the ability of a particle to
move into a vacant space. Thus in scientific analysis the relevant measure
of the amount of material suspended in the liquid is that fraction of space of
the total suspension that is occupied by the suspended material. This is the
volume-per-volume fraction, otherwise known as the phase volume or volume fraction, and not the weight-by-weight fraction that is commonly used
in defining concentration. The reason why volume fraction, designated by ,
is so important is that the rheology to a large extent depends on the space in
which a particle has to move, and on the forces which act on the surfaces of
particles, and not so much on the particle density.
57
58
Rheograms of suspensions
Shear thinning suspensions
Most mineral slurries encountered are either Newtonian of shear thinning,
the latter behaviour predominating in concentrated suspensions. A typical
rheogram of a shear thinning suspension is shown in Figure 12.3.
The first region (a) is a Newtonian region at low shear rate and can be
interpreted as a solid deformation region of high viscosity. As the shear rate
increases, the viscosity decreases and then becomes constant again at high
shear rates, represented by the second Newtonian region (b). In certain situations the viscosity in the first Newtonian region can be so high as to be inaccessible to measurement. In such cases the low shear rate is often described
as an apparent yield stress.
The microscopic interpretation of this behaviour is often visualized in
terms of particle-particle interaction. In the low shear rate region the particles interact to form flocs which occlude a portion of the continuous phase,
thus increasing the apparent volume fraction. At this stage it is a thick slurry,
almost maximally packed and the viscosity is correspondingly very high. The
slurry behaves as an elastic solid and the response is Newtonian deformation.
As shearing increases, the flocs break under the mechanical shearing force, releasing some of the occluded fluid and thus decreasing the apparent volume
fraction. The viscosity consequently decreases until a point is reached when
no more floc structure exists and the particles move freely in a thin slurry.
This process is indicated in Figure 12.4.
It is this formation of structure on resting that gives rise to an apparent
yield stress, and the breaking down of this structure that leads to shear thinning behaviour. Both of these effects arise from particle-particle interaction.
If the flocs are chemically destroyed using dispersants, the slurry is not shear
thinning and behaves as a Newtonian fluid (c). On the other hand, a Newtonian suspension can be made shear thinning by the use of flocculants.
of non-interacting particles where the volume fraction approaches the maximum packing fraction, and there is only sufficient fluid available to fill the
voids between the particles. As the shear rate is increased, this dense packing
must be broken down to permit the particles to flow past one another. The
resulting expansion leaves insufficient fluid to fill the voids and is opposed
by surface tension forces. This explains why wet sand apparently becomes
dry and firm when walked upon. Coarse suspensions of pure silica particles
show a degree of shear thickening at high concentrations.
Irreversible phenomena
Shearing sometimes leads to an irreversible breaking of linkages between the
structural elements of a material (rheodestruction), which results in a permanent shear thinning. This is particularly common with suspensions which
have been treated with high molecular weight polymers.
Viscosity
An important effect of the addition of solid particles to a fluid is its influence
on the system viscosity. The presence of the particles invariably increases
the suspension viscosity to a value greater than that of the fluid itself and in
many cases results in a suspension which is non-Newtonian in character.
60
Here, the case of the viscosity of suspensions of uniform spherical particles will be considered, which are usually Newtonian in character. This type
of system is in practice relatively uncommon, but it is of importance since its
viscosity represents a minimum value for the viscosity of non-Newtonian
suspensions.
Dilute suspensions
The viscosity of dilute suspensions of solids was the subject of a theoretical
study by Einstein in 1905, who concluded that the viscosity could be represented as follows
= 0 (1 + 2.5 )
(12.1)
Here represents the concentration by volume, Cv expressed as a fraction. Equation 12.1 applies to laminar flow of suspensions of rigid spheres in
which particles are large compared to molecular dimensions, but small with
respect to the characteristic length scale of the measuring instrument. It is
also assumed that the suspensions are extremely dilute ( < 0.01); that is,
that there is no particle interactions.
Concentrated suspensions
The viscosity of more concentrated suspensions must take into account the
various types of particle interactions that may occur. Thomas [26] reviewed
the existing theoretical and experimental expressions for suspension viscosities. Many take the form of a Taylor-series expansion,
= 0 1 + k1 + k2 2 + k3 3 + ...
(12.2)
The value of k1 is generally assumed to be that determined by Einstein,
i.e. 2.5. Various values have been assigned to k2 by accounting for certain
interactions: Guth and Simha [27] obtained a value of k2 = 14.1. The higher
order coefficients are not readily calculable and according to Thomas, this
leads to errors in excess of 10% for suspension concentrations greater than
= 0.20. Thomas [26] suggests an equation which is closed in form, (and
plotted in Figure 12.5)
(12.3)
1
= 1
(12.4)
0
M
This expression holds for uniform spheres. For irregularly shaped particles entropy considerations require the vacancy fraction term to be raised to
the power of -3, although in practice it may be best to determine the exponent
experimentally.
61
potential, such that all the particles in the suspension have similar charges.
This will ensure that only repulsive charges exist between the particles and
they effectively repel one another. Such compounds are used as viscosity
modifiers in many industrial applications as they effectively reduce the yield
stress and cause a return to Newtonian behaviour. An example of this is the
shear thinning of iron oxide-silica slurries using sodium tripolyphosphate
(Figure 12.6), a highly charged polyanion.
Even simple ions can act as flocculants or dispersants to some extent. A
common example of this is the hydroxide ion, which although singly charged,
is able to alter the surface charges on particles if the concentration is sufficiently high. Thus an aqueous slurry of silica and calcium carbonate will have
a decreased yield stress as the pH of the suspension is increased. This can be
confirmed by zeta potential measurements which show a decrease in with
increasing pH, changing sign from positive to negative at about pH = 10.7.
Above this pH the slurry shows minimum yield stress and is almost Newtonian.
63
13 Rheometry
The most basic measurement of a fluids rheology is a rheogram. Methods
for obtaining a rheogram come under the heading of rheometry. Since the
concept of viscosity applies only to Newtonian fluids, a viscometer should
perhaps more generally be referred to as a rheometer. A mathematical relation used to describe an experimentally determined rheogram is known as a
rheological model. But still more terminology is required.
Since a rheogram is a plot of shear stress against shear rate, it may also be
called a shear diagram, as shown in Figure 13.1(a). Thus if experimental data
is obtained in the form of shear stress at the wall, w , versus an average shear
rate, 8V /D, then a plot of this data is called a pseudo-shear diagram, as shown
in Figure 13.1(b).
A pseudo-shear diagram can sometimes be converted to a rheogram and
vice versa. An example of this is for a Newtonian fluid, for which the pseudoshear diagram and the rheogram are identical. Another example is for a pseudoplastic, for which it is apparent that
8V
3n + 1
(13.1)
w =
4n
D
These two examples are special cases of the Mooney-Rabinowitsch transformation (see Mooney [28]), which states that for laminar flow, the shear
stress at the wall w is proportional to the average shear rate 8V /D according
to
0
8V
3n + 1
(13.2)
w =
0
4n
D
where
d(ln w )
n0 =
8V
d ln
D
(13.3)
(a) Rheogram
64
nique, the first step is to plot the pseudo-shear diagram on logarithmic coordinates. The slope of the plot in a given region of shear rate gives the value
of the index n0 to use in applying the transformation equation above. It is of
course possible to argue in reverse and extract a pseudo-shear diagram from
a rheogram. Note however that the Mooney-Rabinowitsch transformation is
based on a truncated Taylor series approximation of the rheogram and the
implications of this are not well understood.
In summary then, rheological models are based on the rheogram, this being the more fundamental of the two shear diagrams. If however, a pseduoshear diagram is the primary data available, then the parameter values for a
rheological model may be obtained either by
1. transforming the diagram to a rheogram as described above and curve
fitting, or
2. by using the integrated relationships, ie Equations 11.12 and 11.16 from
Section 11.
a Magnus type effect which drives particles towards the centre of the pipe.
This depletion of particles near the wall gives a lower apparent viscosity in
this region and effective slip. To see whether effective slip is significant or
not, it is necessary to experiment with various tube diameters and check for
agreement in the laminar flow region.
While the tube viscometer should be favoured for pipeline design applications because of its geometric similarity, several difficulties with its use
should be noted. The first difficulty is that testing is slow several hours
at each shear rate and tedious. Secondly, it is difficult to maintain constant
test conditions over the long test period resulting in a low level of reputability.
This is particularly evident when testing a fluid at an elevated temperature
for instance. Finally, a relatively large sample of slurry is required compared
with that required for a coaxial cylinder viscometer, which is discussed next.
T
2hr2
(13.4)
This indicates that the shear stress, and hence shear rate, varies across the
width of the gap.
For small gaps, the shear stress across the gap is relatively constant and
the flow approaches that of Couette flow that of flow between two parallel
66
sliding plates. For this case, no prior assumption need be made about the
rheology of the fluid being tested and the analysis reduces to
= app = app
ravg
ro ri
(13.5)
When the gap between the bob and the cup is significant, the shear stress,
and hence shear rate, can no longer be considered constant. The end result is
that Equation 13.5 must be replaced by a rheological model and an integration performed. The classical results for various rheological models are given
as
For Newtonian fluids, the Margules equation
1
T
1
(13.6)
=
4h
ri2 ro2
For Bingham plastic fluids, the Reiner-Riwlin equation
1
T
1
o ro
1
=
ln
4h
ri
ri2 ro2
and for power law fluids, the following
1 "
2 #
n
n
T
ri n
=
1
2 2ri2 hk
ro
(13.7)
(13.8)
These equations illustrate the importance of gap size and the limitations
of the coaxial viscometer. Namely that for a large gap, either the Couette
flow assumption will breakdown or an a priori assumption must be made regarding the fluids rheology. Note also that special care must be taken when
testing Bingham plastics. In testing a Bingham plastic at low shear rates the
results shown in Figure 13.4 may be obtained. In this instance, the curvature of the rheogram at low shear rates indicates that the fluid is not shearing
across the whole gap. The Reinler-Riwlin equation could be used in this instance to check at what angular speed shearing across the whole gap would
begin. Data obtained below this speed could then be disregarded.
There are a few practical problems with the coaxial cylinder viscometer.
Particle segregation in the radial direction may occur. Calibrations are required to take into account the end effects of the cup and the bob. Wall slip as
67
observed in tube type viscometers may also occur to some extent in coaxial
cylinder viscometers. It is also worth reinforcing that the coaxial cylinder viscometer can only provide meaningful results while the flow within the gap
remains laminar.
68
(14.1)
Figure 14.1: Typical velocity and shear distributions in a turbulent boundary layer
69
U =
yU
and y+ =
where
(14.2)
Equation 14.2 is called the law of the wall, and the quantity U is termed
the friction velocity because it has the dimensions of velocity, although it is not
actually a flow velocity. A specific form of the law of the wall for the laminar
sub-layer is
u+ = y+
(14.3)
Subsequently, von Karman in 1933 deduced that u in the outer layer is
independent of molecular viscosity, but its deviation from the stream velocity U must depend on the boundary layer thickness, , and the remaining
properties in Equation 14.1
(U u)outer = f ( , w , , y)
(14.4)
(14.5)
Equation 14.5 is called the velocity defect law for the outer layer.
Both the law of the wall and the defect law are found to be accurate for a
wide variety of experimental turbulent duct and boundary layer flows. They
are different in form, yet they must overlap smoothly in the intermediate
layer. In 1937, Millikan, a student of von Karman, showed that this can be
true only if the overlap region varies logarithmically with y
u
1
yU
= ln
+B
(14.6)
U
Figure 14.2:
it is relatively simple to integrate over the pipe area to show that the average
velocity for turbulent flow in a pipe is given by
V
DU
= 2.5 ln
(14.8)
U
72
Laminar flow
As an application of the material covered in Section 11, once the fundamental
properties of the slurry are known in terms of a rheological model, it is a
trivial matter to use the appropriate integrated equation to evaluate the wall
shear stress and hence the pressure drop in the pipe1 . While this method is
reasonably simple, some shortcomings of the method exist. These are:
The Buckingham equation is only easy to use in its truncated form
which results in some loss of accuracy. To overcome this, some graphical representations of the full Buckingham equation are available, for
example in Wasp et al. [9].
The method implies that a rheological model applies in the first place,
whereas the simple two parameter rheological models do not always
accurately represent the slurry behaviour. The use of the generalized
method for these situations can introduce errors.
Turbulent flow
The generalized method has the attraction of being able to use the data from
a rheogram, easily available from a cylinder viscometer, without the need for
tedious tube testing. The price of this convenience however may be accuracy,
as:
1 such
73
8V
D
(15.1)
it follows that the wall shear stress in the test model and in the full size pipe
must be equal. Thus the full size pipe pressure drop can be determined for
the particular 8V /D considered.
Note that it is also possible to represent this scale up information on a
Moody type diagram, making the Moody type diagram an indirect scale-up
method. For the Moody type diagram, Re may be evaluated on the basis of
= eff , which must be found from a test at the particular shear rate being
considered. The generalized method of Metzner and Reed [24] provides an
example of such a diagram (see also Section 11).
(15.2)
and provided that the correct w is applied, then the slurry may resemble a
Newtonian fluid with a viscosity of = app . This has encouraged the use of
various Moody type diagrams where = or = eff . Wasp et al. [9] gives
other examples of this approach besides the generalized method.
As for laminar flow before, the scale-up method avoids the intermediary of a rheological model. The shear rate at the wall, w is maintained as
74
a constant between the model and the prototype thus allowing app (which
will now be constant) to be treated as a simple fluid property. Invoking von
Karmans average velocity result across a hydraulically smooth pipe
V
DU
= 2.5 ln
(15.3)
U
D2
D1
(15.4)
Transition to turbulence
Similarities between Newtonian and non-Newtonian slurries in turbulent
flow suggest that a type of Reynolds number criteria where = app would be
appropriate for describing the transition to turbulence for a non-Newtonian
fluid. In practice however, it is more common to use a Reynolds number criteria based on = eff . A common example of this is the criteria of Thomas
[26] for a Bingham plastic
y D
V D
(15.5)
= 2100 1 +
6V
The generalized method of Dodge and Metzner [25] is another example
more suited to a power law fluid (see Section 11).
The transition point can be predicted from small scale tests by conducting
tests in both the laminar and turbulent regions. Upon scale-up, the two sets
of results will intersect, or can be extrapolated to intersect, at a point which
is the predicted transition point for the scaled-up flow. An illustration of this
technique is given in Figure 15.1. Here the turbulent test data has been scaled
to a 200 mm pipe size and the transition point between laminar and turbulent
flow for this pipe size has been estimated by extrapolation.
75
76
dC
+VsC = 0
dy
(16.1)
and
CA
C
It is known that the presence of particles in the fluid suppresses the von
Karman constant from its clear water value of 0.4. There is also considerable doubt over the correct value of the constant . Values of 0.4 and unity,
respectively, give the generally conservative result
log10
C
Vs
= 4.5
CA
u
(16.3)
equivalent fluid, with the density and viscosity of this fluid determined by the
amount of fines which are in homogeneous type suspension. These modifications, proposed by Wasp et al. [9] are discussed below. In the unmodified
Durand model the carrier fluid losses are determined as discussed in Section 1.
fslurry fcarrier
fcarrierCv
(16.5)
p
V2
carrier
CD
gD solid carrier
(16.6)
=
where is calculated as follows
=
where V is the flow velocity, D is the diameter of the pipe, CD is the drag
coefficient of the particles and carrier and solid are the densities of the carrier
fluid and solids respectively.
Alternatively, Equation 16.5 can be rearranged to give the total friction
factor of the slurry, i.e.
h
i
1.5
fslurry = fcarrier 1 + 82Cv
(16.7)
If more than one size of solid is present in the slurry, then this may be
modified to
h
i
fslurry = fcarrier 1 + 82Cv,1 11.5 + 82Cv,2 21.5 + ...
(16.8)
where Cv,1 to Cv,n are the volume fractions of each size, and
Cv,total = Cv,1 +Cv,2 + ... +Cv,n
(16.9)
This friction factor is then applied in the Darcy equation to give the pressure loss, or
L slurryV 2
P = fslurry
(16.10)
D
2
The proportioning between the carrier and solid phases is done using the
C/CA ratio as is. Simply, if a size fraction had a C/CA ratio of 0.65, then 65%
of the particles in this size fraction would be proportioned to the carrier fluid
and 35% would be included in the solid phase.
The method is potentially confusing from the respect that there are now
three phases that must be considered:
1. clear water
2. the carrier fluid; and
3. the slurry
The viscosity of the carrier fluid is determined using the equivalent fluid
model, Equation 12.3, and is repeated here for convenience
h
i
2
16.6Cv,carrier
carrier = water 1 + 2.5Cv,carrier + 10.05Cv,carrier + 0.00273e
(16.11)
and the density becomes
carrier = water +Cv,carrier (solid water )
(16.12)
In the above equations, Cv,carrier , is the total amount of solids that is proportioned to the carrier, i.e. the sum across all of the particle size fractions.
The over pressure terms for the remaining particles in each size fraction
are calculated using Equation 16.5, and a total friction factor for the slurry
is determined from Equation 16.8. The carrier friction factor used in Equation 16.8 is calculated using the properties of the carrier fluid determined
from equations 16.11 and 16.12.
Initial assumptions
Initially none of the solids are proportioned to the carrier phase, and the carrier properties are those of clear water. Also, it is assumed that the flowrate
and pipe size are known.
These assumptions allow the pipe velocity, V , to be determined and an
initial Reynolds number to be calculated
Rec =
cV D
c
(16.13)
where, c and c are initially the values for water, and the subscript c denotes
the carrier fluid.
80
Next, the friction factor for the carrier, fc , can be determined. This can be
found using the methods described in Section 1, though for convenience here
the expression for smooth pipes will be used
fc = 0.184Re0.2
c
(16.14)
The last step prior to iteration is to determine an initial value for the friction velocity
r
r
w
fc
u =
=V
(16.15)
c
8
It is now possible to start the iterative part of the process.
Iteration
1. Calculate the drag coefficient for the particles, CD . This can be done using any of the methods described in Section 5. The archimedes number
correlations are usually the easiest to implement.
2. Calculate the settling velocity for the particles
s
( p c )
4
Vs =
D pg
3CD
c
where p is the density of the solids.
3. calculate the C/CA ratio
C
= 104.5(Vs /u )
CA
C
Cv
CA
cV D
c
7. Calculate the new carrier friction factor, using the Moody diagram, or
for smooth pipes
fc = 0.184Re0.2
c
81
fc
8
9. Calculate the Durand coefficient for the particles in the solid phase
=
V 2 c p
CD
gD p c
L slurryV 2
D
2
(16.16)
(16.17)
This total amount is used to calculate the new carrier fluid properties in step
5.
For the remaining solids in each size fraction the Durand coefficient is calculated for each separately (step 9), and the slurry friction factor is then calculated from Equation 16.8, suitably modified for the Durand-Wasp method.
h
i
fslurry = fcarrier 1 + 82(Cv,1 Cv,c,1 )11.5 + 82(Cv,2 Cv,c,2 )21.5 + ... (16.18)
This friction factor is then used to calculate the slurry pressure drop, as
before
L slurryV 2
P = fslurry
(16.19)
D
2
82
Figure 16.1: Pressure loss versus flow velocity for DurandWasp method
83
Deposition Velocity
The characteristic curve shown in Figure 16.1 suggests that the deposition
velocity loosely corresponds to the location of the curve minimum. Indeed
an approach similar to this was used by Durand to determine a correlation
for the deposition velocity, Vd The correlation is given by
r
p c
Vd = FL 2gD
(16.20)
c
where the factor FL is determined from Figure 16.2
Many other methods for determining the deposition velocity are available, and Wilson et al. [30] provide an overview of these. However, Wasp
et al. [9] recommend the use of the Durand correlation as it accurately predicts the deposition velocity for sand, and predictions for other suspensions
are conservative.
84
Corrosion
Corrosion of metal in an aqueous environment is a complex process as Chilton
[32] explains:
Wet corrosion may take many forms: there may be uniform destruction of the material (as is normally encountered in oxidation);
the corrosion may be highly localized, as in pitting or stress corrosion; or attack may be concentrated at areas adjacent to a second
more noble metal or at points where the oxygen supply is limited.
In contrast to dry corrosion, wet corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon.
As such, it requires that certain areas of the metal form an anode where the
metal is oxidized and other areas of the metal form a cathode where the oxidant is reduced. A positive current flows through the electrolyte from the
anodic areas to the cathodic areas. Since the majority of slurry pipelines are
made of steel, the corrosion of iron is of particular interest. The reactions at
the anode and cathode being as follows:
Anode:
Fe = Fe2+ + 2e
(17.1)
Cathode:
O2 + 4e + 2H2 O = 4OH
+
2H + 2e = H2
neutral solution
(17.2a)
acid solution
(17.2b)
(17.3)
85
86
Abrasion
Abrasive wear is a particular type of erosion which results from the impingement of moving particles on a surface. Depending on the flow conditions, the
abrasion can be one of the following three types.
1. Deformation (impact) wear,
2. Cutting (sliding) wear, or
3. Fatigue
These mechanisms are depicted in Figure 17.1. Deformation wear is caused
by the normal impact of solids particles. Some of these have sufficient kinetic
energy to cause local stresses higher than the yield strength of the pipe. An
accumulation of these stresses and the resultant strain lead to surface breakdown of the pipe.
Cutting wear is caused by the oblique impact of solid particles, some of
which have sufficient energy to shear the surface of the wearing material and
gouge a fragment loose.
The abrasion mechanism that dominates may dictate the type of material
that is best suited for the wearing surface. A soft and ductile material is very
useful at larger impact angles where it is able to absorb the kinetic energy
of the particle without plastic deformation. A hard and brittle material is
useful when the impact angle is small. In most slurry pipelines, the angle of
impact is expected to be small, while in pumps and fittings the impact angle
is expected to be greater.
For abrasion to take place, the solids must generally be harder than the
pipe surface. Thus the abrasive wear can be eliminated by making the pipe
wall harder than the solid particles. However, with reference to Figure 17.2, it
is noted that the most common abrasive component is silica which is much
harder than steel.
Abrasion is also governed by the size distribution of the solids, slurry concentration, and flow velocity. In a slurry pipeline these are interdependent to
87
some extent. For example, use of large size solids requires an increase in minimum transportation velocity. It has been found that abrasion increases as the
size of solid particles increases. Thus, by reducing the size of solids, abrasion
can be substantially reduced due to the combination of lower required velocity and reduction in wear due to a smaller particle size. The effect of slurry
concentration on the abrasion is more complicated.
The additional cost of grinding and dewatering of finer solids should be
compared with the savings in pumping cost and abrasive wear before selecting the size to which the material should be ground, though sometimes the
size can be a process requirement. Wasp et al. [9] reports that
From experience it has been found that the metal loss due to
abrasion is quite insignificant if the flow velocity is less than about
3 m/s. For long-distance slurry pipelines, velocity in the range of
1.5 - 2 m/s give economic design. Thus, a particle size should be
selected such that the slurry is nearly homogeneously suspended
at velocities in the range of 1.5 - 2 m/s.
It has been found from experience that when the C/CA of the
maximum size particle in the slurry is greater than about 0.5, then
abrasion is negligible provided the velocity of flow is less than
3 m/s.
When the value of C/CA for the solids is very much lower than
0.5, the abrasivity of the slurry has been found to increase with an
increase in slurry concentration. At low values of C/CA , a bed of
solids slides along the bottom of the pipe and gives rise to abrasion. The value of C/CA is also found to increase with slurry concentration. Thus, the abrasivity of a slurry may reach a maximum,
after which the abrasivity starts decreasing with an increase in
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(a) Density
(b) Viscosity
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As mentioned above, the effects of a change in fluid viscosity are also well
known. If the density of the fluid being pumped is kept constant while its
viscosity is increased, then the head and efficiency reduce, while the power
needed to maintain the flowrate increases. This is illustrated in Figure 18.1(b).
Note that the effects of viscosity are more pronounced at high flowrates, and
as a result the flowrate at best efficiency tends to become smaller as the viscosity is increased. This shift may not always be significant, but another influence, which cannot be represented on the curves for a given pump, is of
greater importance. This is the scale effect an increase in viscosity has a
greater influence on small pumps than large ones.
Having noted this effect of increased viscosity on pump performance, no
quantitative method of determining the effect will be determined here. For
the second difficulty, that of the equivalent fluid assumption, a simple derating method based on the work of McElvain [33] will be presented. This
is one method amongst others that are available, for example the methods of
Wilson et al. [30] or Burgess and Reizes [34].
Although the presence of solid particles introduces more complicated effects than those accompanying a viscosity increase in a simple fluid, there is
some rough qualitative similarity between slurry flow and the flow of a fluid
having values of both density and viscosity greater than those for water. The
effects on pump performance are shown schematically in Figure 18.2. This
figure illustrates the reduction in head and efficiency of a centrifugal pump
operating at the same speed, but handling a solid-water mixture. In this figure, and the discussion that follows, m represents the pump efficiency in
slurry service, and w the clear water equivalent. Likewise, Pm and Pw are the
power requirements for slurry service and water service respectively. The
head, Hw represents the head developed in water service, in height of water,
while Hm represents the head developed in slurry service in height of slurry.
The head ratio, HR, and the efficiency ratio, ER are defined as Hm /Hw and
m /w respectively.
McElvain [33] proposed that for centrifugal slurry pumps the head reduction and the efficiency reduction are proportional to the delivered concentration, Cvd , giving
Cvd
HR = ER = 1 K
(18.1)
0.20
where 0.20 is simply a convenient reference value of concentration. McElvain
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related the factor K to a relative density of solids and to average particle size
by means of reduction curves, which are shown in Figure 18.3. For example,
if a coarse sand with Ss = 2.65 and d5 0 = 1.5mm is pumped at Cvd = 0.20 the
reduction of head and efficiency is indicated to be 25 - 30%.
The curves and relationships proposed by McElvain were compared to the
data of other investigators by Sellgren and Addie [35], who included their
own data for large pumps tested at the GIW Hydraulic Laboratory. They
concluded that the general tendencies expressed by the reduction curves in
Figure 18.3 hold for many types of centrifugal slurry pumps and industrial
slurries. However, specific applications of the curves are effectively limited
to products with a narrow particle size distribution, to solids concentrations
below 20-25% by volume, and to small pumps with impeller diameters less
than about 0.5 m.
The experimental results of Sellgren and Addie [35] also confirmed that
the solids effect could be considered to be independent of rotary speed. A
slight dependence on flowrate was found, but it was concluded that this
could normally be neglected in practical applications.
An extension of the curves of McElvain is presented in Figure 18.4.
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References
[1] Trey Walters. Cutting costs in pump and pipe sizing. Chemical Processing,
2002.
[2] Feluwa pump catalogue, 2004. FELUWA Pumpen GmbH.
[3] Confessions of a chemical feed pump manufacturer, nd.
http://www.asiawaterbusiness.com/news_show.php?language=english&n_id=195.
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