THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE STYLES

OF CHINESE ENGLISH SPEAKERS

Tai Lam
California State University, USA

Language plays an important role in the development of society. Along with

globalization, people everywhere in the world have more and more chances to

communicate with one another. Henceforth, as cultures around the world expand

their communication base, intergroup and interpersonal relations will take on

increasing significance. The United States is a country of immigrants whose

adopted English will always show traces of their ancestry. Among notable

communities are Chinese Americans. One of the divergent linguistic phenomena

from the perspectives of sociolinguistic and socio-cultural contexts is how

American English is socio-culturally used by Chinese American community. Many

studies have been conducted on this aspect, but they were carried out either in a

larger geographical scope or on more diverse linguistic aspects. This article, by

analyzing their social and cultural characteristics, attempts to give a comprehensive

view of the English language used by Chinese English speakers living in

Chinatown of Los Angeles, one of the most Chinese populated cities on the west

coast of America.

Research paper (English 514) Lam 1 / 18

 BACKGROUND

Due to the special features of linguistic geography in China, the official

Chinese language known as mandarin is not an unique and unified “ native

language” to Chinese people. The Chinese language includes several related

mutually unintelligible dialects but shares a common writing system. The fact is

that Chinese immigrants commonly communicate communally in the language of

the immigration country rather than in their native language. Chinese immigrants

(of different subgroups) interact with each other by using the language spoken in

the country to which they have immigrated and use it as ‘lingua-franca’. The

reason for this is because of the dialects (literally "regional speech") still remaining

to be used by traditional families and seniors of older generation. This leads to the

reality that most of Chinese immigrants in Los Angeles currently speak the English

language in their groups. This phenomenon is quite different from other

communities in USA. But what “style” of the American English language do Los

Angeles Chinese Americans use in communication? The article attempts to explore

in some aspects in relevant with cross-cultural features.

COMMON USE OF ENGLISH WORDS FROM CHINESE ORIGIN

Chinese immigrants speak English, the official language where they are

immigrating, as a “lingua franca”. The impact of the Chinese phonetic “word” used

Research paper (English 514) Lam 2 / 18

in English expressions is the first feature that Chinese English speakers generally

communicate either within their community or with others. This phenomenon can

easily be seen in English words with Chinese origins, that is the status that

phonetically Romanized Chinese characters become English words. Most of these

English words used by Chinese immigrants mostly refer to Chinese food, fruits,

objects and concepts such as tofuc ([dòufǔ] 豆 腐 a protein-rich food),

chowmeind([chăomiàn]炒麵Chinese-American fried noodles.）lycheee ([lìzhi] 荔

f g
枝 a bright red fruit), petsai or pochoy ([pǎicài] 白 菜 cabbage), fengshui

([fengshǔi]風 水 Chinese art), taichi （ [tàijí]太 極 Chinese system of physical

exercise） h , kungfui （[Gongfu]功夫martial arts）, and cooliej ([kǔlì]苦力

suffering labor) ( Appendix 1). However, a few, such as gunghok ( [gonghé] 工合

work together ) and typhoon l ([táifeng] 颱風 tropical cyclone ) have evolved into

mainstream usage. Many of the Chinese words are made into this “lingua franca”

as pronounced in the Cantonese or Amoy (Xiamen) dialects because the early

contact between the two cultures happened along the southern Chinese ports of call

or through the mostly Cantonese immigrants.

CULTURAL FEATURES IN SPEECH ACTS

Face having, saving and giving concepts

Research paper (English 514) Lam 3 / 18

 Some culture-related phenomena in Sino-US communication often occur in

Chinese immigrant groups and they emerge the differences between and cultural

connotation in language use in styles of their talking and ways of presenting their

ideas. Linguistic in indirectness in Chinese community is motivated by politeness

concerns and function as a “face-redressive strategy” (Kasper, 1995). However,

politeness value and face semantics for Chinese people are quite different from

those for Americans. To Chinese culture, ‘face’ has two aspects. One is “mìanzi” (

面子) that refers to “the need of an individual to conform to social conventions and

expect one’s desire to be part of this community”; the other is “liăn” (臉) that

defines a need “to show one’s moral sense of place and role” (Hu, 1994). In

Chinese culture, having face means having a good fame or reputation in one's

group. For example: He is a person who has a good face (expressed literally from

他是一個很有面子的人 [Ta shì yigè hěn yǒu miànzi de rén]) . Branching from

this, there are also the related notions of losing face (失面子), maintaining face (保

面子) , and even of giving face (給面子). Maintaining face refers a situation

where one's reputation has already been lost, and is undertaking the restoration, or

one wants to maintain and doesn’t want to the others to lower one’s prestige. For

example: He’d rather maintain his face than receive low pay. (他為保面子不願領

底保[ta wei băo miànzi bù yuàn lǐng dibăo]). Losing (or “no”) face is expressed in

Research paper (English 514) Lam 4 / 18

situations where a person of reputation has made a mistake or done wrong, then

he/she will "lose face" or have no face. For example: your doing so has indeed let

me lose all my face (“你這樣做真的給我失去了面子/ni zhèyang zùo zhen de

gěi wǒ shìqù le miànzi/ ).Giving face is another concept used in a case where a

person has no face or no recognized reputation within certain circles, he/she may

be required to seek out and "borrow" a certain measure of face from someone

willing to "give" it to him/her. For example: Looking at years of our acquaintance,

would you give me a little face?(看在我們數年來的結識份上,你可以給我一點

兒面子嗎? /kàn zài wǒmen shù nián lái de jiéshi fèn shàng, nǐ kěyi gěi wǒ yìdiănér

miànzi ma?/) Face-being respected by one's peers is very important to the Chinese

community groups. Saying or doing anything that results in causing someone to

lose face can instantly destroy a relationship and any business that might result

from it because it is considered face-giving as the key to success.

“Face “ to Chinese culture, is very similar to the notion of reputation. Face

is a dynamic which applies to both personal and business relationships in society.

Corollary to face is the inseparable concept of guanxi (關係) or "relations". Face

and guanxi work hand-in-hand. In Chinese community, if one has "good face" (or

quite simply has "face"), such "face" means one has a good reputation in front of

one's peers. Having face in front of one's business colleagues or within a

Research paper (English 514) Lam 5 / 18

community is literally a statement of that person's value. One who has a good face

is generally dependable, reliable, and safe to do business with. Chinese is a

relationship based culture. To overstate for the sake of argument – Americans have

no need for relationships. Market contracts regulate their lives and how they

interact with each other. But for the Chinese speakers, relationships are everything.

Greetings and initiating talks and privacy concepts

Chinese-American ways of initiating talks consists of greetings and asking

questions, ranging from the most impersonal talk to the more personal “How are

you?”, “Are you all right today?”, “I haven’t seen you for ages” , “long time no

see “, “What have you been doing these days?” , or ‘”Where have you been

recently?”. Sometimes they are often regarded as being inquisitive by other

English native speakers on cross-cultural communication. However, they can be in

all instances regarded as communicatively acceptable. The greeting-like

expressions “Have you had meals yet?” is very common to Chinese English

speakers. It shows the mutual care in person-to-person relationship.

English native speakers do not like hearing others asking them about the

family size, family income and daily activities even the home address, telephone

number and something related to personal issues. They consider this privacy that

cannot be exposed. On the contrary, to Chinese English speakers, asking people

about their family even their means of family support can be regarded as showing a

Research paper (English 514) Lam 6 / 18

loving care or interest. For example, “How are you living? “, “ How are you

getting along with business?” etc. Another aspect of privacy concept can be seen

in job interview. Chinese English speakers suppose to be impolite or slightly rude

when asking their interviewer about their salaries, welfare and future promotion

when hired. To native speakers, this is normal and natural. For they think this is the

right of the interviewee. The view of privacy and the definition of “personal” are

quite different and even contradictory.

Responses to compliments and appreciation

Compliments and compliment responses have been described as highly

formulaic speech acts. For instance, it is said that the most appropriate response to

a compliment is “Thank you”; however, the Chinese English speakers would reject

a compliment most of the time. Yet, despite this strong stereotype, many speakers

still feel embarrassed with other’s compliments and are uncomfortable when

respond to compliments. Although a lot of researches have been carried out on

compliments and compliment responses, they are mainly conducted in English-

speaking countries. Few studies have investigated compliments in Chinese English

speaking context. This article tends to give a comprehensive view for the

characteristics of this phenomenon, with the hope to contribute to some extend in

understanding Chinese culture for cross-cultural communication between different

speakers from different communities.

Research paper (English 514) Lam 7 / 18

 Slightly different from the styles of native English speakers, typical Chinese

responses to compliments on one’s excellence in skills or remarkable achievement

are “it’s nothing worthy of note”, “you’re over-praising” etc. These responses have

been considered as typical expressions for Chinese English speakers when

receiving compliments. These expressions may carry strong implications of

“mistrusting” the evaluation of the complimenter. Some other responses are, “you

may be joking”, or “ it’s really difficult for me to do it well” or “I have been really

working hard on it” and so on. These may inversely indicate a strong sense of

“immodesty” of the responder to the compliment. But results of the inquiries show

that these are not essentially impolite or egotistical in the specified contexts of

situation.

Met and exchanged in the conversations with a Chinese teacher of a local

school who has been in US for many years, the subject points out that the Chinese

speakers are being humble and reserved. These responses are normal, acceptable,

and no problem because the speaker is being really modest. When asked about

these responses, an English native speaker gives his comment, ‘if one is not

familiar with Chinese customs, one would easily find these responses frustrating or

impolite. Generally responding just “thank you” is a common response and normal

reaction to everyone. However, giving compliments to the worth-praising persons

is good in this country compliment is seen as supportive encouragement.”

Research paper (English 514) Lam 8 / 18

 In many cases, when a Chinese English-speaker receives appreciation for

his/her kindness or a favour done, he or she, inspired from his/her own cultural

models, may respond with “This is what I should do”, “no problem”, “It doesn’t

matter”, “Don’t mention it” or “It’s really nothing”. To some native speakers,

these may sound a bit awkward and unnatural, or even unacceptable because of its

over-humbling.

Jia (1997) studied the compliment responses strategies and founded there

was a great difference between Chinese and American’s compliment responses.

Some compliments that could be adopted by one culture would be rejected by

another. For example, Chinese will respond with the responding strategies of scale

down and questioning (10% & 15%), which is much more used than in English.

While with respect to using “return” - the strategy, the Chinese appear less

interested in complimenting others.

INDIRECT FEATURES

One of the linguistic and non-linguistic phenomena is feature of

“directness”. “Directness is employed in the sense that a person use the language

that is frank and to the point” and “ it is also used to mean that the language used is

easy to understand and follow” (Kovecses, 2000). The American communication is

defined by the direct and straightforward style, whereas Chinese communication is

Research paper (English 514) Lam 9 / 18

characterized by the style of indirectness. The habitual style of tending “to beat

around the bush” of Chinese English speakers can be seen when they make

requests from American counterparts. However, this cultural-linguistic feature is

not easy to be intelligible in the forthrightness-valued culture which assertive, open

and honest communication are highly valued. Thus, indirectness of Chinese

English speakers may be perceived as passive, weak, secretive and dishonest. The

style of indirectness, in contrast, appreciates relationship, social grace and

selflessness. In Chinese, “the distinction between directness and indirectness on

individual utterances of these kinds seems to be overridden by the distinction in

politeness. The characters of Chinese face as a “public self-image” , interactive and

reciprocal in balance, motivates to a large extent the Chinese way of indirectness

in interaction.” (Kasper, 1995).

On this characterization of indirectness, the Chinese rhetorical question

strategy (Spencer et al, 2004) for disagreement in meetings is more indirect than

the American “yes, but” strategy. According to Spencer, other things being equal, a

rhetorical question allows for a wide range of answers, and gives the hearer the

opportunity to volunteer a response that goes against the speaker’s views.

The Chinese culture has established a mature and stable hierarchy of status

relationships, and it maintains certain strict norms of behaviour. Among these

behavioral norms, essential for maintaining order in a relationship-based

Research paper (English 514) Lam 10 / 18

community is indirectness. Chinese English speakers hardly provoke a

confrontation by issuing direct challenges to others, as well as never undermine

someone's status in society by causing them to lose face. This is the rule that lies at

the root of the Chinese traditional psyche for so many years. Native speakers think

that Chinese English speakers seem to be running around in circles, and never

seeming to get to the point. Bluntness or humiliating others for Chinese English

speakers is insensitive and somehow uncivilized.

CONCLUSION

Communication cannot happen in a vacuum; it happens in a context in

which the communication occurs and it takes places in a variety of settings or

contexts. The context may be a culture, a location or a relationship. A same idea

may be expressed with the same language but in different ways by different

cultural background. Cultures influence communication styles. Cultural styles can

create misunderstandings in ways of expressing among people from different

cultures. Today more and more people from various communities are meeting and

talking everyday at work, in play and study. The interaction comes about more and

more frequently and longer and longer, higher and higher for business, academic,

and social purposes. Little misperceptions and misunderstandings occurring in

daily interactions due to cultural differences between the different background still

Research paper (English 514) Lam 11 / 18

remain, yet, how to adapt for cultural difference is still the public concern. The

healthy basis for mutual understanding and intercultural interaction, as assumed, is

neither ethnocentrism nor xenocentrism.

Research paper (English 514) Lam 12 / 18

 APPENDIX 1 ( List of English words from Chinese origin)

1. Tofu （豆腐） : A protein-rich food coagulated from an extract of soybeans

and used in salads and various cooked foods. Chinese (Mandarin) /dòufu/; dòu,
bean + fu, fermented, curdled.
2. Chowmein （炒麵） : A Chinese-American dish consisting of a combination
of stewed vegetables and meat served over fried noodles. Chinese (Mandarin)
chăo miàn : chăo, to stir- fry + miàn, noodles.
3. Lychee（荔枝） : also lichee or lychee : 1. A Chinese tree (Litchi chinensis)
that bears bright red fruits, each of which has a large single seed with a white,
fleshy, edible aril. 2. The nutlike fruit of this tree. Chinese (Mandarin) / lìzhi /:
lì, litchi + zhi, twig.
4. Pe-tsai （白菜） : Chinese cabbage. Chinese (Mandarin) /bái cài/. bái : white,
cài : vegetable.
5. Fengshui （風水） : The Chinese art or practice of positioning objects,
especially graves, buildings, and furniture, based on a belief in patterns of yin
and yang and the flow of chi that have positive and negative effects. Chinese
(Mandarin) /fengshui/ , wind (and) water : feng, wind + shui, water.
6. Tai chi （太極）: A Chinese system of physical exercise designed especially
for self-defense and mediation. Short for Chinese (Mandarin) taì jí quán : taì,
highest + jí, reach + quán, boxing.
7. Kungfu（功夫） : Any of various Chinese martial arts, especially those forms
in which sharp blows and kicks are applied to pressure points on the body of an
opponent. Chinese (Mandarin) /gongfu/; gong, worker, work + fu, man, laborer.
8. Coolie (苦力) : Suffering labor. also coolly. Chinese (Mandarin) /kuli/ .Ku,
suffer, li, labor.
9. Gungho（工合） : Motto of certain U.S. Marine forces in Asia during World
War II, Chinese (Mandarin) /gonghé/, to work together (short for
gongyèhézuòshè, Chinese Industrial Cooperative Society) : gong, work + hé,
together.
10. Typhoon （颱風） : A tropical cyclone occurring in the western Pacific or
Indian oceans . Chinese (Mandarin) táifeng. tái, great + feng, wind.

Research paper (English 514) Lam 13 / 18

 APPENDIX 2 ( List of English words from Chinese origin)

1. Kowtow （叩頭） : The act of kneeling and touching the forehead to the
ground. Etymology : Chinese (Mandarin) /kòu tóu/, a kowtow : kòu, to knock
+ tóu, head.
2. Mahjong（麻將） : also mahjongg. A game of Chinese origin usually played
by four persons with tiles resembling dominoes and bearing various designs.
Etymology : Chinese (Mandarin) /má jiàng /: má, spotted + jiàng, main piece
in Chinese chess.
3. Yamen （衙門） : The office or residence of an official in the Chinese
Empire. Etymology:Chinese (Mandarin) yámen : yá, magistracy + mén, gate.
4. Kaolin （高岭） : from Gaoling hill in China. Etymology: Chinese
(Mandarin) /gaolíng/ gao, tall; líng, hill
5. Kylin （麒麟） : / qílíng/ Chinese unicorn.
6. Longan （龍眼） : An Asian evergreen tree having yellowish-brown drupes
with white, juicy, edible flesh. Etymology: Chinese (Mandarin) lóngyăn :
lóng, dragon + yăn, eye.
7. Sampan （舢舨） : A flatbottom Asian skiff usually propelled by two oars.
Etymology: Chinese (Mandarin) san, three + băn, board.
8. Suan-pan （算盤） : Chinese counting or calculation frame. Etymology:
/suanpán/ suan, count; pán, board
9. Tao （道）: In Taoism, the basic, eternal principle of the universe that
transcends reality and is the source of being, non-being, and change. Chinese
(Mandarin) dào, way.
10. Te (德): In Taoism, the power through which the Tao is made manifest or is
actualized. Chinese (Mandarin) dé, virtue, moral character.
11. Cha （茶）: tea

Research paper (English 514) Lam 14 / 18

 12. Taipan（大班） : A foreign businessman or a trader in China. Chinese
(Cantonese) taai-paan, eminent businessman, head of a firm, equivalent to
Chinese (Mandarin) tái, big + b n, class.
13. Toumingdu（ 透明度 ）: Transparency
14. Tuchun （督军） : A Chinese provincial military governor. Etymology:
Chinese (Mandarin) dù jun : dù, to supervise + jun, army.
15. Tung（桐） : Any of several eastern Asian trees of the genus Aleurites.
Chinese (Mandarin) tóng.
16. Fenghuang bird （鳳凰） : phoenix
17. Whangee（黄藜）: Any of several Asian bamboos of the genus
Phyllostachys. Chinese (Mandarin) huáng lí.
18. Dimsum （點心） : A traditional Chinese cuisine in which small portions of
a variety of foods, including an assortment of steamed or fried dumplings, are
served in succession. Chinese (Cantonese) tímsam, light refreshments,
equivalent to Chinese (Mandarin) diăn, spot, drop + Chinese (Mandarin) xin,
heart.
19. Yum cha （飲茶） : Drink tea
20. Wok （鑊） : A metal pan having a rounded bottom, used especially for
frying and steaming in Asian cooking. Etymology: Chinese (Cantonese) wok,
equivalent to Chinese (Mandarin) hù, huò.
21. Won ton（雲吞）: A noodle-dough dumpling filled typically with spiced
minced pork or other ground meat, usually boiled in soup or fried and eaten
as a side dish. Chinese (Cantonese) wăn tan, equivalent to Chinese
(Mandarin) húntun.
22. Sycee（丝） : Lumps of pure silver bearing the stamp of a banker or an
assayer and formerly used in China as money. Chinese (Cantonese) saìsz,
fine silk (so called because the pure silver can be spun into fine threads),
equivalent to Chinese (Mandarin) xì, thin, fine + Chinese (Mandarin) si, silk,
thread.
23. Souchong（小種茶）: also soochong. Any of several varieties of black tea
native to China and adjacent regions. Etymology: Chinese (Cantonese) siú-
chúng (cha), souchong (tea), equivalent to Chinese (Mandarin) xiăo, small +
zhong, kind.
24. Wushu （武術）: The Chinese martial arts. Chinese (Mandarin) wushù : wu,
martial + shù, skill, art.
25. Mu （ 畝）: a unit of area (=0.0667 hectares)
26. Liang （ 两 ）: a unit of weight (=50 grams)

Research paper (English 514) Lam 15 / 18

 27. Pinyin （拼音）: A system for transliterating Chinese ideograms into the
Roman alphabet, officially adopted by the People's Republic of China in
1979. Chinese (Mandarin) pin yin, to combine sounds into syllables : pin, to
combine + yin, sound.
28. Kaoliang （ 高粱 ）: sorghum; broomcorn; grain sorghum; Chinese
sorghum.
29. Putonghua （普通话）: Chinese (Mandarin) putonghuà : pu, general,
widespread + tong, through + huà, language.
30. Maotai （茅台酒）: Mao-tai. A clear, very strong Chinese liquor distilled
from sorghum.
31. Pipa （ 琵琶 ）: A plucked string instrument with a fretted fingerboard; 4-
stringed Chinese lute.
32. Erhu （ 二胡 ）: A two-stringed bowed instrument with a lower register
than jinghu.
33. Zheng ( 筝 ）: a 21- or 25-stringed plucked instrument in some ways similar
to the zither.
34. Cheongsam (長衫) :A long dress with a high collar and slit skirt, traditionally
worn by Chinese women. Chinese (Cantonese) cheung shaam, long gown,
equivalent to Chinese (Mandarin) cháng, long + Chinese (Mandarin) shan,
gown.
35. China (秦): /Qin/via Latin from the name of the Ch'in Dynasty .
36. Cumshaw (感謝): Feeling gratitude . Chinese gamsia, an expression of
thanks.
37. Ginseng (人參 ) : Name of the plant, believed to have medicinal properties.
Etymology: Chinese (Mandarin) rén shen : rén, man + shen, ginseng
(perhaps from the forked shape of the root).
38. Hoisin (海鮮) : Seafood. A thick, sweet, pungent sauce used in Chinese
cooking. Chinese (Cantonese) hoísin, seafood, equivalent to Chinese
(Mandarin) hăi, ocean + Chinese (Mandarin) xian, fresh, delicacy.
39. Kumquat (柑橘) : Name of the fruit , having an acid pulp and a thin, edible
rind. It is the smallest of the citrus fruits. Chinese (Cantonese) kamkwat,
equivalent to Chinese (Mandarin) jin, gold + Chinese (Mandarin) jú, orange,
tangerine.
40. Mu shu (木須) : Mandarin (mùxū), lit. wood shredded
41. Oolong (烏龍) : Dark dragon, a dark Chinese tea that has been partially
fermented before drying. Etymology: Chinese (Mandarin) wulóng(chá),
black dragon (tea) : wu, dark, black + lóng, dragon.

Research paper (English 514) Lam 16 / 18

 42. Qi (氣) : spirit. The vital force believed in Taoism and other Chinese thought
to be inherent in all things. The unimpeded circulation of chi and a balance of
its negative and positive forms in the body are held to be essential to good
health in traditional Chinese medicine. Etymology: Chinese (Mandarin) qì,
air, spirit, energy of life.
43. Qipao (旗袍) : /qípáo/, female traditional Chinese clothing (male version:
cheongsam)
44. Sifu (師傅) : from Cantonese, (Mandarin shīfu), master.
45. Tycoon (大官), high official; great nobleman. Japanese taikun, title of a
shogun, of Chinese origin.
46. Wuxia (武侠): from Mandarin, martial arts and chivalrous
47. Yen (癮) : from Cantonese, lit. addiction (to opium). To have a strong desire
or inclination; yearn. Chinese (Cantonese) uên, hope, wish, equivalent to
Chinese (Mandarin) yuàn.
48. Yen (元) : Japanese 円 en, from Chinese 元(Mandarin yuán), lit. round, name
of currency unit.
49. Yin Yang ( 陰陽 ): from Mandarin Yin meaning feminine, dark and ‘Yang'
meaning masculine and bright.

Research paper (English 514) Lam 17 / 18

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Research paper (English 514) Lam 18 / 18