Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CBCT2203 - CBCT2203 (Basic Concepts of Information Technology)
CBCT2203 - CBCT2203 (Basic Concepts of Information Technology)
CBCT2203 - CBCT2203 (Basic Concepts of Information Technology)
CBCT2203
Basic Concepts of
Information Technology
CBCT2203
BASIC CONCEPTS
OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
Project Directors:
Module Writers:
Translator:
Developed by:
Table of Contents
Course Guide
xixvi
Topic 1
1
2
5
8
9
11
12
14
15
15
17
18
19
Topic 2
20
21
22
22
23
24
26
27
28
28
31
32
32
33
33
35
36
37
37
39
39
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3
40
40
41
43
45
46
49
52
54
55
56
57
58
60
61
62
62
Topic 4
Secondary Storage
4.1 Basic Storage
4.2 Magnetic Storage Devices
4.2.1 Magnetic Tape
4.2.2 Hard Disk
4.2.3 Optical Storage
4.2.4 Flash Memory Storage
4.2.5 Cloud Storage
4.2.6 Other Types of Storage
4.3 Data Organisation Hierarchy
4.4 Upgrade Performance
Summary
Key Terms
63
63
66
66
68
69
71
72
72
74
75
78
78
Topic 5
Computer Software
5.1 Software
5.2 System Software
5.3 Operating System
5.4 Functions of Operating System
5.5 Features of Operating System
5.5.1 Multitasking
5.5.2 Multi-User
5.5.3 Multi-Processor
5.5.4 Batch Processing
5.5.5 Virtual Memory
79
80
82
84
86
89
90
91
91
92
92
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 6
5.6
93
94
96
97
100
104
107
110
110
116
120
120
124
124
124
125
126
126
Programming Language
6.1
Programming Language
6.2
Why Do We Need to Know Programming Languages?
6.3
Programming Language Generations and Examples
6.4
Approach: Classification of Programming Languages
6.4.1
Imperative Language
6.4.2
Object-Oriented Language
6.4.3
Logic-Based Language
6.4.4
Function-Based Language
6.4.5
Script
6.4.6
Visual Language
6.5
Common Programming Languages
6.5.1
C
6.5.2
C++
6.5.3
Java
6.5.4
Perl
6.5.5
Python
6.6
Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter
Summary
Key Terms
127
127
129
130
135
136
136
137
138
139
139
139
139
140
140
140
140
141
142
144
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7
The Internet
7.1 Definition of Internet
7.2 History
7.2.1 How Does the Internet Began?
7.2.2 The Internet as a Phenomenon
7.2.3 Development of the Internet
7.3 Internet Evolution
7.3.1 Internet Timeline
7.4 Computers on the Internet
7.5 What is the Internet Content?
7.6 Managing Internet Information
7.6.1 Search Engine
7.6.2 Portals
7.6.3 Other Methods
7.7 Internet Laws
7.8 The Internet Today and the Future
Summary
Key Terms
145
145
147
148
149
152
153
154
156
159
162
164
165
167
168
169
171
172
Topic 8
173
174
174
176
180
181
182
183
184
185
187
188
189
190
192
195
196
Topic 9
Communication
9.1 Important Elements of Communication
9.1.1 Coder and Decoder
9.1.2 Message Understanding
9.1.3 Error Detector
9.1.4 Security
197
198
199
200
200
200
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 10
vii
9.2
202
203
205
207
208
209
209
209
210
211
212
213
213
214
215
216
218
218
219
219
220
221
222
227
227
231
234
237
237
238
240
242
244
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COURSE GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
CBCT2203 Basic Concepts of Information Technology is one of the courses
offered by Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia Communication
at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and
should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Information
Technology programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please ensure that you have the right course materials, understand
the course requirements, as well as know how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
xii
COURSE GUIDE
Study
Hours
60
10
Online participation
12
Revision
15
20
120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1.
2.
Discuss the use of IT in daily lives which has affected the society,
organisations and individuals in many aspects;
3.
4.
5.
6.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 1 gives an overview of Information Technology (IT). The focus of this topic
includes principles of IT, functions and benefits of IT, careers in IT, development
of IT in Malaysia and cyber laws.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE
xiii
Topic 2 discusses the main computer hardware components, which are the
Central Processing Unit (CPU), microprocessors, main memory, etc. Specifically,
we will focus more on the CPU or the microprocessor, which is the core of all
activities responsible for changing raw data into the required information inside
a computer. Besides that, data representation and coding system will also be
discussed. Towards the end of the topic, you will be introduced to some tools
and hardware inside a computer system unit.
Topic 3 introduces various methods of input and output. The keyboard is the
most popular and frequently used input device. Besides the keyboard, there are
also many latest input and output devices in the market, which will also be
discussed in this topic.
Topic 4 introduces another computer component, that is, the secondary storage.
Here, you will learn the various types of secondary storage available in the
market and the comparison of storage types. This topic also explains the types of
magnetic storage, optic storage and advantages of secondary storage.
Topic 5 introduces the software used in the computer system. There are two
types of main software, that is, the system software and application software.
The system software is used to switch on (start) the computer and to coordinate
the hardware components and the application software. There are three
categories of software inside the system software, namely the operating system,
utility programs and language translators. This topic discusses the concept and
types of operating systems being used. Language translators are explained
through programming languages. Programming languages will be discussed
from the perspectives of generation, approach and compilation. At the end of this
topic, you will discuss various types of application software that are commonly
used such as word processing, spreadsheet and graphic software.
Topic 6 discusses programming language. Computer programs are developed by
using programming languages. A program is simply a list of instructions to be
followed by the computer so that data can be processed. The process of
producing a programme is called programming. Programming is also known as
software development and it consists of steps in producing a list of instructions.
Steps in programming consist of program specification, program design,
program coding, program testing, program documentation and program
maintenance.
Topic 7 focuses on the development and history of the Internet. In this topic, we
will learn about the elements of the Internet and the activities that can be
performed on the Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the process of
searching and manipulating information effectively over the Internet.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xiv
COURSE GUIDE
Topic 8 describes the present softwares on the internet. Some of the softwares can
be obtained for free, while some have to be paid for. Open source softwares will
also be discussed here. This topic will also discuss a popular method of
communication over the Internet, that is, e-mail. Initially, e-mail was merely
based on text, but now you can send (attach) various types of data together with
e-mails such as text document, graphic, audio and Power Point presentation. At
the end of this topic, we will touch briefly on the Internet scripting languages
such as HTML and XML.
Topic 9 explains the important component in the development of information
technology, that is, communication. There are four important elements to be
known before any form of communication can happen. These elements are
message, sender, receiver and media. In this topic, you will realise that
communication is a very important component of information technology. You
will then focus more on data communication signals, that is, the analogue and
digital signals, synchronous and asynchronous transmissions, simplex, half
duplex, full duplex lines, etc. At the end of this topic, you will be introduced on
the various media for data transmission.
Topic 10 discusses how the human element creates various issues in this field
and the opportunities offered by technology for a competitive advantage. You
will be asked to evaluate and understand an issue on the importance of ethics in
IT. You will also be exposed to the concept of the end-user who will need to
realise the potential effects of technology on them. They must act quickly and
know the importance of privacy, organisational security, ergonomics and the
effects of technology on the environment.
COURSE GUIDE
xv
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful
textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course on information technology. Hence, there is no
specific pre-requisite for this course. However, the ability to use computers,
especially the productivity software like word processing, spreadsheet and
browser will help you to perform activities and complete the assignment.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xvi
COURSE GUIDE
REFERENCES
Shelly, G. B. & Vermaat, M. F. (2009). Discovering computer 2009: Complete.
Boston, USA: Cengage Learning.
Topic Introduction to
Information
Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
INTRODUCTION
Information technology (IT) which has been around for more than half a century
had its beginnings in a laboratory. Now, IT is taught in schools and considered
one of the major resources in business organisation. IT has even be used in the
latest IT and information and communication technology (ICT) gadgets, such as
smart phone and tablet (refer to Figure 1.1).
TOPIC 1
Figure 1.1: Smart phone (Samsung Galaxy S4) and tablet (ipad3)
Source: http://jailbreakhow.net
In this topic, you will be introduced to the IT era. You will also familiarise
yourself with the concept of IT and its characteristics. Other important issues
discussed are the principles, functions and benefits of IT. Towards the end of this
topic, the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia) and Cyber Laws
will also be presented.
INFORMATION ERA
1.1
The 21st century has brought the information era, where it is continuing
with rapid pace computerised systems being used in almost all types of areas,
from medical and space exploration to education, as well as banking and
manufacturing sectors. The demand by these fields has increased the usage and
development of many types of complex systems. Prior to the information era,
there was the agricultural era and industrial era, as shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Descriptions of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras
Era
Description
Agricultural
Era
Industrial
Era
Information
Era
TOPIC 1
TOPIC 1
In order to understand the evolution of the three eras, please refer to Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Evolution of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Era
Evolution
Agricultural Era
Industrial Era
Information Era
Mostly
Peasants/farmers
Factory workers
Knowledge workers
Workers/
partners
Tools
Hand-based tools
Machineries
Computers/telecommunications
The technologies used in the agricultural, industrial and information era are all
different. For example, the technologies used in the industrial era (such as bulldozers and cranes) are meant for increasing the physical capability, while the
technologies of the information era (such as computers) are meant for enhancing
workers productivity. Furthermore, the information era links people together by
communication tools that uses IT. Despite being in the information era, both
agricultural and industrial activities are still important.
There are six features that differentiate the information era from the previous
eras (Senn, 1998):
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
TOPIC 1
(e)
(f)
ACTIVITY 1.1
1.
2.
From the three eras you have read in the text above, in which era
do you think Malaysia is currently? Explain your opinion.
1.2
Before going deeper into this subject, it would be good to be able to differentiate
between data, information and knowledge, as shown in Table 1.3:
Table 1.3: Definitions of Data, Information and Knowledge
Element
Definition
Data
Raw facts, figures, diagram and other details, such as quiz marks and
the cost of computers.
Information
Knowledge
TOPIC 1
The definitions in Table 1.3 explain that data which have been refined,
formatted and summarised are changed into information. Information that has
been interpreted, decided and acted upon is changed into knowledge. With
knowledge, users can make the best decisions and take appropriate actions.
In general, IT is the main player in the information era. This technology is used to
access, store and distribute information, especially information in digital form. IT
refers to the use and deployment of various items in the creation, storage and
distribution of information. Table 1.4 contains some definitions of IT.
Table 1.4: Definitions of Information Technology
Source
Definition
Behan and
Holmes (1990)
Martin et al.
(1994)
Senn (1998)
Renolds (2010)
IT includes all tools that capture, store process, exchange and use
information.
TOPIC 1
1.2.1
TOPIC 1
History of computers can be traced back to many thousands of years ago the use
of abacus in China. This device computes using sliding beads arranged on a rack.
In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator called the Pascaline.
Charles Babbages difference engine, an automatic calculator was built 1812 and
later, Hermann Hollerith in 1890, used punched cards to read and store data.
The history of computers is best explained in terms of generations. The first
generation was about 65 years ago and we are currently in the fifth generation.
Table 1.5 describes five generations of computers.
Table 1.5: Five Generations of Computers
Generation
Years
Description
1st
19511958
2nd
19591964
1959 marks the start of the 2nd generation with the invention
of transistors. Transistor is a three legged component which
occupies 1/100th of the space occupied by 1st generation
computers. It is more reliable and has greater computational
power than the earlier generation.
3rd
19651970
4th
1971
present
5th
Mid
1990s
future
TOPIC 1
In the beginning years of computer technology, computers were used only by the
scientists and engineers. They used computers to do research and development.
Later, computers were used by the business and governmental organisations.
Computers were used to support the running of businesses, large and small.
Now, computers are being used by professionals, students and the homes.
In general, microchips have become more powerful, bigger memory in capacity
and other hardware components too have increased tremendously, without
much increase in their physical sizes. Therefore, computers have become smaller
and cheaper with bigger capacity and more capability.
1.2.2
Computer Classification
In the field of IT, there are various types of computers that you can use,
depending on the job you want to do. There are small computers as well as very
large ones. They are specialised in catering for the types of jobs on the basis of
processing power, speed, cost, security and various other criteria. You will see
many of these terms used in the following topics.
There has never been a rigid definition of the various classes of computers.
Indeed, their functions and capabilities keep on expanding and as such, the
number of classes is even debatable. However, there is a broad spectrum of
computing hardware ranging from supercomputers to microcomputers, with no
sharp line dividing the classes. In general, computers decrease in size and cost as
you go down from the large supercomputers and mainframes to the small
microcomputers. The five classifications are shown in Table 1.6.
10
TOPIC 1
Description
Microcomputer
Mainframe
Minicomputer
Until the late 1960s, all computers were mainframes only. They were
just called computers. Later, computer vendors began to introduce
smaller machines to make them affordable to the smaller companies.
This gave birth to the minicomputers. Today, a minicomputer can be
defined as the smallest computer designed specifically for a multiuser environment. The system must be able to service between two
and 100 remote terminals at one time.
Supercomputer
Workstation
There are other classifications of computers like super-minis, supermicros, mini computers, etc. they are the intermediate stages of an
earlier classification. Some computers are called servers and clients.
The workstation is a network terminal (intelligent but without disc).
It often refers to a terminal with RISC processors, instead of Intel. In
general, a workstation is simply a high-end personal computer.
TOPIC 1
11
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1.
2.
ACTIVITY 1.1
As a learner, which type of computer classified in Table 1.6 is suitable
for you? Explain.
1.3
PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
We can appreciate how IT helps organisations and people. We have heard and
read how IT can increase profitability of companies and businesses. People too
have gained a lot by using the computer to work and for entertainment. On the
other hand, we also know the bad effects of computer viruses such as Nimda,
Love Bug and Chernobyl, which have caused computer system failures at many
organisations and individual users.
12
TOPIC 1
Description
Reliable
Secure
Flexible
People are able to use the IT system anywhere they are and
anytime.
Foster innovation
Responsive
Easy and
transparent
All the tools and facilities should be easy to learn and use.
Consistent
interoperability
Affordable
1.4
Senn (1998) says that IT performs six functions of information works collecting,
processing, generating, storing, retrieving and delivering. In most cases, two or
more functions are done simultaneously. These are mentioned in Table 1.8,
which illustrates the functions, definitions and examples of IT.
TOPIC 1
13
Definition
Example
Collecting
Processing
Generating
Storing
Income
tax
records,
society
membership records, traffic offence
records
Retrieving
Delivering
Taking/sending/presenting to
Definition
Speed
Consistency
Accuracy
Reliability
With their speed, consistency and accuracy, we can trust and rely on
computers in producing the same results again and again.
With four benefits that can be gained from the use of IT as listed in Table 1.9, we
cannot ignore the opportunities offered by it. In general, there are two categories
of opportunities:
(a)
(b)
14
TOPIC 1
IT has been used in various fields with the objective of solving problems and
helping people. Hence, we should know three basic responsibilities of IT users as
follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
1.5
IT is closely linked with most careers today. In general, two categories that are
related to IT and careers are:
(a)
(b)
Both IT professionals and IT users need to communicate with each other for the
increasing use of IT, for creating new ideas and for getting the desired benefits.
TOPIC 1
15
SELF-CHECK 1.2
State six types of careers in the field of information technology.
1.6
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN
MALAYSIA
1.7
One of the national IT development projects that have been hotly debated is the
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia). Multimedia Super
Corridor Malaysia was initially an area covering 15 50 km, spanning Kuala
Lumpur City Centre (KLCC) in the north until the Kuala Lumpur International
Airport (KLIA) in the south. This has converted the oil palm estates into an
information valley. Two intelligent cities have been built inside the Multimedia
Super Corridor Malaysia area, i.e. Cyberjaya and Putrajaya. Cyberjaya houses the
information and multimedia technology industries, while Putrajaya is the new
administrative centre of the federal government. A corporation has been set
up, that is Multimedia Development Corporation (MDeC) to oversee the
development of MSC Malaysia.
16
TOPIC 1
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
TOPIC 1
17
ACTIVITY 1.3
1.
2.
1.8
CYBER LAWS
Among the guarantees provided for Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia status
companies are the enactment and implementation of six Cyber Laws, which have
now been passed by the Parliament. Among the laws are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
18
TOPIC 1
ACTIVITY 1.4
There are six Cyber Laws that have been passed by Parliament. In pairs,
visit this website www.mdec.com.my and please state all six Cyber
Laws, together with their explanations.
There are six differences between information era and previous eras:
emergence of an information-based society, success of business and
management jobs depends on IT, work processes are changed and
transformed to upgrade productivity, IT provides basis for optimisation,
success in IT depends on the effectiveness in using it, and IT is embedded or
integrated into many products and services.
TOPIC 1
19
We may not be the first nation to invent IT, but we can use IT as a platform to
make Malaysia a developed nation.
Communication
Know how
Computers
Multimedia Development
Corporation (MDeC)
Cyber Laws
Flagship applications
Information era
Topic Central
Processing
Unit (CPU)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
INTRODUCTION
A computer system is the combination of hardware and software. Hardware is
the physical manifestation of the computer, while software consists of the
programs that command the hardware.
In this topic, we will discuss the most important component of the computer
hardware is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The Central Processing Unit
or processor is the centre of all activities responsible for changing raw data into
the required information inside the computer. Then, we will move on to the
next most important computer hardware the memory. This is the hardware
component that works closely with the Central Processing Unit. While the
Central Processing Unit performs the complexity of processing, memory lends
itself for storing data, intermediate data and results for the Central Processing
Unit. Besides the data being processed, the program codes are also stored inside
the memory. The processor and memory work hand in hand while the computer
is on. Toward the end of this topic, the System Unit and the System Clock will
also be presented.
TOPIC 2
2.1
21
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor is designed and built in various
forms. It is a collection of complex electrical circuits containing thousands or
millions of transistors, which are placed or installed over an integrated circuit.
The integrated circuit is also called the chip, or microchip, because all the
transistors are designed or placed on a very small silicon chip.
In a personal computer (PC), a processor is a microprocessor chip. In a bigger
system, such as the mainframes and the supercomputers, a few circuit boards are
used. The Central Processing Unit can be present in various forms and is placed
on the motherboard. The function of a Central Processing Unit is to execute the
stored software instructions, turning data into information. These instructions
are executed in machine language, as shown in Figure 2.1.
There are two sections in a CPU: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit. Let us
now learn about these sections.
22
2.1.1
TOPIC 2
Control Unit
The Control Unit of the processor can be compared with the human brain. It
informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions. The three
jobs of the Control Unit are shown in Figure 2.2.
In other words, the Control Unit manages the taking of an instruction, decodes
the instruction to know its aim, instructs the Arithmetic Logic Unit execute the
instruction, and then directs storing of results to the memory (primary storage),
register or cache.
2.1.2
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) executes two types of operations, which are basic
arithmetic operation and logical operation, as shown in Figure 2.3:
TOPIC 2
23
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1.
2.
3.
ACTIVITY 2.1
In every computer, the Central Processing Unit is like the brain of a
computer. Why is CPU compared to brain? Explain. Post your answer
in the forum and compare it with your coursemates.
2.2
MICROPROCESSOR CHIP
24
(b)
TOPIC 2
Microprocessor
Type of Chip
Normal Use
Pentium
Microcomputers
PowerPC
Alpha
Supercomputers, workstations
MIPS
SELF-CHECK 2.2
State two types of microprocessor chips and their uses.
2.3
MEMORY
The memory is separated from the Central Processing Unit but is normally
integrated with it and is accessed by it. Data and instructions need to be present
inside the memory before being accessed by the Central Processing Unit. The
memory simply holds the data and instructions temporarily, as long as the
program being used is operational. In general, the storage space for the memory
can be used in five different forms for:
(a)
Storing the operating system and other system software programs that act
as interfaces between hardware and application programs and controlling
computer resources;
(b)
TOPIC 2
25
(c)
Storing data temporarily, i.e. data received from input devices or secondary
storage to be processed or to be sent to output devices or secondary storage
after processing;
(d)
Storing data required during processing inside an area of storage work; and
(e)
Figure 2.4 illustrates how the memory communicates with the processor.
Figure 2.4: Methods of how the memory communicates with the processor
There are three types of memory chips as shown in Figure 2.5, which
are Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM) and
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS).
26
TOPIC 2
SELF-CHECK 2.3
There are many types of memory inside a computer. What are the main
functions of memory?
2.3.1
The Random Access Memory stores the programs and data being processed by
the Central Processing Unit. It is a temporary storage because as soon as the
electrical switch is turned off, all that has been saved inside the random access
memory will be lost. However, there is a new type of random access memory
that can store programs and data permanently. The Flash Random Access
Memory or Flash Memory Chip can store data even when there is an electrical
failure. This type of memory is more expensive than the normal random access
memory and is mostly used in portable computers. The capability or content of
the random access memory is measured in bytes. Four units of measurement that
are normally used to describe memory capability are as shown in Table 2.2:
TOPIC 2
27
Capacity (bytes)
Kilobyte (KB)
1,024
Megabyte (MB)
1,024,000
Gigabyte (GB)
1,024,000,000
Terabyte (TB)
1,024,000,000,000
Two types of random access memory chips that are normally used are:
(a)
(b)
ACTIVITY 2.2
To know in detail about computer memory, please visit
http://www.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm
2.3.2
The Read Only Memory chip contains a program that is loaded in the factory.
The Read Only Memory chip does not evaporate and cannot be changed by
users. Read Only means that the Central Processing Unit can read or access the
program written inside the Read Only Memory chip. Computers cannot write or
code or change any data or instruction inside the Read Only Memory. There are
four types of normally used Read Only Memory, as shown in Table 2.3:
28
TOPIC 2
Functions
Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only
Memory (EEPROM)
Flash Memory
2.3.3
SELF-CHECK 2.4
What do you know about Flash Memory? State the differences and
similarities between Flash Memory and Read Only Memory or
Random Access Memory.
2.4
DATA REPRESENTATION
Computers consider all data, numbers, alphabets and symbols as numbers. Even
computer instructions are also in numerical form (machine language). The
numbering systems used by computers are the binary numbers, hexadecimal
numbers and octal numbers, as shown in Table 2.4. Computers use binary digits
zero (0) and one (1) normally called bit, to represent data.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2
29
Number of Symbol
Symbols Used
Binary
0, 1
Octal
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal
10
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Hexadecimal
16
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
There are three binary coding schemes the most popular one uses eight bits to
form one byte. These codes are ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode, as explained in
Figure 2.5.
Table 2.5: Coding Schemes
Code
Definition
American Standard
Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
Unicode
30
TOPIC 2
Binary
Octal
Hexadecimal
0001
01
01
0010
01
01
0101
05
05
1000
10
08
10
1010
12
0A
11
1011
13
0B
15
1111
17
0F
16
0001000
20
10
20
00010100
24
14
160
10100000
240
A0
Please refer to Table 2.7 to see how data is represented in ASCII and EBCDIC
codes.
Table 2.7: Binary Coding Schemas for ASCII and EBCDIC
Symbol
ASCII
EBCDIC
Symbol
ASCII
EBCDIC
0100 0001
1100 0001
0010 0001
0101 1010
0100 0010
1100
0010 0010
0111 1111
0100 0011
1100
0010 0011
0111 1011
0100 0100
1100
0010 0100
0101 1011
0100 0101
1100
0010 0101
0110 1100
0100 0110
1100
&
0010 0110
0101 0000
0100 0111
1100
0010 1000
0100 1101
0100 1000
1100
0010 1001
0101 1101
0100 1001
1100 1001
0010 1010
0101 1100
0100 1010
1101
0010 1011
0100 1110
0100 1011
1101
0011 0000
1111 0000
0100 1100
1101
0011 0001
1111 0001
TOPIC 2
0100 1101
1101
0011 0010
1111 0010
0100 1110
1101
0011 0011
1111 0011
0100 1111
1101
0011 0100
1111 0100
0101 0000
1101
0011 0101
1111 0101
0101 0001
1101
0011 0110
1111 0110
0101 0010
1101
0011 0111
1111 0111
0101 0011
1110
0011 1000
1111 1000
0101 0100
1110
0011 1001
1111 1001
0101 0101
1110
0101 0110
1110
0101 1011
1110
0101 1000
1110 0111
0101 1001
1110
0101 1010
1110
31
SELF-CHECK 2.5
We know that people interact by using language. How do computers
interact? Explain.
2.5
SYSTEM UNIT
The System Unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and related
circuits are placed) and other electrical components are located. It is also called
the System Cabinet for the mainframes or the System Board for the
microcomputers. Even though the System Unit also includes hard disks, floppy
disks, CD-ROM and others, we are not going to touch on these devices, as they
are located outside the Central Processing Unit. We are only going to focus on
the following sections.
32
2.5.1
TOPIC 2
Power Supply
The power supply plays the role of changing electrical current from Alternating
Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC). Normally, there is a fan to cool down the
transformer and other components. If the electrical power is not uniform, e.g.
there is high and low voltage or power surge; this may spoil the main board,
hard disks and others. Hence, it would be better to install special equipment like
Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), voltage regulator and so on.
2.5.2
Motherboard
The motherboard (also known as system board, mainboard, logic board and
planar board) is a communication network for the entire computer system. Every
component of the System Unit is connected directly to the motherboard. It
functions as a data bus that enables various components to communicate with
each other. External devices like the keyboard, mouse and monitor cannot
communicate with the System Unit without the motherboard.
The motherboard is a thin circuit board that is filled up with sockets and
electronic components including various types of chips. One chip contains a very
small circuit board embedded in a stamp size piece of silicon. This chip is also
known as the silicon chip, semiconductor or integrated circuit. The chips are
packaged and inserted into the sockets of the motherboard. These electronic
components and chips are fixed to the system board as illustrated in Figure 2.6.
TOPIC 2
2.5.3
33
The Read Only Memory (ROM) chip contains a program that has been developed
or burnt at the factory, i.e. the program that is required for computers to operate,
or to start operating the computer such as hardware checking, Basic
Input/Output System (BIOS) and so on. The BIOS chip is normally used, and is
partly hardware and partly software.
The BIOS provides a service enabling software to communicate with the input
and output devices. The ROM BIOS contains specific instructions. When a
computer is switched on, the BIOS will perform Power-On Self-Test (POST), such
as diagnostic tests for the Central Processing Unit and memory. It will then test
communications with the hardware such as the keyboard, disk drive and others.
Finally, the BIOS will boot up the operating system and submit control to the
operating system.
2.5.4
Many computers are of the open architecture, where we can open up and add-on
new devices, and then expand its capability. Expansion means adding more
memory or devices or software. This is made possible through the expansion slot
and the expansion board.
The expansion slot is a socket on the main board, which enables an expansion
card to be installed. An expansion card, or expansion board, or adapter, or
simply card, is actually a circuit board that gives more memory, or input/output
device control, or software.
34
TOPIC 2
An expansion card is inserted into the slot inside the System Unit. A port on the
card enables cabling to be connected from the added card to the device outside
the System Unit. We will see various functions of the boards or cards, as shown
in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Functions of Boards or Cards
Board or Card
Functions
Network Adapter
Card
Small Computer
System Interface
(SCSI) Card
Most computers have limited expansion slots. The SCSI card uses
only one slot but it can connect up to seven devices to the System
Unit. This card is used to connect devices like the printer, hard
disc drive and CD-ROM to the System Unit.
TV Adjuster Card
The TV board that contains the TV and video adjuster can change
the TV signals to a form that can be displayed on the monitor.
Personal
Computer Card
Memory
Expansion
Display Adapter
Card
Control Card
Accelerator Card
Emulator Card
Graphic Adapter
Sound Card
Voice Card
TOPIC 2
2.5.5
35
Port
The port is a connecting socket located outside the System Unit. The port enables
software devices or input/output devices to be plugged in for connection to the
computer, so that they can communicate with the computer system. A cable can
be used to connect input/output devices to the System Unit through the port, as
shown in Figure 2.7.
There are various types of ports and their functions are as shown in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9: Various Types of Ports
Type of Port
Functions
Parallel Port
Serial Port
Accelerated
Graphic Port
(AGP)
It is used for connecting to the monitor and can support highspeed graphics and other video inputs.
Universal Serial
Bus (USB) Port
Electrical Wire
Port
The latest port that is faster than the USB port, and is used to
connect high-speed printers and video cameras to the System
Unit.
36
2.5.6
TOPIC 2
This is a new bus standard for notebook computers, handheld computers and
portable computers. The Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association card has been used widely for desktop computers. It enables devices
of credit card size like the memory card (up to 100 MB), modem and hard disk
to be plugged in. There are four types of Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association slots, as shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10: Personal Computer Memory Card International Association Slots
Personal Computer
Memory Card
International
Association Slot
Type I
Functions
Type II
Type III
Type IV
SELF-CHECK 2.6
1.
2.
TOPIC 2
2.6
37
SYSTEM CLOCK
The System Clock is a circuit chip, which generates electronic pulses at a fixed
rate to synchronise or control timing activities of processing. The Control Unit is
very dependent on the System Clock for doing its jobs. The System Clock
controls the speed of operation inside the computer. This speed is measured in
megahertz (MHz). One megahertz is equal to one million cycles per second. The
faster the clock speeds, the faster the computers ability to process information.
2.7
BUS LINE
The bus line is also known as data bus or simply bus, which connects the
Central Processing Unit components with each other. It also connects the Central
Processing Unit to various other components on the motherboard. The bus is a
data passage way along which bits move. This data passage way is similar to the
highway. The more lanes it has, the faster the traffic moves. Similarly, the bigger
the bus capacity is, the faster the speed of computer execution. Figure 2.8 shows
the bus line on the Central Processing Unit.
38
TOPIC 2
When a microprocessor chip changes, the bus line also changes. Most of the
devices like the expansion board, will work with one type of bus only. There are
three types of bus lines (see Table 2.11), as follows:
Table 2.11: Three Types of Bus Lines
Types of Bus Line
Description
Industrial Standard
Architecture (ISA)
Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI)
SELF-CHECK 2.7
Explain three types of bus line with their characteristics and uses.
ACTIVITY 2.2
In a group, discuss how data moves inside the computer. Present it in
your tutorial.
TOPIC 2
39
Central Processing Unit is divided into two sections or units, which are
Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit.
The Control Unit of the processor can be compared with the human brain.
It informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions.
Arithmetic Logic Unit executes two types of operations, which are arithmetic
operation and logical operation.
Both Central Processing Unit and memory always need each other. However,
the memory is not part of the Central Processing Unit.
The Random Access Memory stores the programs and data being processed
by the Central Processing Unit.
The Read Only Memory chip contains a program that is loaded in the factory.
The chip does not evaporate and cannot be changed by users.
The System Unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and
related circuits are placed) and other electrical components are located.
The bus line is also known as data bus, or simply bus, which connects the
Central Processing Unit components with each other.
Control Unit
Port
Software
Hardware
Motherboard
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Output
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you have been introduced to the processor and memory,
two most important components of computer hardware. To enable the processor
to process data and the memory to store them, data needs to be brought into the
computer. After processing, the resulted information needs to be taken out of the
computer. These two jobs of taken in and taken out are done by the input/output
unit of the computer system.
In this topic, you will learn about various input and output methods. The
keyboard is the most popular input device used. Besides the keyboard, there are
many other latest input and output devices that are available in the market. They
will also be discussed here.
3.1
Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to be
carried from users to the computer. Input may be required to answer questions
and it needs processing. Output is like a link between computer processing and
people. Output to be produced is determined by the analysis of user needs. Input
and output devices are also referred to as peripherals. We are going to see how
input and output devices work.
TOPIC 3
41
ACTIVITY 3.1
In a group, discuss how we can interact with the computer.
3.2
INPUT METHODS
Various types of source documents require various input methods and devices
(refer to Figure 3.1). Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by the
machine (computer) and transferred as input, directly into the computer. Indirect
data entry requires various media and processing of the data source before the
actual computer processing. In general, there are three approaches to data entry,
as shown in Table 3.1.
42
TOPIC 3
Description
Input devices take data and programs that can be read or understood by humans,
and convert them into a form that can be processed by the computer. This new
form consists of electronic signals of 0 and 1, which can be read by machines
as explained in the section on data representation.
There are two types of input devices:
(a)
Entry via Keyboard Data is transferred as input into the computer via a
keyboard that resembles the keyboard of a typewriter, but contains a few
additional keys. For this type of entry, users read the original document,
called source document. The contents of this document will be entered via
keyboard; and
(b)
An example of an input device that uses both types of entries (entry via keyboard
and direct entry) is the point-of-sale (POS) terminal. It is a kind of electronic cash
register that is used widely in business.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1.
2.
TOPIC 3
3.2.1
43
Keyboard
Devices that are often used are keyboard for data entry and terminal for
displaying what has been entered. There are various forms, styles, sizes,
arrangements, touch or feel and the number of keys.
(a)
Number of Keys Normally there are 101 keys, but it also depends on
types of computers, especially types of microcomputers, whether desktop
or handheld. Handheld computers provide fewer numbers of keys because
of their small size.
(b)
Group/Type of Keys There are three types of keys, as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Three Types of Keys on Keyboard
Keys
Description
Alphanumeric
Cursor
Movement
Numeric
Also called numeric keypad; these are separate keys for numbers
(09), which have been arranged like a calculator. Sometimes, there
are two objectives, depending on the Num Lock key, i.e. cursor or
numeric movements.
(c)
Functions Keys that are labelled as F and normally F1F12 have their
functions defined by the software.
(d)
Special Objectives Normally called additional keys, these are keys which
have specific tasks like Backspace, Delete, Insert, Escape, Home, Pause,
Print Screen, and others.
(e)
(f)
Touch/Feel Now, the softness of pressing the keys and the sound emitted
can be controlled by software.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
44
(g)
TOPIC 3
Styles (and Size or Shape) These are designed according to its inventor, to
be user-friendly and more ergonomic. Ergonomics is a study of how to
make something user-friendly, less danger-prone or less uncomfortable to
users.
(h)
TOPIC 3
45
The keyboard contains control and buffer keys. Whatever is typed, will be stored
inside a buffer (which can store more than one symbol) and later, will be scanned
by the computer processor after receiving interrupt signals from the control key.
3.2.2
Terminal
The terminal is an input (and output) device that connects you to a mainframe or
other types of computers, called a host computer or server. There are three types
of terminal, as shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Types of Terminals
Terminal
Description
Dumb Terminals
Used for input and to receive data, but cannot process data by
themselves. They are used only to access information from the
computer and are often found at airline companies, post offices and
road transport department (RTD) offices.
Intelligent
Terminals
Terminals
46
3.2.3
TOPIC 3
Pointing Device
Pointing is a natural human activity. There are five devices that utilise this
method, as shown in Figure 3.4.
(a)
TOPIC 3
47
Description
Ball Mouse
Optical Mouse
It uses light and requires a mouse pad that can reflect the light. This
mouse contains a section called photo-detector. It functions like the
ball mouse and normally used on a high-powered computer like a
server.
Touch Sensitive
Mouse
This has a pad that is sensitive to finger touch, for moving the
icon/cursor.
Wireless Mouse
(b)
(c)
Light Pen It is a pen or a device like a pen, which is light sensitive and
connected via a cable to a computer. The location (or choice) is identified by
pressing its button against a specific position on the screen. It is normally
used for drawing images and selection of menu.
48
TOPIC 3
(d)
(e)
Pen-Based System This uses a pen to enter handwritings or marks into the
computer containing software to identify and digitise handwritings and
also hand drawings. There are four types of pen-based systems like those
explained in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Four Types of Pen-Based Systems
Pen-Based Systems
Description
Handwriting Saved as a
Sketch/Brief
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1.
2.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Normally, data is entered into the computer via keyboard. Do you
know of other methods that are used to enter data? List and explain
now the methods work.
TOPIC 3
3.2.4
49
Scanning Device
Scanning devices translate images, texts, drawings, pictures and similar items
into a digital form for direct entry to the computer. Images that have been
processed can be displayed on the screen, saved on the storage device and sent to
other computers. There are two technologies optical recognition and magnetic
recognition, as illustrated in Figure 3.7.
(a)
50
TOPIC 3
(i)
(ii)
Fax Machine Fax machine (see Figure 3.9) is used for scanning
images and sending them electronically via telephone line to a
destination (fax machine). There are two types:
TOPIC 3
51
(iii) Barcode Reader It is used for reading input in bar form - marks that
resemble vertically shaped zebra stripes.
(iv) Optical Character Reader (OCR) Optical character reader is used for
reading specific pre-printed characters (in specific font), for example
the OCR-A font (the one perfected by ANSI).
(v)
(c)
52
(d)
TOPIC 3
Smart and Optical Card The smart card refers to the multi-purpose card,
or MyKad, distributed by the National Registration Department (JPN), as
well as credit and debit cards distributed by various commercial banks like
Maybank and CIMB bank. The use of the optical card is still restricted
despite its ability to store information of up to 2,000 pages as compared to
smart cards (able to store information up to 30 pages, depending on the
capability of the microprocessor) and magnetic cards (able to store
information of up to half a page).
3.2.5
There are other input devices that can receive input in the form of audio, video,
electronic pictures, senses and human biology. Most of these tools enable the use
of multimedia and there are some used for security objectives, such as the
concept of biometry. We can see various other input devices in Figure 3.10.
TOPIC 3
(a)
(b)
53
(ii)
Frame Capture Can digitise one frame at one time only; and
(ii)
The main problem here is storage, not the input. Nowadays, digital video
cameras are available in the market, where the output is in digital form.
Digital video recorders will facilitate multimedia presentation or a form of
new broadcasting on the Internet, i.e. web television.
(c)
54
(d)
TOPIC 3
Sensor These are input devices that collect data in specific forms directly
from the environment and send them to the computer. Sensors can be used
to track data such as speed, weight, temperature, image, shape, light, air
pollution, etc. Have you ever weighed yourself using an audio enabled
weighing scale at a supermarket? That is one example of a sensing device
used to measure your weight and also your height.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1.
What is the most common type of input device? Why are there
various types of input devices?
2.
3.3
INPUT CONTROL
There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent
them from becoming garbage in garbage out (GIGO). Input control is a
collection of manual and computer control methods that have been designed to
ensure all input data are actually precise when entered into the computer.
ACTIVITY 3.3
How do we know the data we have entered into the computer is
correct?
TOPIC 3
3.4
55
OUTPUT METHODS
Output can take various forms, such as screen output, printed paper, cathode
ray, signals, voice, microfilm, etc. In general, there are two types of output (see
Figure 3.12).
Besides soft copies and hard copies, decisions on output largely depend on a
number of factors, such as:
(a)
(b)
Cost involved;
(c)
(d)
(e)
ACTIVITY 3.4
How do we view the processing results that we have done inside a
computer? Try to figure out how the results are displayed and discuss
it with your coursemates.
56
3.5
TOPIC 3
OUTPUT DEVICES
Data entered needs to be processed by the computer so that they are in a machine
readable form until the output device converts them into a form that can be read
by humans. Output devices used together with microcomputers are the monitor,
printer, plotter and voice output device. We can see examples of output devices
in Figure 3.13.
TOPIC 3
3.5.1
57
Printer
The image displayed on the monitor is often referred to as soft copy. Information
that is produced on paper, whether from printer or plotter is called a hard copy
(see Figure 3.14).
Three popular types of printers always used together with microcomputers are
as follows:
(a)
Ink Jet Printer Sends out droplets of ink at high speed onto the surface of
paper. This process does not only produce images of high quality letters,
but also allows printing to happen in various colours. An ink jet printer is a
printer that is reliable, quiet and cheap.
(b)
Laser Printer Utilises the emission of a laser beam onto the drum, and is
transferred onto paper by using the toner (as in the photocopy machine).
There is a laser printer that is classified as a PostScript printer. PostScript is
a printer language, often called Page Description Language (PDL), which
has been accepted as a standard for laser printer.
(c)
58
TOPIC 3
The measure of printer speed depends on the type of printer or the method of
printing, i.e. whether on the basis of characters, lines or pages. The speed is
characters per second, lines per minute or pages per minute. Most printer models
are desktop printers which are difficult move around (depending on size). The
use of laptop computers leads to portable printers.
Among the criteria in choosing printers are image quality, speed, level of noise
and cost of operation, such as ink cost, spare parts, etc.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1.
2.
3.5.2
Monitor
Monitors are used for output as well as for input. There are two types of
monitors cathode ray tube (see Figure 3.15) and flat panel display (see
Figure 3.16).
(a)
TOPIC 3
(b)
59
Flat Panel Display It is lighter, thinner and uses less power compared to
cathode ray tube. This panel is made of two pieces of glass/plastic that
have activated materials among them.
Definition
Extended Graphics
Array (XGA)
Super Extended
Graphics Array (SXGA)
Ultra Extended
Graphics Array
(UXGA)
60
3.5.3
TOPIC 3
Plotter
Plotters are used specifically for producing bar charts, maps, architectural
drawings and three-dimensional illustrations. A plotter can produce multicoloured documents of high quality and also documents bigger than that
produced by other printers. There are four types of plotters as follows:
(a)
Pen Plotter It moves pens or pencils on the paper draft. This plotter is
very cheap and easy to maintain, but it is slow and less capable of
producing voluminous images and shaded images.
(b)
(c)
Ink Jet Plotter It produces art lines and multi-coloured output by emitting
droplets of ink onto the paper surface. Its best characteristics are speed,
high quality output and operating quietly. Its main weakness is the
possibility of its jet getting blocked, and this requires more maintenance.
(d)
SELF-CHECK 3.5
1.
2.
ACTIVITY 3.5
In your opinion, what is the difference between a printer and a plotter?
TOPIC 3
3.5.4
61
There are two types of technology, i.e. voice output (refer to Figure 3.17)
technology (speech coding and synthesising) and sound output (refer to
Figure 3.18) technology (frequency modulation [FM] synthesising and virtual
acoustic).
62
TOPIC 3
Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to
be carried from users to computer.
Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by a machine (computer)
and transferred as input directly into the computer.
Indirect data entry requires various media and processing of the data source
before the actual computer processing.
There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent
them from becoming garbage in garbage out.
Output can take various forms, such as screen output, printed paper, signals,
voice, microfilm, etc.
Output devices used together with microcomputers are the monitor, printer,
plotter and voice output device.
Acoustic
Output devices
Data entry
Plotter
Point-of-sale (POS)
Hard copy
Pointing device
Input devices
Printer
Keyboard
Scanning device
Magnetic recognition
Soft copy
Monitor
Terminal
Optical recognition
Topic Secondary
Storage
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
INTRODUCTION
After discussing about input and output in the previous topic, we shall now
move on to another computer component devices secondary storage. You will be
introduced to various types of secondary storage in the market together with
their comparisons.
4.1
BASIC STORAGE
Storage in a computer holds data and information to be retrieved for future use.
Users normally stores digital photos, video, audio and documents. As a student,
the capability of a computer is to store your learning materials, such as digital
notes and assignment works is very crucial. Besides the use by users, the
computer itself does need storage to store system and application software.
While primary storage holds data temporarily, secondary storage does otherwise.
Secondary storage is the physical material on which a computer stores data,
instructions and information. A storage device has been designed to store data
and instructions in a permanent form and to retrieve them back. This storage
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
64
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
does not disappear because data is stored in magnetic, optical or optical magnetic
form as illustrated in Figure 4.1. It is also a method of storing data, information
and instructions outside the computer.
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
65
Capacity of a storage medium refers to the number of bytes (characters) that can
be hold. Figure 4.2 shows the capacity of a storage medium.
The speed of storage devices is defined by access time. Access time measures the
amount of time it takes to locate the required data on a storage medium.
The five advantages of secondary storage are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Five Advantages of Secondary Storage
Characteristics
Size
Advantages
Can accommodate large amounts of data.
Data stored can reach gigabyte (GB) or terabyte
(TB).
Reliability
Comfort
Economic
Lifetime
ACTIVITY 4.1
Why do we need storage inside a computer? Explain.
66
4.2
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
4.2.1
Magnetic Tape
A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data are stored
inside the tape roll. To be specific, a magnetic tape is a thin plastic tape that has
been covered with materials, which can be magnetised. Data on the tape is
represented by magnetic particles that are digital data in discrete forms of 0
and 1. A tape contains a number of tracks or channels which are normally used
to store data. Normally, there are seven or nine tracks. Data on the tape will be
deleted before new data is written on it. The number of tracks on the tape
depends on the number of read/write heads that are present on the tape drive
unit.
As the tape is in roll form, data will be stored serially. Every tape column (seven
or nine tracks) will represent one character. For data that is stored serially, the
storage method used is serpentine where data is stored one by one along one or
two tracks at one time. Data will be written from the beginning to the end of the
track concerned, and this will continue onto the part that has not yet been used as
shown in Figure 4.3.
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
67
Besides that, there is also data that is stored in parallel. For the parallel type, data
will be written block by block or record by record. Every block of data will be
separated by a space, which is called inter-block gap. For record by record, the
space is called inter-record gap. The space is required because the tape cannot
stop immediately after it has been rolled. Normally, the use of tape is only
35%70%, depending on the blocking factor.
A magnetic tape drive is measured by how much data can be stored on the
magnetic tape and also the speed of the tape passing through the read/write
head. The combination of these two determines the rate of transfer or the number
of characters per second that can be sent to the primary storage. Tape density is
measured by character per inch or bit per inch. Data density varies from 800 bpi
to 7000 bpi. The tape length is normally 600 m, 366 m or 731 m.
Therefore, a tape of 366 m with 6,250 bpi can store up to 180 MB of data. The size
of data that can be stored is normally between 40 MB to five GB. The drive that
can upgrade its maximum loading is digital audio tape (DAT). A digital audio
tape drive consists of two read heads and two write heads which read/write one
type of magnetic pole only. Data on the tape will be accessed and written serially.
There are two types of magnetic tape magnetic tape unit for large computers
and tape cartridge unit for personal computers. Currently, most tapes are used
for safe storage and copy storage because they are portable and cheap. Storage
size of a normal magnetic tape is between 20 GB40 GB.
The disadvantage of a magnetic tape is the slow rate of serial data access. Its
advantages are it is cheap, portable and long lasting.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1.
2.
68
4.2.2
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
Hard Disk
A hard disk is a storage device that contains one or more inflexible, circular, thick
and strong metallic platters that use magnetic particles to store data, instructions
and information. The disk is enclosed in an airtight, sealed case to protect it. A
hard disk that is mounted inside the system unit of a computer is called an
internal hard disk (refer Figure 4.4). It is not as portable as the external hard disc.
The hard disk can store and access data faster and has a higher capacity. The
hard disk is a very sensitive device. Its read/write head floats on the disc surface
at a distance of 0.000001 inches. This very close distance allows dusts, atoms of
smoke, human hair and fingerprints to cause destruction to the read-write head.
This damage can cause some or all the data on the hard disc to be destroyed as
well.
An external hard disk is a separate hard disk that connects with a cable to a USB
port on the system unit or communicates wirelessly. Meanwhile, a removable
hard disk is a hard disk that you insert and remove from a drive. Compared to
internal hard disk, external and removable hard disks (Figure 4.5) are better in
terms of:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
69
ACTIVITY 4.2
How does it look like in a hard disk drive? Visit the following link to
discover the components of a hard disk drive:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdmLvl1n82U
Can you briefly explain the components?
4.2.3
Optical Storage
An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of
data. This device uses the principle of light, rather than the magnetic principle of
storing data. The emission of a laser beam determines the data to be written or
read.
During the writing of data onto the surface of an optical device, a high powered
laser beam is used to form microscopic holes (pits) on the disc. Each pit
represents data 0 while part of the disc without a pit represents data 1.
During the reading of the optical disc, a low powered laser beam is directed on
the disc surface. A reflection of the laser beam depends on the holes on the
surface. If there are holes, the reflection of the beam disperses and cannot be
detected by the light detector. This portrays the 0 state. If there is no hole or if
the surface is flat (land), a reflection of the beam focuses and can be detected by
the light detector. This portrays the 1 state.
70
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
There are four optical disc technologies used by computers, as shown at Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Four Types of Optical Storage
Optical Storage
Description
Compact Disc-Recordable
(CD-R)
Compact Disc-Rewriteable
(CD-RW)
TOPIC 4
4.2.4
SECONDARY STORAGE
71
Flash Memory Storage is a type of solid state media which consists entirely of
electronic components, such as integrated circuits; contain no moving parts.
Flash Memory Storage is more durable and shock resistant compared to other
types of media such as magnetic hard disks or optical disks, due to lack of
moving parts.
The examples of Flash Memory Storage are solid state drives, memory cards and
USB flash drive.
(a)
Solid state drives are a storage device that uses flash memory to store data,
instructions and information. It is used in all types of computers and
portable devices.
Solid state drives are better than magnetic hard disk in terms of:
(i)
(ii)
Memory cards allow users to easily transport the digital content of their
camera, audio or video player, and other devices to a computer or vice
versa. A memory card is a removable flash memory device that you
normally insert and remove from a slot in a computer, mobile device or
card reader/writer.
(c)
USB flash drives are a flash memory storage device that plugs into a USB
port on a computer or mobile device. It is one of the popular portable
storage nowadays, due to its size and weight. It is small and light, with a
storage capacities ranging from 512 Mb to 64 GB.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
72
4.2.5
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is an Internet service that provides hard disk storage to computer
users. The types of services offered by cloud storage providers vary.
Unlike other types of storage, cloud storage is preferred to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Some of the widely used cloud storage providers are as in Figure 4.8.
4.2.6
Besides the types of storages we have previously discussed, there are other
options available for storing data, instruction and information for a specific use.
These include magnetic stripe cards and smart cards, microfilm and microfiche.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4
(a)
SECONDARY STORAGE
73
.
Figure 4.9: Magnetic stripe card and smart card
(b)
A smart card, which is similar in size to an ATM or a credit card, stores data
on a thin microprocessor embedded in the card. Smart card contains a
processor and has input, process, output and storage capabilities. When a
smart card is inserted into a specialized card reader, the information on the
card is read, and if necessary, updated. An example of a smart card is
MyKad.
(c)
74
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
ACTIVITY 4.3
What is the history of computer storage? Visit the following link:
http://www.zetta.net/history-of-computer-storage
Note down the main points. Compare your notes with your
coursemates.
4.3
Data is stored in secondary storage on the basis of hierarchies. We can also see
how much capacity various storage types have, as illustrated in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Comparison of Storage Types
Types of
Storage
Cost/Storage
Size
Cost Per MB
Lifespan
Size
Diskette
RM 1/1.44 MB
RM 0.69/MB
35 years
1.44 MB
Hard Disc
RM 400/8 GB
RM0.05/MB
35 years
320500 GB
CD-R
RM 5/650 MB
RM0.0076/MB
100 years
650 MB
CD-RW
RM 30/650 MB
RM 0.046/MB
100 years
650 MB
Magnetic Tape
510 years
10 GB30 GB
DVD
100 years
17 GB
RAM
RM 200/64MB
RM 3.13/MB
Volatile
64 MB1 GB
Zip
RM 60/250 MB
RM 0.24/MB
510 years
250750 MB
(b)
(c)
TOPIC 4
(ii)
(d)
SECONDARY STORAGE
75
Identity Card (IC) Number: It is fixed at eight characters (old IC) and
10 digits/characters (new IC), such as 740820-03-1233.
(ii)
Information
Technology
and
Multimedia
4.4
UPGRADE PERFORMANCE
Three ways to upgrade the performances of hard discs are racking the
disc, Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID) and compressing/
de-compressing the files.
(a)
(b)
76
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
Figure 4.11: RAID can make disk volumes more reliable and faster
(c)
Compressing/Decompressing Files
This is required to remove excessive spaces from the computer files that
have reduced total available storage space. This situation is important
because:
(i)
(ii)
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
77
The two main techniques of data compression are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Two Main Techniques of Data Compression
Technique
Lossless
Technique
Details
Where data compression is done by preserving all input data. In
other words, all input data will be used in the compression process.
This enables data that have been decompressed to be the same as the
input data.
This technique only re-packages the data for storage or transmission
purpose. Examples of software products that used this technique are
Winzip, Stacker, Superstor and DriveSpace. Graphic image in
graphic interchange format (.gif) is in the form of lossless
compression.
Lossy Technique
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1.
2.
3.
78
TOPIC 4
SECONDARY STORAGE
Secondary storage is a storage device that has been designed to store data
and instructions in a permanent form.
The secondary storage has five advantages which are size, reliability,
comfort, economic and lifetime.
There are two types of magnetic storage: magnetic tape and hard disk.
A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data are stored
inside the tape roll.
The hard disc uses a thick and strong metallic plate. The hard disc can store
and access data faster and has a higher capacity.
An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of
data. This device uses the principle of light rather than the magnetic principle
of storing data.
There are four types of optical storage, which are CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW
and DVD.
Three ways to upgrade the performances of hard discs are racking the disc,
Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks and compressing/decompressing
the files.
Bit
Lossless
Compressing/decompressing
Lossy
Magnetic storage
Record
File
Secondary storage
Hard disk
Optical storage
Topic Computer
Software
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
INTRODUCTION
In the earlier topic, you have been told that a computer system is made up of
hardware and software. Hardware is the physical manifestation of the computer,
while software consists of the programs that command the hardware. Computer
software can be divided into system software and application software. Both
softwares can be divided further into a few categories, as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Each of these categories will be explained in greater detail, later in this topic.
80
5.1
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE
For most people, when they think about computers, they normally think about
the hardware, such as keyboard, monitor, processor and others. They do not
realise the presence and importance of software. Computer software is actually a
set of planned instructions and step by step action that is required to convert data
into information and making the computer useful.
In general, software can be categorised into system software and application
software. The system software is also rarely talked about but discussions on it
normally revolve around a subset of system software, known as operating
system (OS). The operating system is the basic software found in all computers.
The system software is actually divided into operating system, utility programs,
device drivers and language translators. The operating system contains various
functions and features like multitasking, multi-user, multiprocessor, etc. There
are many operating systems in the market and each has its own strengths and
weaknesses. Windows is a personal computer (PC) operating system that is the
most popular and has been built by Microsoft Corporation. UNIX is mostly used
in the server system. Linux contains various features of UNIX and is becoming
more popular because it is a free and reliable operating system.
Computer software is developed by using a programming language. There are
many types of programming languages, such as the imperative language, objectoriented language, logic-based language and function-based language. Each
language has its own strength in solving certain problems. There are several
generations of programming languages, beginning with the machine language
up to the natural language. Various popular programming languages are C, C++,
Java and others, that will be discussed here together with examples.
Application software is used by many people to solve specific problems like
providing documents, generating reports, making presentations, performing
calculations and others. Computers require instructions from humans to perform
certain tasks. Currently, there is various types of application software in the
market. The most often used are word processing, spreadsheet, databases and
graphic software. Figure 5.2 illustrates the relationship between the computer
hardware, operating system and application software.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
81
82
5.2
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Software consists of instructions that run inside the computer. System software
is used to start the computer and it is located on the back of the application
software. It also coordinates the hardware components and application software.
System software enables users to interact directly with the computer.
System software operates through the complexities of the computer hardware.
Among the main roles of a system software is to inform the computer how to
translate data and instructions, how to operate computer devices such as printers
and disc drives, and how to use computer hardware. System software is divided
into four categories, as shown in Figure 5.3.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
83
Table 5.1 explains the roles of the system software categories shown in Figure 5.3
Table 5.1: Four System Software Categories and Roles
System Software
Roles
Operating System
Utility Programs
Device Driver
Language Translators
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the main uses of a system software? Explain.
84
5.3
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
OPERATING SYSTEM
Every computer system, whether large or small, has an operating system and
every operating system has three basic functions, as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
85
The operating system also enables a computer to perform more than one task
simultaneously. It enables the computer to identify processor (central processing
unit), main memory (random access memory), keyboard, video displays, disc
drive and others. The operating system also provides facilities for users to
communicate with the computer and acts as enabler for running the application
software.
The operating system normally contains a number of basic programs. An
important program inside the operating system is called supervisor. This
program is also known as monitor, executive, kernel or command processor. For
example, the supervisor program in Windows 98 is win.32.dll and in Linux is
vmlinux.
The operating system is normally stored in the hard disc. When a computer is
switched on, it will first perform the Power On Self-Test (POST). Then, the Basic
Input-Output System (BIOS) inside the Read Only Memory (ROM) will search
for the operating system to boot-up the system. The BIOS will search for the
operating system on the Master Boot Record (MBR) sector in the floppy disc. If
there is no operating system on the floppy disc, the basic input-output system
will search for it on the master boot record sector of the hard disc.
The master boot record sector contains information on the operating system of
the computer. After reading data from master boot record and meeting the
supervisor program, the basic input-output system will load the supervisor
program into the main memory (random access memory). Then, the basic inputoutput system will pass on the computer management job to the supervisor
program. Now, the computer is under the control of the operating system and
can accept commands from users.
Part of the operating system will remain in the main memory for as long as the
computer is on. This portion will always be in the memory and is said to be
resident (permanent) and is made up of the supervisor program. The supervisor
program will control the overall operating system and will load into the main
memory of other operating system program from the hard disc when required.
The operating system program that is located in the hard disc is non-resident.
The operating system forms the core that enables the computer to function. It
works behind the scene and becomes the middleman for requests from users and
programs. It manages and drives computer hardware, and reads and writes data
from and onto the disc drive. When a user works on an application program, the
supervisor program will load the software into the main memory, before the
program is executed.
86
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
When a user uses the computer, the main memory has the supervisor program,
the application software to be run and the data or information being processed.
Thus, a larger random access memory size in a certain computer will enable it to
function faster and in a comfortable manner. If a computer does not contain
enough random access memory to run the software, then, the computer will run
slowly or it may hang.
5.4
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
87
88
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
(b)
Manage Hardware
It includes input components (mouse, keyboard, scanner), output
components (printer, screen, audio, video), secondary storage (hard disc)
and main memory. The operating system coordinates and performs
according to the program, requiring the hardware needed.
(c)
(d)
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
89
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Examine all system activities and give warnings to users on all matters.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1.
2.
3.
5.5
Every operating system has its own features. Even the ability of every system is
different. Among the main features of an operating system are multitasking,
multi-user, multi-processing, batch processing and virtual memory as shown in
Figure 5.7.
90
5.5.1
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Multitasking
If an operating system allows only one task to be performed at one time, such a
system is called single tasking. Multitasking enables a user to perform a new task
without having to exit from the task currently being performed and can even use
the result of the second task inside the first task. For example, a user can produce
a chart inside a spreadsheet software, while using a word processing software
and later, insert the chart into the document being typed. Multitasking is divided
into two types, as shown in Figure 5.8.
Users normally do not see the tangible differences between these two types
of multi-tasking. Tangible differences may be seen in real-time applications.
Preemptive multitasking is more robust and stable than cooperative
multitasking.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5
5.5.2
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
91
Multi-User
If an operating system is capable of accepting more than one user to access the
computer at one time, it is called a multi-user system.
Sometimes, multitasking is also referred to as time-sharing. Normally, a multiuser operating system allows multitasking as well. Every user gets an equal slice
of time. Examples of operating systems that have the multi-user capability are
UNIX, Windows 8 and Linux.
5.5.3
Multi-Processing
The use of more than one processor is suitable for scientific computers because
computers of this type perform a lot of calculations and processing. As such,
scientific computers require operating systems that can manage more than one
processor. Examples of multi-processor type of operating system are UNIX
(Solaris), Linux, BeOS and Windows 8. Table 5.2 illustrates four operating
systems and their maximum processors.
Table 5.2: Four Operating Systems and Maximum Processors
Operating System
BeOS
Solaris
64
Linux
16
IRIX
128
92
5.5.4
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Batch Processing
During the early computer era, data processing was done using the batch mode.
This means that data and programs are prepared on batch mode for processing.
Users cannot enter data during the running of program. Data and programs are
collected and prepared first, then later, entered one by one for processing by the
computer. Batch processing is still being used now in the mainframe system
environment. Nowadays, the interactive processing type of operating system is
very popular, where users can enter data while programs being executed.
5.5.5
Virtual Memory
Usually the operating system will load the application software into the main
memory (Random Access Memory) to run the application software. If the RAM
size is small or if the software size is large, the software may not fit in and cannot
be run. To overcome this problem, the operating system uses the concept of
virtual memory. With this method, the operating system will use the secondary
storage (hard disc) as part of the main memory.
In this method, operating system loads a portion of application software into
main memory and another portion into virtual memory. When this happens, the
running of computers will slow down because access to secondary storage is
slower than the main memory.
For example, users often find computers running slowly when two or three
softwares run simultaneously. This is because the operating system needs to
transfer data from the main memory (random access memory) to the secondary
storage (hard disc) and vice versa. This process of data transfer is slow and often
involves some noise signifying that the computer is accessing the hard disc.
The process of transferring data from virtual memory to the main memory
and from the main memory to the virtual memory is called swap.
Swap space (page) on the hard disc is the storage size that is used as virtual
memory, as illustrated in Figure 5.9.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
93
5.6
Description
Personal operating
system
Embedded operating
system
94
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
We will now take a look into more details of each category of operating system in
the following sections.
5.6.1
There are various kinds of personal and server operating system which are
available today. The most widely used are described in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Personal and Server Operating Systems
Operating System
Description
Disk Operating
System (DOS)
Windows
TOPIC 5
Windows (contd)
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
95
Mac OS
UNIX
96
TOPIC 5
Linux
5.6.2
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
What makes mobile and embedded operating system different from the
operating system used for personal and server is that this type of operating
system specifically and specially designed for particular mobile devices
depending on its specific usage. This is because the operating system for mobile
or embedded systems need to consider several aspects such as capabilities of the
mobile device in accepting touch input or whether its display can rotate
automatically as the device is moved from portrait to landscape orientation, the
interface used, and the applications that can run on that device.
Table 5.5 describe nine popular operating systems used for mobile and
embedded computer systems.
Table 5.5: Nine Mobile and Embedded Operating Systems
Operating System
Description
Windows Embedded
Windows Mobile
Windows Phone
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
97
Android
iOS
Blackberry Operating
System
Palm Operating
System and Palm
Web Operating
System
Symbian
Embedded Linux
5.7
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
98
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Explanation
Packaged
software or
commercial
software
Custom
software
Software that performs specific functions for any business or industry. This
software is required when there is no packaged software that can meet
such specific requirements. As a result, the company needs to find or hire
developers to develop the tailor-made software to fulfil the business needs.
Some examples are e-procurement system and e-recruitment system.
Shareware
Freeware
Public
domain
software
Free software and can be used, copied, modified and distributed to others
without any restrictions. The public owns the ownership; therefore, the
software is not copyrighted. Pine and Lynx are the examples of public
domain software.
Web
application
Software hosted on a server allowing users to access and interacts from any
computer via the Internet connection.
Open
source
software
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
99
(a)
(b)
(c)
100
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
SELF-CHECK 5.3
What is the difference between basic application software and
advanced application software? Explain.
5.8
Those who are involved in business make use of the word processor to prepare
information in the form of documents like memos, reports, letters, minutes of
meetings and whatever is required to be typed. Users in a house environment
type assignments, letters, journals, a log of cinema titles and many others.
A word processing software enables you to create, edit, format, store and
print texts and graphics in one document.
Since you can save memos or documents that you have typed into the disc, you
can access them at other times to modify them, reprint or do whatever you want
with them. Parts of existing documents that do not change do not need to be
re-typed; the entire document that has been checked can be reprinted as new. An
assignment often done by computer users is to prepare information in the form
of documents. Word processing software is the software mostly used by users.
Five important activities of word processing are as illustrated in Figure 5.11.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
101
102
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
With the addition of more features into word processing packages, word
processing has crossed the boundary into desktop publishing. Desktop
publishing packages are normally better than word processing packages in
fulfilling the needs of high level publishing, specifically on the choice of
characters and reproduction of colours. Many magazines and newspapers today
depend on desktop publishing software. Businesses use them to produce
newspapers that look professional, reports and leaflets that can improve
communications, and to give better pictures to the outside world.
When a document is being edited by a user, the word processing software will
load a copy of the document from secondary storage (hard disc) into main
memory (random access memory). All editing activities will be done on this copy
inside the main memory. This is because data access from the main memory is
faster than data access from the secondary memory. When the user completes
editing, he/she can save the document again into the secondary storage to
replace the older copy.
Documents produced by commercial word processing software like WordPerfect
and Microsoft Word are in a certain format and not in the form of texts or
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). For example,
Microsoft Word uses its own format to store documents. Therefore, Microsoft
Word document is not portable because the document cannot be used on
platforms other than Windows.
Portable document format (PDF) is a document format that is portable.
This can cause problems in a mixed environment where operating systems like
UNIX, OS/2, BeOS, Windows and Linux exist in one place. A number of
methods can be used to produce a form of document that is portable. Among the
methods are producing document in PDF, postscript (ps) format or in markup
languages like Standardised Markup Language (SGML), Extensible Markup
Language (XML) or TeX.
Users can use this format to produce portable documents between different
operating systems. All forms of documents like those from spreadsheet, power
point presentation, word processing and graphics can be converted into PDF
format by using Adobe Distiller software. The PDF documents produced have
the hypertext capability, can be printed, displayed on the computer but cannot be
edited. The PDF format was introduced by Adobe (a company). Most articles
freely available on the Internet are in postscript or PDF format.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
103
Users can also produce portable documents in a markup language like Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML), Standardised Markup Language and Extensible
Markup Language. The main objective of producing documents in a markup
language is to separate information from the document format. This concept is
the same as the concept of separating a program from data in databases. This
way, the document format can be modified easily without involving the
information that is present in the document.
Standardised Markup Language is an international standard for producing
electronic documents that are platform-free and hardware-free. This means that
documents in Standardised Markup Language can be used in UNIX, Windows,
Linux and other platforms without being changed. Documents in Standardised
Markup Language form can also be changed into various types of format like
PDF, CD-ROM, postscript, databases, information system, hypertext or whatever
format that is required. It was initially introduced in the 1960s. Hypertext
Markup Language is a subset of Standardised Markup Language for use over the
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
104
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
SELF-CHECK 5.4
1.
2.
5.9
SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE
Spreadsheet which consists of rows and columns has been used as a business tool
for a few centuries. Spreadsheets produced manually are difficult to prepare and
when there is a change, a lot of calculations need to be redone. A spreadsheet
software can perform the calculations again automatically whenever a number
changes. For example, a function of a spreadsheet is to calculate distance based
on speed and time changes in speed will cause another round of automatic
calculation which will alter the distance. This ability enables businesspersons to
try out a set of different numbers and obtain the results quickly. The ability to ask
What if? and later, see the results on the computer before committing to buy
resources enables businesspersons to make decisions faster and better. In short,
spreadsheet software is a software for undertaking analysis, calculation, planning
and mathematical modelling on the computer.
What about spreadsheet software for users at home? The ability to enter a set of
numbers in meaningful ways, such as a set of deposit and interest rates for
buying a house and offer financial ideas to users who cannot do it themselves
(manually). Home users can use spreadsheet to perform various tasks from
budget preparation to considering whether to accept a new job or not.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
105
(b)
(c)
(b)
(c)
Data entry stage Involves required type of commands for input, edit and
store values, label, formula and functions in the required presentation.
(d)
Testing and using stage Stage that tests whether spreadsheet produces the
results accurately when data is entered.
106
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Other features that are available in electronic spreadsheet are macro (short
program which can be used to repeat specific steps), mathematical functions, plot
3D, active function and integration with other applications. Figure 5.13 illustrate
Excel electronic spreadsheet.
SELF-CHECK 5.5
State the uses of electronic spreadsheet in business.
TOPIC 5
5.10
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
107
DATABASE SOFTWARE
This software can store, update, manipulate, access and report in various views,
and print data in various forms.
When data is available as a report, i.e. a form that is useful to users, data has
become information.
Concert organisers, for example, can store and change data of date of the next
concert, seat number, ticket cost and sales. When this has been done, organisers
can use the software to access information, such as the number of tickets sold in
every price range or percentage of tickets sold on the day before the concert.
Database software is useful for someone who needs to reach out to a large
number of people. For example, a volunteer who is looking for blood donors for
the National Blood Bank can store a file of all donors in his area so that he can
access their names and telephone numbers to enquire on the type of blood
donated, postcode or the last date he/she donated blood.
The database management system (DBMS) software is also known as database
manager. The database management system is a computer-based system for
defining, manipulating, controlling, managing, maintaining and using database.
Database can be defined as:
(a)
(b)
Data can be in the form of text, video, graphics, audio and others. Databases are
stored in secondary storage. To fulfil the need of organisations, data needs to be
collected, stored and accessed effectively. Databases can help with these three
processes. They also enable data to be processed and shared by various parties.
Data can also be edited, added and erased easily. Users can perform queries over
the database to solve problems. A number of important terms in databases are
entities, attributes, field, record and relationship.
(a)
Entities are things, people, places or events whereby the data and
information stored are about them. Examples of entities are universities,
students, employees, cars and doctors.
108
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
(b)
(c)
: Abdullah Adam
Date of birth
: 1 January 1977
(d)
(e)
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
109
110
5.10.1
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Types of Databases
A relational database type is the most widely used today. In this type of
database, data is arranged in table with rows and columns. Each column
constitutes one attribute and each row constitutes one record.
The table of data also has the following three features:
(a)
(b)
(c)
5.10.2
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
111
(b)
(c)
(d)
With the traditional file system, we may face problem in getting a list of students'
names based on department or list of courses taken by a student because the
information is present inside three different files.
Traditional file processing system has the following weaknesses:
(a)
(b)
Data integrity problem Data needs to be updated in all files to ensure that
they are consistent throughout; and
(c)
Program and data independence problem Program and data are closely
related as data is created to feed into a program.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Inside the database, each file has a relationship with other files. Relationships
among files are made through key fields. In a database, data dictionary stores
information in data and the database structure. In building a database
application, the following seven steps are required, as illustrated in Figure 5.17.
112
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
These steps are usually discussed in greater detail in the System Analysis and
Design course. Database management system is required to free data and
application programs to make them independent of each other. This will simplify
data access and editing, minimise data redundancy, define data, manage data
security and maintain data integrity. It can be regarded as a software layer
surrounding the database. The software includes query language, report
generator and utilities, and graphics.
A database management system has number of weaknesses. Firstly, the software
is expensive. For a personal computer, the database management system
software costs between RM1,000 to RM2,500 each. This software is meant for
single users and has a limited number of files that can be created.
For a mainframe computer such as the database software used in student
registration at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), car registration at Road
Transport Department (JPJ) or patient registration at UKM Medical Centre, the
cost of the database management system software is high. Examples of database
management system with high capacity are Integrated Database Management
System (IDMS), DB2, Oracle, Sybase and Informix. The use of database
management system requires large secondary storage and high powered central
processing unit. There is also a need for skilled personnel to manage the database
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
113
For example, let us take the database of a business containing their customer
files, sales file, inventory files and supplier files, as follows:
(a)
One-to-one relationship One data can only have a relationship with one
other data, e.g. relationship between customer file and sales file;
(b)
(c)
114
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
In a networked database, every child can have more than one parent. This
arrangement can be bent easily as compared to hierarchical database but there is
a limit on the bent and it needs definitions prior to its use. This type of database
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
115
can have all types of relationships. It was first introduced in the 1970s. Today,
both hierarchical and networked types are not widely used. Figure 5.20 shows an
example of a networked database.
Relational database is the most stable and flexible database. Its model was first
introduced by E. F. Codd. It does not require the database structure to be initially
defined. Data is arranged in the form of a table with rows and columns. A name
is given to each table and column. Every table is given a unique column, known
as main key. This main key is used to link different tables. Relational databases
are widely used today. Figure 5.21 shows an example of a relational database.
116
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
5.10.3
Client-Server
Most database management systems are stored inside the server. Database
management system software will store and manage data in the server computer.
The client computer will be used by users to access and process the data
contained inside the database of the server computer. This method is known as
client-server system. The client-server system enables a database to be shared by
many users. Examples of server-based DBMS are Oracle, Informix and Sybase.
An example of software that can build user-interface software is PowerBuilder.
Examples of client-server systems are student registration system in OUM and
foreign worker registration in Malaysia Department of Immigration.
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
117
Server has the main function as storage and processing is done by clients;
(b)
(c)
Databases can be arranged in three ways centralised, distributed and clientserver. Figure 5.23 shows three categories of databases. In a centralised database,
all organisational databases are present in one computer only, usually in a
mainframe computer. This technique simplifies management but has risk if the
computer breaks down. For example, in OUM, all databases on students, staff,
finance, etc. are stored inside one computer. This technique is known as
centralised database.
118
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
There are two ways on how to access data in a database, i.e. through query
language and application programs as shown in Figure 5.24.
With this language, users can add, edit, delete and access the database. An example
of the query language is Structured Query Language (SQL) which can be used to
access relational type of databases. An example of SQL instructions are presented in
Figure 5.25.
SELECT OWNERID, is in Orders & Antiques
FROM ORDERS, ANTIQUES
WHERE OWNERID = BUYERID
UNION
SELECT BUYERID, is in Antiques Only
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID NOT IN
(SELECT OWNERID FROM ORDERS);
Figure 5.25: Example of SQL instructions
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
119
Users can also access databases through programs that are written in
programming languages like COBOL or C which contain SQL statements that are
embedded inside the programs. This technique is known as embedded SQL, as
shown in Figure 5.26.
/* example of embedded SQL using C */
#include
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
Int BUYERID;
char FirstName[100], LastName[100], Item[100];
main()
{
EXEC SQL CONNECT UserID/Password;
EXEC SQL DECLARE Itemcursor CURSOR FOR
SELECT ITEM, BUYERID
FROM ANTIQUES
ORDER BY ITEMS;
EXEC SQL OPEN ItemCursor;
EXEC SQL FETCH ItemCursor INTO :Item :BUYERID;
While(!sqlca.sqlcode) {
EXEC SQL SELECT OWNERFIRSTNAME, OWNERLASTNAME
INTO :FirstName
:LastName
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID = :BuyerID;
Printf(%s %s %s, FirstNamre, LastName, Item);
}
exit ();
}
SELF-CHECK 5.6
1.
2.
120
5.11
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
5.12
GRAPHICS SOFTWARE
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
121
The use of graphic software is very satisfactory if the work is done by a graphic
artist who has the ability in both artistic aspect as well as the ability to use
sophisticated graphic software to translate ideas. An artist uses the software as a
tool for producing fantastic computer-based arts. Graphic software is software
that converts numerical data into a graphic display form, such as the bar chart,
pie chart, etc. It enables users to produce various types of graphical forms. Five
types of graphics software are shown in Figure 5.28.
(a)
122
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
(b)
(c)
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
123
(d)
124
(e)
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
5.13
SOFTWARE SUITE
5.14
GROUPWARE SOFTWARE
5.15
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
125
5.16
MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE
126
TOPIC 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Windows, Mac OS, UNIX and Linux are commonly used operating systems.
The five features of operating system are multitasking, multi-user, multiprocessing, batch processing and virtual memory.
Besides that, we have also seen application software that is often used to
increase productivity of organisations and individuals such as word
processing, spreadsheet, databases, groupware software, etc.
Batch processing
Multi-processing
Compiler
Database
Spreadsheet
Data mining
User-interface
Device drivers
Utility program
Multitasking
Virtual memory
Topic Programming
Language
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall know more about programming language. Computer
programs are developed by using programming languages. A program is a set of
instructions followed by the computer, so that data can be processed. The process
of producing a program is called programming. Programming is a part of the
larger software development process which consists of problem specification,
program design, programming, program testing and program maintenance.
6.1
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
In general, the computer itself is deaf, dumb and cannot think on its own. It
requires instructions from humans to perform certain tasks, ranging from a
simple task (such as performing a 2 + 2 arithmetic operation) to a very complex
task (such as launching a spacecraft to Mars). Therefore, we use a programming
language to communicate with and instruct computer to perform certain tasks.
Instructions inside a program are arranged logically through the process of
programming. There are many types of programming languages that can be used
by programmers to communicate with the computer.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
128
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Programming Language
1950s
Lisp, Fortran
1960s1970s
1990s
Figure 6.1: Relationship model among users, programming language and computer
TOPIC 6
6.2
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
129
Users can use whatever programming language they know to solve problems.
However, if the user knows only one programming language, the solution
provided may not be optimal and efficient. Therefore, a user needs to understand
the potential of a certain programming languages, so that he/she can evaluate
the strengths and weaknesses of the language, in solving the problem faced.
After evaluation, user can adopt the most effective method from a list of possible
methods to solve the problem. There are five benefits of understanding
programming languages that are elaborated in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Benefits of Understanding Programming Languages
Benefit
Elaboration
Understanding weaknesses
of the programming
languages
Programming languages
will influence users
thinking in solving
problems
Programming languages
are tools for solving
problems by using the
computer
130
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Fields
Year
Fortran
Scientific calculations
1956
Lisp
1957
System development
1974
COBOL
1960
Visual Basic
1990
C++
1984
Java
1995
Perl
1990
6.3
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
GENERATIONS AND EXAMPLES
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
131
Computer language generation is said to have begun from low level up to high
level. A programming language is said to be a low level one when it resembles
the language that is actually used by the computer. A high level programming
language, on the other hand, closely resembles the language used by human
beings like the Malay Language. Table 6.4 show five programming language
generations and how the programming language is represented in each of the
generations.
Table 6.4: Five Generations of Programming Language
Generation
(a)
Language
1st
Machine
10010001
2nd
Assembly
3rd
Algorithmic
Over_time := 0
4th
Query
5th
Natural
(b)
132
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
It uses symbols and words to represent instructions and data, and does not
use binary digits like the machine language. An example of a program in
the assembly language is given below:
V86_signal_return :
Call SYMBOL_NAME (save_v86_state)
movl
xorl
call SYMBOL_NAME (do_signal)
jmp restore_all
ALIGN
(ii)
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
133
(d)
134
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
(ii)
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1.
2.
TOPIC 6
6.4
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
135
APPROACH: CLASSIFICATION OF
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Each characteristic has its own strengths and weaknesses. The following sections
will discuss strengths and weaknesses of each characteristic.
Besides the above mentioned characteristics, there are also other characteristics of
programming languages like:
(a)
Constraint programming;
(b)
Accessed-oriented programming;
(c)
Single data structure programming, e.g. APL language treats all data in the
form of matrix or sequential order; Icon language treats all data in the form
of expressions; and
(d)
136
6.4.1
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Imperative Language
6.4.2
Object-Oriented Language
Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
The need for an object-oriented language arose when existing languages could no
longer fulfil the need of systems that are becoming more complex. The
advantages of object-orientation are ease of system management, ability to
change system properly and reusability of components in a new system. The
structure of an object-oriented language makes a program easier to design and
understand. Object-oriented languages handle images, audio, video and sound
much easier than procedural languages (third generation). The basic idea is to
focus on objects inside a system, not on functions that occur inside the system.
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
137
Description
Class
Blueprint that defines the variables (or attributes) and the methods
common to all objects of a certain kind.
Object
Encapsulation
Term given to the process of hiding all details of an object that do not
contribute to its essential characteristics. Encapsulation hides the
implementation details of the object and the only thing that remains
externally visible is the interface of the object (i.e. set of all messages
the object can respond to).
Inheritance
SELF-CHECK 6.2
What is meant by object-oriented programming?
6.4.3
Logic-Based Language
138
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
In writing logic-based program, users make use of Horn Logic, i.e. statement that
uses IF-THEN. All facts and rules will be stated in Horn Logic form.
Subsequently, the user will state a problem to be solved. The system will try to
solve the problem based on facts and rules that have been given. For example, we
can produce the following information based on Horn Logic:
happy (x) < rich (x), famous (x)
happy (x) < young (x), in-love (x)
happy (x) < old (x), wise (x)
famous (x) < actor (x)
famous (x) < singer (x)
6.4.4
Function-Based Language
TOPIC 6
6.4.5
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
139
Script
Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for
certain objective. They can be used for developing prototypes rapidly. This type
of language is portable between various types of computer platforms. Systems
that have been developed in scripting languages run slower. Examples of
scripting languages are awk, sed, Perl, Python, REXX, rebol and ruby.
HTML and XML are Internet-based scripting languages used to develop
applications for Internet.
6.4.6
Visual Language
6.5
6.5.1
For example, Linux and UNIX operating systems were developed in C language.
The C programming course is a core subject in computer science programs for
most university. The C language is quite difficult to learn for new users but it is a
language that has various capabilities and is very powerful.
140
6.5.2
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
C++
C++ adds on object features to the C language based on ideas from Simula
language. Initially, it was known as C with Classes language. This language is
mostly used in large and complex systems development, such as telephone
switching, graphic user interface system, traffic control on road, etc.
6.5.3
Java
6.5.4
Perl
(b)
(c)
6.5.5
Python
Among applications that have been built using Python are web applications,
address book, computer network management and astronomical software.
Python is an alternative to Perl.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6
6.6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
141
Programs that have been written in a programming language are called source
codes. Source codes are in the form of text or ASCII. It can be written by using
the general purpose editor, such as notepad or integrated development
environment (IDE) editor. Examples of IDE mostly used are Borland C++ and
Visual Studio. Now, let us observe an example of a source code used for C
programming language as shown below. The program will display the output
hello world when it is executed.
main ( )
{
printf (hello world \ n);
}
This source code needs to be compiled or converted into object code before it can
run in any computer. The compilation process is done by compiler. If this
program is compiled in Linux, it can only run in Linux; if compiled in Windows,
it can only run in Windows.
This problem is said to be non-portable, i.e. any software that is compiled in
operating system type A cannot run in operating system type B. The problem of
non-portable arises because the object code produced from the compilation
process is different for different operating systems. This object code is specific for
one type of operating system only.
While source code is compiled, it will be linked to a library, i.e. set of existing
instructions inside an operating system. In Windows operating system, the
library is given extended dynamic loading library (.dll). Examples of libraries in
Windows operating system are vb200.dll and vb3000.dll. The software (or object
code) that is produced requires this library to run. Since the library is present in
the specific operating system (e.g. Windows) only, the object code that is
produced can run in Windows system only.
Every processor (central processing unit) is built using different architecture.
Each architecture contains a set of instructions, which are different from one type
to another. Since the set of instructions is different, the machine language of each
processor is also different. The object code that is generated from the compilation
process is in the form of machine language. Since the machine language is
different, the object code produced is also different. Therefore, the object code
can run in the processor that produces it only.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
142
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
For example, two types of architecture for the processor are RISC and CISC.
Examples of CISC processors are Intel, AMD and Cyrix while examples of RISC
processors are Alpha, Motorola 6800 and PowerPC. Any program that is
compiled for an Intel processor cannot run on an Alpha processor because both
contain different object codes.
To convert assembly language programs into object code, we need to use
assembler. The object code produced is not portable. We can use assembly
language to write program. The assembly language is mostly used in
development of operating systems and it is used specifically in certain operating
systems.
An interpreter is a computer program translates high level instructions line by
line into an intermediate form, which it then executed. In contrast, a compiler
translates high level instructions directly into machine language. Compiled
programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an
interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage
during which, machine instructions are generated. This process can be time
consuming if the program is long. Interpreter does not convert programs into
object code. Programs in the interpreter are portable, i.e. it can run using any
operating system. Programs inside interpreter are far slower than programs that
are compiled and run in the form of object code. Basic and Lisp are examples of
programming languages that used interpreter.
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
143
The higher the language is, the nearer it is to the human form.
Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for
certain objective.
There are two types of Internet scripting language HTML and XML.
Assembler is used to convert programs from the assembly language into the
machine language.
Compiler is used to convert high level language (e.g. Basic, C, Pascal) into
machine codes.
English
language
144
TOPIC 6
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Assembler
Logic
Compiler
Machine language
Encapsulation
Object-oriented language
Function-based language
Program
Imperative language
Visual language
Inheritance
Interpreter
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall focus on the Internet itself. You may be familiar with
browsing the Internet, but do you know what the real capability of the Internet
is? Do you know the definition, history, development, issues and evolution of the
Internet? In this topic, we shall learn on the things that were mentioned earlier
and on the other hand, we are going to identify the client and server node in the
Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the effective process of searching and
managing information over the Internet. Finally, we will explore the current and
future trends of the Internet. Let us start!
7.1
DEFINITION OF INTERNET
146
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
The Internet is the short form of international networking that refers to the
largest type of global network. Now, imagine that all computer networks in the
world are linked to form one big network of a global nature. The network formed
is called the Internet, i.e. a network formed by a combination of computer
networks in the entire world. With the Internet, a computer in Kuala Lumpur can
access a computer in China, India, the US, Japan, Saudi Arabia and anywhere
else in the world.
The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP).
There were various proprietary networks linking several countries before the
Internet era, such as Malaysian Airline (MAS) network linking Malaysian Airline
offices worldwide, but these were not the Internet. The Internet has adopted the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol in order to enable various types
of computers to work together. The Internet has been successful in creating a
global village where a community can communicate with another community
easily, without physical and time boundaries.
The term intranet refers to a portion of the Internet that is located inside one
organisation. Intra means inside.
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
147
For example, portion of the Internet located in all the faculties in the Open
University Malaysia (OUM) constitute is an intranet. The portion must be
guarded by special firewalls ensure that outsiders could not simply come into the
OUM to access its confidential files. So, intranet is really a subset of the Internet
one at the organisation level, while the other, at the global level.
As many intranets were built, companies discovered more competitive
advantage if they link them together. Thus, an extranet is formed by linking two
or more intranets.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1.
2.
7.2
Internet;
(b)
Intranet; and
(c)
Extranet.
Based on the answer above, explain how they differ from one
another.
HISTORY
The Internet network has an interesting history. By looking at the history, we are
able to evaluate advantages, disadvantages, weaknesses, past development and
future of the Internet better. The Internet network was born in the US, in 1969.
The Defence Department of US formed the Advanced Research Project Agency
(ARPA) which started the network. This organisation was responsible for
upgrading the activities of research and development in the field of technology to
compete with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR), the predecessor of
todays Russia. This was the answer to the success of the USSR government in its
launching of the Sputnik satellite communication. In the 1970s, the US and the
USSR were in the Cold War period. Many people thought that the success of the
USSR had awakened the US from asleep.
148
7.2.1
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
ACTIVITY 7.1
As we know, the Internet dominates almost every aspect of human life
today. Write a mind map on how it all started. Present it during your
tutorial.
TOPIC 7
7.2.2
THE INTERNET
149
150
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
This multimedia system contains graphics, text, audio and video which can be
indexed and accessed easily by users in the entire world. This system has been
given various names like the web, World Wide Web, W3 or WWW. As we know
now, the Internet was born! The web can be defined as a network of various
types of information like graphics, audio, video and its text is based on hypertext.
The original term for hypertext was introduced by Ted Nelson in 1967.
Originally, hypertext only involved document texts but now, it involves
documents based on graphics, audio, video and others.
Ted Nelson worked to develop a hypertext system that was named Xanadu. The
basic idea of the hypertext was once presented by Vannevar Bush in an article As
We May Think in 1947. According to Nelson, hypertext means a collection of
documents or nodes that have links or references among themselves. Users can
read a document and access other documents via interactive links. The basic
concepts in hypertext are link, accessibility and interactivity. With hypertext, the
information provided is linked among themselves like a cobweb.
The technique of Hypertext Transfer Protocol was introduced to the Internet
in 1991.
In 1992, there were 70 sites that offered Hypertext Transfer Protocol and the web
services on the entire Internet. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol was still not
widely used enough because there was no Internet browser that was good and
attractive for users. Most Internet browsers at that time were based on text.
In 1993, a browser based on graphics was developed by Marc Andreessen and
Eric Bina at the National Centre for Supercomputing Application (NCSA) in the
US. This browser, called Mosaic, was given out for free to users. It contains
interface features that are attractive and user-friendly. A combination of ideas
from Berners-Lees hypertext and Mosaic browser was finally successful in
popularising the Hypertext Transfer Protocol on the Internet.
Mosaic software is considered the main invention, i.e. a great application that has
successfully popularised the Internet to general users instantly. At the end of
1993, within two years of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol introduction, there
were 700 websites. The Internet began to attract media and general public. A lot
of news concerning the Internet was found in magazines, newspapers and TV.
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
151
152
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Discuss the role of ARPANET in the history of Internet.
7.2.3
It is estimated that the number of Internet users will double every 18 months. The
period of from 1997 to 1999 was the period of the Internet explosion where the
Internet became a hot topic for talks and discussion. Internet fever began to reach
every user who wanted to set up his/her own private website and his/her own
e-mail account. Various benefits and specialties of the Internet have been
proposed by the media and other parties. Among the benefits the Internet could
give were that it could create a global village, remove boundaries of nations,
provide information quickly, close the gap between developed and developing
nations, open online education and create borderless economies. However, most
of the statements have not been achieved fully or they can still be debated upon.
Although the popularity of the Internet has increased and many dotcom
companies emerged rapidly, 2000 was a difficult year for the Internet.
Weaknesses on the Internet were felt by users. Among problems that arose were
difficulties in searching for relevant information, network congestion, unfiltered
news, various rumours, spread of viruses through e-mails, low security level
when credit cards were used in transactions, computer invasion and widespread
pornographic materials online. Many dotcom companies suffered from losses
and closed down. Based on research, companies that made profits on the Internet
were those that operated websites selling pornographic materials.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1.
Surf the web for articles on the Internet between 1997 and 1999. In
their thirst to popularise the Internet, some of the statements made
could have been exaggerated. Based on current facts, which
statements are true and which statements are false?
2.
3.
TOPIC 7
7.3
THE INTERNET
153
INTERNET EVOLUTION
Some people think that the Internet opened up a new era in economy. In this new
economic era, a company does not need a building or a physical site. Instead, it
needs only a website for dealing with customers. All transactions can be done via
the Internet. Many Internet-based companies, also called dotcom companies, are
formed all over the world. Many of these companies are listed in the stock
exchange and receive extraordinary responses from investors. There are
companies that are listed at RM2 but the next day, they are transacted at RM200
per share. The Internet will continue to develop. Table 7.1 shows the history of
the Internet (five phases) and how it has changed throughout the course of
history.
Table 7.1: Five Phases of Change of the Internet
Evolution
Year
Explanation
1st Phase
Before 1969
2nd Phase
19701990
3rd Phase
19901997
4th Phase
19972000
5th Phase
2001onwards
154
7.3.1
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
Internet Timeline
Now, we will continue learning and focus on the Internet timeline, as mentioned
in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Internet Timeline and Events
Year
Event
1969
1971
1973
1978
1979
1982
1984
1988
The Internet was massively attacked by the Internet worms which were
computer softwares that spread on their own. This incident shows the low level
of safety on the Internet. Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) was set
up to monitor security on the Internet.
1989
The number of computers exceeded 100,000 units. A book entitled Cuckoo Nest
was published. This book explained on how a group of invaders from Germany
were successful in entering some of the US military computers without
permission, via the Internet.
1990
1991
1992
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
155
1996
1997
1998
1999
The number of computers on the Internet was estimated at 76 million units. The
number of web servers was estimated at seven million units.
2000
In the Internet history and timeline, we have found rapid development of the
Internet just within a period of 30 years. The Internet began as a research network.
Then, it became a communication and data sharing network (this later evolved into
Internet becoming a platform for social media and social network) and a network
for e-commerce. The Internet has removed the physical boundaries that divided
the world and created a global village that transcends time and space.
A computer needs an Internet Protocol (IP) address to communicate with other
computers on the Internet. Without the Internet Protocol address, computer
cannot reach the Internet. Do you know that Internet Protocol address
for the entire Internet is coordinated by a body with its centre at
http://www.internic.net while for computers in Asia is coordinated by Asia
Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), with its centre in Japan. The
distribution of Internet Protocol numbers in Malaysia is managed by Malaysian
Institute of Microelectronic Systems.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Internet greatly affects human life today, whether in Malaysia or
worldwide. Imagine the impact of the Internet on society whether in
Malaysia or the rest of the world. Also, imagine if the Internet does not
exist today. What are the activities that users cannot do without the
Internet? Discuss.
156
7.4
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
There are two types of computers on the Internet, i.e. host computers and server
computers. A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which has an
Internet Protocol address. Internet Protocol address is made up of four sequential
numbers a.b.c.d. Examples of Internet Protocol addresses are 202.187.48.7,
202.187.46.197 and 192.228.128.18. Each sequence a,b,c,d consists of numbers
between 0 and 255. For example, Internet Protocol address for a host at Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia consists of numbers between 202.187.40.X and 202.187.46.Y.
A good analogy for an Internet Protocol address is the identity card number. It is
unique to a certain host. There are no two hosts on the Internet that have the
same Internet Protocol address. A computer needs to have an Internet Protocol
address to access the Internet.
As a simple rule, if the computer is a personal computer and has an Internet
Protocol address, then the computer is a host computer. If a user accesses the
Internet using services provided by the Internet service provider like tm.net.my,
jaring.my or maxis.my via a home computer, the user does not need an Internet
Protocol address. The users computer will be given an Internet Protocol address
dynamically by the Internet service provider (ISP).
Computers can also function as servers, i.e. computers that can be accessed by
users on the Internet. A server is a high-powered computer that is used as a
platform for websites, e-mails, electronic discussions, archives, file server, etc.
Normally, a server would use UNIX, Linux, Solaris or Windows 2000 Server as
its operating system.
A server has two forms of identification i.e. Internet Protocol address and fully
qualified domain name (FQDN). Examples fully qualified domain name for a
server are www.jaring.my (192.228.128.18) or www.oum.edu.my (202.187.48.7).
The analogy here is that a person has an identity card number and name, so a
server too has an Internet Protocol address and fully qualified domain name. As
a simple rule, if the computer is high powered, has an Internet Protocol address
and fully qualified domain name, then, the computer is a server.
Fully qualified domain names are used to assist Internet users, because it is easier
to remember a fully qualified domain name www.jaring.my rather than an
Internet Protocol address 192.228.128.18. Therefore, every server on the Internet
has an Internet Protocol number and name for identification. A fully qualified
domain name gives a lot of information regarding a certain server. For example,
the server name lms.oum.edu.my gives the following meaning lms is the
computer, oum is the organization name and my is the country name. Therefore,
in general, the name lms.oum.edu.my refers to a server located at the OUM.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
157
The end part of the server name normally shows the location or type of
organisation in which the server resides. For examples:
Because the Internet is originated from the US, the domain name for computers
in the US does not have a country name. For example,
www.facebook.com
We can see an example of an Internet address in Figure 7.3, while the explanation
of some domains is shown in Figure 7.4.
158
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
Did you know that most server names are in the form of Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) that has been the basis of Hypertext Transfer Protocol? An
example of a URL name is http://www.oum.edu.my:
Based on the above example, the term web, refers to the combination of hosting
server on the Internet that offer information based on Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. Previously as described, Hypertext Transfer Protocol is the protocol for
sending and receiving information based on hypertext. The information in the
form of hypertext can be linked with other information to create a link or web
with wider/broader information. Hypertext Transfer Protocol server has a
prefix of www like www.oum.edu.my, www.jaring.my and www.um.edu.my.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol server is also known as web server.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
What do you understand by a server computer? Explain.
TOPIC 7
7.5
THE INTERNET
159
The Internet is a network initially meant for doing research. It was mostly used
by universities, research centres and government agencies. That is the reason
why there are many documents of an academic nature on it. They include books,
technical reports, research output, translations, data, articles, discussions,
program source codes, research software, lecture notes, software guides, pictures
and sound. Normally, the information is free and can be accessed via websites.
Based on this scenario, the Internet can be likened to a huge virtual library, which
contains numerous types of information.
The Internet also offers various forms of communication like e-mail,
online discussion, Usenet and e-mail based discussion. These communication
techniques have successfully created a global village.
With e-mail, users can communicate with anyone, anywhere. E-mail is a type of
communication that is cheap and fast. An e-mail sent from the OUM takes only
seven seconds to reach the UK. By using e-mail, users can send attachments like
Microsoft Word documents, software, zipped files, graphics or audio.
The Internet also offers various online discussion topics via Usenet. There are
over 7,000 topics discussed inside Usenet and users can choose from various
topics that interest them. In a Usenet discussion, anyone from any part of the
world can give opinions or ideas freely. One of the ways to access is by accessing
Usenet server, such as http://dotsrc.org/usenet.
The Internet also offers discussions based on e-mails. Discussions normally focus
on a specific topic. Users need to have e-mail accounts to participate in the
discussions. There are several locations that offer discussions based on e-mail for
free, such as http://www.groups.yahoo.com.
Internet has become the platform or host to various social media and social
networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube and many more.
All these sites have the features of Web 2.0, which is a term referred to sites that
allow users to connect, interact, contribute and collaborate with each other, rather
than being websites with static pages or just for retrieving information. Web 2.0
provides users with the opportunity to effectively present their ideas, lead online
discussions, share educational content and document files and collaborate with
each other mostly in real-time. Some of Web 2.0 applications are Google Docs,
Prezi, Pinterest and various others.
160
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
On the Internet, you can also search and get various types of information for
references and reading. There are various types of information available on the
Internet. A user can get the entire literary works of William Shakespeare,
translations of Quran, sayings of Prophet Muhammad, classical Malay literary
works, recipes for cake making, lecture notes, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
reports on Malaysia, etc. Many foreign and local universities have placed their
lecture sources like notes, sample examination paper and online software onto
the Internet to be accessed and these benefits the students. Example of lecture
website is http://www.vlib.org.
The Internet is also a large archive of computer software. It contains various
types of software like graphics, word processing, databases, games, etc. A type of
software that is getting wide attention on the Internet today is the open source
software. The open source software consists of high quality software and can be
obtained together with program codes.
The Internet also offers various news sources which are up to date and fast via
newspaper and television websites.
Examples of news websites are:
(a)
http://www.cnn.com
(b)
http://www.thestar.com.my
(c)
http://www.bharian.com.my
Users can also buy various things via the Internet. For example, users can buy
reference books from companies in Germany via the Internet. Purchases via the
Internet normally require credit cards. It is estimated that total sales via the
Internet, also called e-commerce, could reach up to billion in the near future.
Examples of popular e-commerce websites are:
(a)
http://www.amazon.com
(b)
http://www.ebay.com and
(c)
http://www.lelong.com.my
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
161
The Internet also offers a variety of entertainment such as chat (chat), music,
videos, movies, blogs and games. On the Internet, you can also find various
websites that have been built by people for the purpose of promotion,
advertising, etc. Users can visit websites of a museum, a university, a company or
of an individual person and see various types of information being displayed.
These websites contain a variety of information in the form of text, audio, video,
graphics, cinema, software, etc. In other words, there are numerous materials on
hundreds of websites that can be accessed by the Internet.
Based on the discussions, we can think of the Internet as a very large virtual
environment, without boundaries, without a clear map and without anyone in
control, and which covers the entire world. It can be said to contain a reservoir of
knowledge about the world. It also offers ways of communication to human
beings efficiently and quickly.
We can see the summary of things available on the Internet as shown in
Figure 7.5.
162
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
ACTIVITY 7.4
In your opinion, what is really available on the Internet that can be of
benefit to users? What can be done on the Internet? What process can be
improved on the Internet? Post your opinion in Forum. Compare your
opinion with your coursemates.
7.6
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
163
164
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
ACTIVITY 7.5
Discuss the strategy for handling the following issue:
The level of data security over the Internet for e-commerce transactions
is still being questioned by users. What is the guarantee provided by
companies that credit card numbers used in e-commerce transactions
are safe? There have been many stories where thousands of users' credit
card numbers were stolen by intruders from company servers.
7.6.1
Search Engine
The first step in searching for information is to use a search engine. Users will use
one or more key words to search for the desired information. Then, the search
engine will search for Websites based on the key words. Can you name some
examples of popular search engines? Figure 7.7 show an example of a popular
search engine Google.
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
165
Search engines are not intelligent but they are also not dumb either. They
function based on robot and index.
A robot is a kind of software that is sent by the search engine to wander
around the Internet.
How does this robot work? A search engine will send many robots to wander
around the Internet. These robots will bring back data on the web servers visited.
Based on the data brought back by the robots, an index will be built. This index
basically contains key words and in which servers the key words are present.
Every search engine has different techniques in building the index. Therefore,
two different search engines will give different answers for the same key words.
Since the size of the Internet is so large, not all Internet servers are accessed by
robots. When users make a request based on key words in a search engine site,
the search engine will refer to the index to get relevant servers. The search engine
will always do the updating process over the index.
7.6.2
Portals
The second best way to access information is to use portals. A portal is a server
that contains a directory of several servers on the Internet based on categories of
information available on the servers. Users can find information by accessing the
servers in related categories.
Examples of popular portals are:
(a)
http://www.google.org
(b)
http://www.yahoo.com
(c)
http://www.wikipedia.org
166
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
Portals require human beings to arrange and classify servers into certain
categories. This method produces a list of servers that are more orderly and can
be used easily. For example, if a user wants to know more about the Java
programming language, he can access servers that are available in the category of
computer programming language. This method often produces information that
is suitable and relevant. The portal (site) at http://www.dmoz.org is an initiative
of Internet volunteers in building a portal. Commercial portals are those like
http:// www.yahoo.com and http://netscape.aol.com. An example of a portal
(website) for BlueHyppo is shown in Figure 7.8.
TOPIC 7
7.6.3
THE INTERNET
167
Other Methods
In addition to search engines and portals, users can also find information
through forums and frequently asked questions (FAQ), as shown in Figure 7.9.
Just remember that USENET is an on-line discussion corner. There are various
discussion corners inside USENET. In one discussion corner, new users may be
asking very trivial questions in the eyes of experienced users. Often, whenever
trivial questions are asked in the discussion corners, experienced users would
say RTFM or the FAQ. Do you know what are the meanings of these
abbreviations?
The acronym RTFM means Read the Fine Manual, i.e. the new user should
have read the manual first before asking trivial questions. The frequently asked
questions, i.e. a document in the form of questions and answers. Questions in
frequently asked questions are those that are often asked inside USENET
discussion corners. More details about USENET and frequently asked questions
will be deliberated in the upcoming topics in this module.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
168
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
Besides frequently asked questions and RTFM, users can also search for
information on the archive server, i.e. a server that contains a lot of information
on certain specific topics. The address of the archive normally can be obtained
from frequently asked questions portals or documents. Many hosts on the
Internet serve as archives or centres of information gathering in certain fields.
Examples of websites that serve as archives or centres of information gathering in
certain fields are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1.
2.
7.7
(a)
E-mail; and
(b)
USENET.
INTERNET LAWS
The Internet does not have any law and it is not owned by anyone. Since every
country with Internet has its own laws, the Internet is difficult to control legally.
For example, the distribution of immoral acts, political controversies and illegal
materials are allowed on websites in the US because such distribution is based on
the concept of freedom of speech being practised over there. However, such
websites can be accessed anywhere on the Internet, including in Malaysia, most
of which may be wrong from the legal perspective. Consequently, even though
such materials may be legally wrong, users in Malaysia can still access them.
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
169
7.8
Originally, the Internet was a network for research and academic purposes.
Therefore, most of the original information on the Internet is of the academic
type. When the Internet was first built, there was trust among all the Internet
users. Security issues on the Internet were not that important. The Internet also
provided an infrastructure for communication and intellectual sharing via emails, USENET and discussion corners.
Today, activities of the Internet include e-commerce, news, multimedia material,
hypertext, websites, entertainment, etc. This situation gives rise to issues that
were not previously important such as access, information filters, users privacy,
Internet passage congestion and data security. These began to get more attention
later. It was predicted that the Internet will become a basic need for every
household, like the telephone or TV in the near future.
Businesses too will increase via the Internet. Various steps are being taken to
make the Internet more widespread and easily used by users, e.g. Internet access
via TV, third generation (3G) approach to mobile phones, the use of optical fibres
and high powered lines to houses. Based on earlier discussion, we find the
Internet too has problems. By understanding these problems, users will be aware
of limitations, future of the Internet and will not easily believe everything that is
found on the Internet. The Internet is a virtual space and has a very wide
coverage.
170
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
There are five major trends related to future Internet, as shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Five Key Trends Related to Future Internet
Trend
Description
We always
communicate using
variety of devices in
various places
Everyday, we use
variety of online
services
Everyday, the
number of smart
products increased
These smart products are used to collect and process data. This
information could then be used in the subsequent preparation of
the information that a decision can be made.
Personal information
spread in various
system and network
Infographics from the following websites may also provide you an overview and
future developments on the Internet:
(a)
http://buildtheresidual.com/27/the-internet-in-2015infographic/2013/02/
(b)
http://dailyinfographic.com/2016-the-year-of-the-zettabyte-infographic
(c)
http://www.smashingapps.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TheInternet-in-2020.jpg
Arguably, if you want to keep abreast of Internet in many aspects, you can get it
from the Internet as well. Agree?
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
171
ACTIVITY 7.6
In your opinion, does the Internet today is capable of satisfying Internet
users in the future? Can Internet congestion exists later? Try to discuss
with your partner.
Beginning in 1969 until today, computers and the Internet have undergone
through five phases (before 1969, 19701990, 19901997, 19972000 and 2001
onwards) and have become a major part of our life.
The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates by using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
The term Intranet refers to a grouping of some local area networks inside
an organisation only (intra means inside).
The Internet began in the US with the birth of ARPANET for research and
sharing academic resources. ARPANET has grown rapidly and was later
replaced with National Science Foundation Network.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol and the web speed up the rapid development of
the Internet.
There are two types of computers on the Internet, i.e. host computers and
server computers.
Computer can also function as a server that is the computer can be accessed
by users on the Internet.
Server has two forms of identification, i.e. Internet Protocol address and fully
qualified domain name. A fully qualified domain name is much easier to
remember compared to Internet Protocol address.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
172
TOPIC 7
THE INTERNET
There is a lot of information on the Internet about various things. This can be
searched via search engines and portals.
There are several major trends associated with the future of the Internet such
as existence of online services, number of smart products constantly growing
and so forth.
ARPANET
Intranet
Cyber Law
Internet
Domain
Extranet
Search engine
Security
Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Usenet
Web
Topic Software on
the Internet
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall learn about software that is available on the Internet.
Software can be obtained free of charge but some have to be bought. This topic
will also discuss a popular Internet communication technique, i.e. e-mail. In the
beginning, e-mails were text-based but now, you can even send several types of
data together with e-mails, such as text documents, graphics, audios, PowerPoint
presentations and many more. We will also discuss some of the things related to
e-mail such as ethics, the smiley icons and many others. Finally we will discuss
about the Usenet and frequently asked questions (FAQ). Are you ready?
174
8.1
TOPIC 8
INTERNET SOFTWARE
We will look at the types of software in more detail in the next subtopic.
8.2
Based on Figure 8.1, one of the software is known as shareware. Do you know
what the purpose of this software is?
Shareware is a type of software that can be used by users for free within a
certain period of time.
After that period, if the user continues to use the software, he/she needs to send
payment to the programmer of the software. This allows the consumer to make a
choice whether to continue using it or switch to another application.
TOPIC 8
175
Do you know some of the examples of this software? Examples of shareware are
Winzip (see Figure 8.2) and McAfee (antivirus).
Besides shareware, there is also freeware. It is available free of charge from the
Internet. Often, this software has specific charge to users who want to add
functionality or upgrade the software. If not, the user will remain with basic
functions or normal functions of the software.
176
TOPIC 8
8.3
The other type of software that we are going to learn is open source software. Do
you know why this software gets a lot of attention in the Internet now? What
does it mean?
Open source software is a software that can be obtained without any cost,
together with its source code that licensed to be studied, changed and
redistributed freely to others.
TOPIC 8
177
Distribution of the software together with its source codes has the following
advantages:
(a)
Users can modify the software and are not tied/bound to any company;
(b)
Users have the opportunity to remove errors that may be present inside the
source codes; and
(c)
Users can also learn how the software is built based on the source codes.
The open source software begins with the GNU project (GNU is not UNIX), i.e. a
project founded by Richard Stallman from Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) in the beginning of the 1980s. The original aim of this project was to
produce a system based on UNIX for free. This project has been successful in
producing software of high quality, such as GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
compiler, Lisp program compiler, Emacs editor and others. All GNU softwares
uses the copyright called GNU Public Licence (GPL) which states that anyone
can modify the program source code but the modification must be shared with
other users. Basically, GNU encourages software and source code sharing among
users so that high quality software can be produced.
The GNU Public Licence concept is the opposite of the commercial software
concept. Commercial software would tie users to the software company. If the
software contains errors, users will have to wait for the newer version to be
produced and this will take a long time. If the software company raises the price,
users will have to accept that and pay more for the latest version of the software.
Users can make any modification to the source code of the open software but
users are requested to share the modification with other users via the Internet.
With this intellectual sharing, it is hoped that the software will be continuously
modified, so that it will become a high quality software.
178
TOPIC 8
Examples of open source software widely used today are Linux (operating
system), Apache (web server), GNU Compiler Collection (C language compiler),
Perl and R (statistical software). We can see the definition of GNU Public Licence
software, as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Six GNU Public Licence Software
GNU Public
Licence Software
Definition
Linux
TeX
LibreOffice
GNU
TOPIC 8
179
Python
There are thousands of high quality open source software pieces available over
the Internet for users.
You can visit the following website for detailed information on open source
software:
(a)
http://www.opensource.org
(b)
http://www.gnu.org
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1.
2.
180
8.4
TOPIC 8
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a technique of downloading data from any File
Transfer Protocol server on the Internet onto the users computer.
Many servers offer anonymous ftp services, i.e. the server allows anyone
anywhere to download data from it. Examples of server that offer anonymous ftp
are ftp://ftp.jaring.my.
TOPIC 8
181
User can use variety of software to manage the files on the server. Among the
commonly used software is CuteFTP (see Figure 8.5).
8.5
TELNET
To use telnet, a user needs to have a user account on the server to be accessed.
The telnet technique can be used to access servers at foreign university libraries,
Usenet server, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) server, MUD server or database server.
An example of the use of telnet is, suppose a user wants to perform complex
calculations that require high performance computers (super), what should
he/she do? Users can proceed to the supercomputer centre in Malaysia, i.e. at
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Jalan Semarak, Kuala Lumpur to perform
these tasks.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
182
TOPIC 8
8.6
TOPIC 8
183
To read an e-mail on the user account on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
server, users can use two techniques and they are:
(a)
Users can use the server software and access the said Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol server; and
(b)
Users can download e-mail from the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
server onto a personal computer using the Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3)
technique.
If the user is an Internet subscriber with www.jaring.my, the Post Office Protocol
3 technique/protocol is used to download e-mails from pop.jaring.my onto their
personal computer. The e-mail client software that can be used is Eudora,
Pegasus and Microsoft Outlook. We can see an example of an e-mail
communication website, i.e. Gmail as shown in Figure 8.6.
8.6.1
E-Mail Discussion
With e-mails, users can participate in various e-mail discussion corners. There are
thousands of discussion corners that cover various interesting topics such as
economics, science, computers and religion. These corners can be participated by
writing an e-mail to the server that manages the discussion corners. Normally,
e-mail discussions are managed automatically by computer without human
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
184
TOPIC 8
Disadvantages
Low cost.
8.6.2
Several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail discussions are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Sharing your expertise and asking questions, if you need the expertise of
other users. By sharing, a user can establish communication with other users;
(e)
Respecting the privacy of other users and not discussing on private issues;
TOPIC 8
185
(f)
(g)
(h)
Not posting users private e-mails onto the discussion forums without
permission of the concerned users (very important). This violates the
privacy act of certain countries.
8.6.3
Smiley
An e-mail content in the form of text makes it difficult for users to express
emotions like anger, happiness, sleepiness, hatred, tears and laughter. Therefore,
the smiley icon technique is used. A smiley contains text-based symbols used
inside e-mails to represent a certain emotion like anger, hatred and laughter. To
view a smiley, users need to tilt their heads 90 degrees leftwards. Now, most of
the e-mail has options for smileys icon (see Figure 8.7):
186
TOPIC 8
Meaning
Symbol
Meaning
:-)
Smile
;-)
Smile, wink
:-(
:-p
Taunting
8-)
Wearing glasses
:-O
Eye surprised
Do you know how smiley starts? You can visit the following website to learn
history and how smiley icons start:
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm
ACTIVITY 8.1
You can visit the Yahoo! Messenger website at
http://messenger.yahoo.com/features/emoticons/ to see another
variety of interesting smiley icons.
In your opinion, what are other icons that can be added? Try to find
other icons in other websites. Compare ways and means they are
written.
TOPIC 8
8.6.4
187
Acronyms
What is ASAP, ROTFL, RTFM, YMMV, BTW? These characters are acronyms or
short forms that are used to represent phrases that are normally used on the
Internet. In Table 8.4, nine of the popular acronyms are shown. Acronyms are
used to facilitate users to write quickly without the need to type full sentences in
the e-mail, discussion and chat. This can save time and reduce the errors in
spelling. In fact, space can also be saved!
Table 8.4: Nine Popular Acronyms
Acronym
ROTFL
Expression
Meaning
BTW
by the way
By the way
RTFM
AFAIK
as far as I know
As far as I am concerned
ASAP
as soon as possible
An advice to speed up
FYI
IMHO
in my humble opinion
My view point
OTOH
On the contrary
YMMV
A cynical expression.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Explain your opinion on the following statement:
If users receive the following e-mail, what do you understand?
Please send the program ASAP. Your proposal makes me ROTFL.
Regarding the TeX program, please RTFM. I experience power upgrade
of 20 times after adding more RAM, YMMV. BTW, I am going to Ipoh
tomorrow. IMHO, Sarahs proposal is better than Anis proposal.
188
8.6.5
TOPIC 8
E-Mail Signature
Anis Shafiqah
Lecturer
Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia Communication
Open University Malaysia
Jalan Tun Ismail
50480 Kuala Lumpur
Tel: 03-88999100
E-mail: anis_shafiqah@oum.edu.my
TOPIC 8
8.6.6
189
Smart E-Mail
Eight guidelines for the intelligent use of e-mails are shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Eight Guidelines on the Use of E-mails Effectively
Guideline
Explanation
For example, before going out for lunch, solve all your
e-mail communication directly. Do not postpone.
190
8.7
TOPIC 8
USENET
A Usenet discussion does not involve e-mails. Users do not have to register with
any server to enter Usenet. For example, if users access the Internet via jaring.my,
they can use the Usenet server news.jaring.my to participate in and read Usenet.
Usenet discussion is divided into a number of major topics. These topics are later
broken down into more specific subtopics. Therefore, users can easily search for
discussion corners that are of interest, as shown in Figure 8.9.
TOPIC 8
191
For example, a user wants to read an article inside the C programming language
discussion corner. The user can access the discussion corner comp.lang.c. If the
user wants to read about Malaysia, he can access soc.culture.malaysia.
An example of an article inside comp.lang.c is shown in Figure 8.10.
rom: holism (nolsen@nospam.myrealbox.com)
Message 18 in thread
Subject: Re: Learning C
Newsgroups: comp.lang.c
Date: 2001-04-11 21:43:55 PST
>> Anyone have any suggestions for a good introductory book on C?
>
The C Programming Language by Kernighan and Richie is a pretty
awesome book. Lots of short and sweet examples from the guys who
created the language. Its just the C language minus most of the fat
you find in beginner books, so if you already know basic programming
concepts it should be a good book to get you into C.
Nick
Inside USENET discussion forums, users can share opinions, request for help,
argue, spread rumours, sell items, fire at someone, criticise someone, get to know
each other, etc. There is no filtering of the USENET contents. Therefore, the
USENET contents may be true or false. Users are reminded not to readily believe
stories such as get-rich-quick-schemes or pills for preventing old age that are
available inside USENET.
Inside USENET discussion corners, the same questions are occasionally asked by
a new user. To avoid this, veteran users of discussion forums have taken the
initiative to produce a document called frequently asked questions (FAQ).
Frequently asked questions is a document containing questions that are
frequently asked by users and their answers to these questions.
192
TOPIC 8
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Usenet. How about you
evaluate the validity of its contents? Explain.
8.8
The growth of the Internet with the advancement of hardware and software
development in various computing devices such as personal computers, smart
phones, clouds computing and wearable devices has created phenomenon in
various ways.
One of the phenomenons of the Internet nowadays is the addictive uses of social
network websites and applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LINE,
Google+ and many more. So, what do you know about social network websites?
TOPIC 8
193
Boyd and Ellison (2013) in their article titled Social Network Sites: Definition,
History and Scholarship have defined the social network websites as web-based
services that allow individuals to:
(a)
(b)
Articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection; and
(c)
View and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within
the system.
Facebook is the most popular social network site that allows users who are part
of the same network to view others profiles, unless a profile owner has
decided to deny permission to those in their network. Figure 8.11 shows the
interface of Facebook website for Open University Malaysia.
194
TOPIC 8
SELF-CHECK 8.3
Discuss some phenomenons of the Internet and predict the future of the
software and applications used for the Internet.
TOPIC 8
195
There are various types of software on the Internet. Some of them are
shareware, freeware, open source software, protocols, file transfer, telnet,
e-mail and Usenet.
Shareware is a software that can be used by users for free within a specific
period.
The open source software begins with the GNU project (Gnu is not UNIX),
i.e. a project founded by Richard Stallman from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in the beginning of the 1980s. The original aim of this project was
to produce a system based on UNIX for free.
Among the advantages of open source software is the user can change or
modified the software and they are not tied to any company.
There are several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail
discussions.
Acronym or brief phrases that are used to represent the commonly used
phrase on the Internet.
196
TOPIC 8
Freeware
Shareware
Smiley
Telnet
GNU Project
Usenet
Topic Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Describe two
transmission;
5.
6.
7.
8.
types
of
electromagnetic
signals
for
data
INTRODUCTION
Communication is simply the transfer or exchange of messages, ideas, thoughts,
information or knowledge by means of whatever forms like words, writing,
behaviour or even body language. Data communication is a more specialised
term, targeting at the collection and distribution of electronic data in the form of
text, voice, pictures, graphics, video, etc. via the communication network.
There are four important elements that need to be known before any type of
communication can happen. These elements are message, sender, receiver and
media. In this topic, we shall study each of these basic elements closely.
198
9.1
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF
COMMUNICATION
The Sender The sender is the message transmitter or the place where a
message begins. The sender may be a person, an application, a machine that
can create messages or replies without human assistance, system user,
sensor, staff card reader or other input devices.
(b)
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
199
ask the computer software to search for the website concerned. Thus, we
are the sender, the computer is the receiver, the website address is the
message and the Internet is the media.
(c)
The Receiver It can be the presence of a message, media and sender but
there is no receiver. Without a receiver, communication cannot happen. For
example, we can cry for help in a jungle; so there is a message, a sender, a
media but there is no receiver; hence, there is no communication taking
place. The receiver is the target of the message. The receiver may be a
computer, terminal, printer, people, remote control device and others. In
computer network, receiver and sender can be present inside the same
computer. For example, sender of an e-mail mazlan@oum.edu.my sends an
e-mail to azly@oum.edu.my; both sender and receiver are present inside the
same oum.edu.my e-mail server.
(d)
9.1.1
Think of how the message we send can be understood by the receiver. The
message needs to be altered into a suitable form so that it can pass through the
media and is altered again into a form that can be understood by the receiver. In
this aspect, coder and decoder are required. The coders function is to code the
message of the sender so that it is altered into a suitable form for the media and
decoder converts it back into a form that is understood by receiver. Figure 9.2
clarifies the general situation of coder and decoder inside a communication
system.
200
9.1.2
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
Message Understanding
Even if the four elements (i.e. sender, receiver, media and message) are present
but the message is not understood, the actual communication still does not take
place. In human communication, language becomes the main obstacle that often
requires a third party, i.e. translator. In a computer communication, data
representation code or information will become the obstacle. As such, there is a
standard code for representing data such as ASCII, EBCDIC and the latest is
Unicode.
9.1.3
Error Detector
9.1.4
Security
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1.
2.
Receiver, and
(b)
Error detector.
3.
4.
5.
201
202
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 9.2
1.
(b)
A telephone conversation
between two persons at long
distances.
(d)
(c)
A broadcasting programme
on TV.
9.2
TOPIC 9
9.2.1
COMMUNICATION
203
Types of Signals
Can you think of how electromagnetic signals that carry information are
delivered to the receiver?
Electromagnetic signals can be used to deliver information through various
transmission media. Two forms of signals that can represent information for
transmission via the communication lines are:
(a)
Analogue Signals Are continuous, i.e. when signals are sent via media
(e.g. telephone wires), the electrical signals that are transmitted are
represented in the form of continuous sine wave, as shown in Figure 9.3.
The sine wave is featured by three parameters, i.e. frequency, amplitude
and phases, as shown in Figure 9.4.
(i)
204
(ii)
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
(iii) Phase Rate of signal change with time or the measure of time shift of
the waves that is measured in degrees (). Signals with the same
frequency can have different phases, if they are compared. In Figure
9.6, the bottom wave (b) has a different phase, i.e. phase 180
compared with the top wave (a). One complete wave cycle begins at a
point and continues until it reaches the point again. A shift in phases
happens when one cycle is not yet complete, but one new cycle has
already begun, i.e. before the previous cycle has completed fully. This
happens at point 1 in Figure 9.6(c).
TOPIC 9
(b)
COMMUNICATION
205
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the differences between analogue and digital signals.
9.3
206
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
Data transmission between two points or between two computers can happen in
two forms, i.e. in parallel or in series. Data that are sent by the parallel
transmission will be delivered in one go, normally in one byte (8 bits)
simultaneously. If 8-bit data are sent, 8 parallel wires are used to send the data,
i.e. each bit is sent via separate wires, as shown in Figure 9.8. Extra wires are
needed to send data between the sender and receiver. These signals allow data to
be sent in a proper sequence.
Printers, for example, receive data from computers via the parallel ports that are
transmitted in parallel, i.e. character (byte) by character (byte). This transmission
is suitable for short distances. Parallel transmission is not practical for data
communication. Computers normally transmit data in serial form because of the
high speed. Centronics parallel interface is an example of the parallel format.
Serial transmission is transmitting data serially, i.e. data being sent one bit
after one bit, as shown in Figure 9.9.
Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission, but is more suitable for
long distances. Serial transmission is the normal method of data transmission in a
communication network. In data communication, data are transmitted serially.
Two modes of transmission for serially transmitted data are synchronous
transmission and asynchronous transmission.
TOPIC 9
9.3.1
COMMUNICATION
207
Asynchronous Transmission
Each character can be separated by a different time space, which means that there
is no synchronisation between sender and receiver, especially when there is no
data being sent. Synchronisation is achieved only at each character. The receiver
will synchronise with the sender when start bit is received. Several agreements
between sender and receiver are the number of bits per word, parity check
whether odd or even, speed of transmission, and how the message is ended.
For sending each character, two additional bits are also sent. For example,
100 characters are sent, so the total bits being sent are 1,000 bits (i.e. eight bits
per character + two bits for start/stop 100). These 1,000 bits are equivalent to
125 characters, where 25 additional characters constitute the overheads for the
asynchronous transmission. The asynchronous transmission is clearly not
efficient for sending a large amount of data. It is suitable for the low-speed data
communication, normally up to 32,000bps.
208
9.3.2
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
Synchronous Transmission
The receiver will check the data bits received until a header is found that contains
Synchronous Idle (SYN) characters and start bit, as shown in Figure 9.11 above.
Next, both the sender and receiver will mutually synchronise between them. The
receiver will receive all characters until a tail is found containing the last
character and SYN character. Data block (or packet) size varies from a few
characters to hundreds of characters. The bigger the data block, the faster the
transmission will be.
Synchronous transmission is faster and more efficient than the asynchronous
transmission. The efficiency level of synchronous transmission is up to 98%,
while that of asynchronous one is up to 80% only. However, if there are errors in
synchronous transmission, the entire block of data (all characters) will be spoilt,
whereas, only one character will spoil in the asynchronous transmission. The
hardware used to perform synchronous transmission is more expensive and
more complex than that for the asynchronous transmission. Any kind of data can
be transmitted synchronously, while only characters can be transmitted by the
asynchronous mean.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1.
2.
TOPIC 9
9.4
COMMUNICATION
209
9.4.1
Simplex
Simplex data transmission allows data to move in one direction only, i.e. similar
to the one-way traffic, as shown in Figure 9.12.
9.4.2
Half-Duplex
Half-duplex data transmission confirms that data move in two directions, but
only in one direction at a time. For example, moving through a very narrow
bridge allows you to move only one car at one time, climbing the road to Frasers
Hill where going up and coming down are fixed at different hours, people who
communicate using walkie-talkie or radio taxi or communication between two
computers using modems, as shown in Figure 9.13.
210
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
The time for the device to change its role from sender to receiver or vice
versa;
(b)
The waiting time while the sender device transmits a message to confirm
readiness to receive data to the receiver device; and
(c)
The waiting time for the sender device while waiting for the reply on
readiness to receive data from receiver device.
9.4.3
Full-Duplex
Full-duplex transmission allows data to be sent in two opposite directions all the
time, i.e. just like the two-way street, as shown in Figure 9.14.
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
211
ACTIVITY 9.3
1.
2.
9.5
Transmission rate can be said to be the bit rate or the baud rate.
Bit rate is the real measure of the number of bits transmitted every second. Bit
rate or data rate measured in bit per second (bps). For example, modem speed
is 14,400bps.
Baud rate is a measure of the number of changes of line states per second.
Change of line state means a change from state 0 to state 1 or vice versa, for
the digital signal. For the binary digital signal, baud rate = bit rate.
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequency that
is supported by a certain channel or line.
212
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
Description
Voice band
Medium
band
Broadband
SELF-CHECK 9.4
1.
Discuss the differences between bit rate and baud rate. When will
both the bit rate and the baud rate be equal?
2.
3.
9.6
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
213
Transmission media can be classified as guided (via the physical media such as
twisted pair wires, coaxial cable and optical fibre cable) or unguided (via air,
vacuum and water).
9.6.1
Twisted pair wire is the medium that is normally used to send data in the form of
electronic pulses. It is also known as twisted pair cable. Twisted pair wire
consists of a number of coloured and shielded wires that are twisted to create
magnetic fields and therefore, will reduce noise disturbances. Normally there are
four or eight wires (forming two or four pairs). In general, each pair of wires
supports one voice channel. This kind of wires is often used for telephones.
Twisted pair wires are cheap and easily obtainable, but the signals that pass
through are easily carried away and disturbed, while its transmission rate is low.
An example of a twisted pair wire is shown in Figure 9.15.
There are two types of wires or cables, i.e. unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
shielded twisted pair (STP). Unshielded twisted pair wires are cheaper and easier
to handle, but can be disturbed easily and have a shorter coverage distance as
compared with the and shielded twisted pair.
Besides being classified into unshielded twisted pair and shielded twisted pair,
twisted pair wires are also classified according to categories set by EIA/TIA-568.
In general, the factors that differentiate between these categories are the thickness
of wires according to American wire gauge (AWG) and the error features.
9.6.2
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, also called shielded cable, is made up of one or more copper wire
strings that are shielded by insulator and covered with iron mesh. This cable is
widely used to support long distance connections. This kind of cable offers
higher rate of data transmission as compared with twisted pair cable and can be
used to send all types of data (not limited to voice or text only). Examples of the
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
214
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
coaxial cables are TV cable, cable used to connect TV and receiver of TV wave,
and the short link between computer and local area network. This cable can carry
data or signals of electrical pulses type.
In the voice communication system, every coaxial cable can support about
60 voice channels. Such cables that support multiple voices are called bandwidth
coaxial cables with a speed of up to 100Mbps. This kind of cable is called thick
coaxial cable, thicknets or 0Base5, which is also called thick Ethernet.
Another kind of this cable is the basic band coaxial cable that is used to send data
at high speed such as in the local area network (LAN). Cable that is often used in
the local area network is the RG-58AU cable that is often called the thin coaxial
cable, thinnets or 10Base2, which is also called thin Ethernet with a speed of up
to 10Mbps. An example of the coaxial cable can be seen in Figure 9.16.
Coaxial cable offers bandwidth and a degree of immunity from highly unstable
signals. In addition, this cable is cheap to install and follows the standard.
However, this cable incurs high cost for long distances because of the need for
repeaters. The safety level of this cable is not yet high. Termination and
connecting points of this cable need to be done correctly to avoid spoilage that
can create congestion in the network, thus, preventing access to it.
9.6.3
Optical fibre is a medium in which data are transmitted in the form of light
pulses. Optical fibre technology is a new communication technology that is low
cost, high volume of transmission, low error rate and safe for the message.
Signals are converted into light pulses and shot by laser via shielded optical fibre.
That light will move and refract along the cable shield. This fibre can transmit
data at a speed of 80Gbps. A picture of the optical fibre cable can be seen in
Figure 9.17.
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
215
Optical fibre is made from silicon fibre or silica, which is thinner than the human
hair. It can be used to transmit various types of data such as video, pictures,
multimedia, music and graphics. Since data are transmitted via light, they are not
affected by electronic disturbances and that will reduce errors in data
transmission. This fibre is also lighter than coaxial cable. Optical fibre cable is
used for linking long distances or linking between continents. Each fibre can
support multiple voice channels or TV channels.
9.6.4
Microwave System
Microwave does not use cables as its transmission media, but uses air or sky
space. Microwave uses the radio system, which uses high frequency to send and
receive data. Microwave signals are sent in the form of line of sight. These signals
cannot be bent according to the surface of the earth or to avoid hills, mountains
and tall buildings. Therefore, relay stations are used to link up microwave
signals. The number of relay stations depends on the shape of earth, normally
30km50km between each other. Relay stations are normally placed on top of tall
buildings, hills and tall towers. The frequency of microwave transmission
is measured in two until 40GHz. An example of relay station can be seen in
Figure 9.18.
216
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
9.6.5
Satellite System
The satellite approach is used when the transmission distance is long and there
exists many obstacles. Data or signals that are carried via the satellite are in the
microwave form for representing voice, data and video. Satellite is an electronic
device that contains up to 100 transponders (small, specific radios) that receive,
strengthen and resend the signals.
Satellite acts as a relay station between one earth station and another earth
station. The signal frequency that is uplink to satellite is different from the signal
frequency that is downlink to the earth station. Types of satellites are classified
according to their locations from the earths surface and also the signal frequency
to uplink and to downlink. Example of satellite is shown in Figure 9.19.
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
217
Satellite system is expensive but cost-effective for sending large volumes of data.
The satellite coverage area on earth is called footprint. The position between
satellites needs to follow certain rules to avoid signal disturbances between each
other. There are three advantages and seven disadvantages of using satellite
system, as presented in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Satellite System
Advantages
Disadvantages
High loading
218
9.6.6
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
Infrared
9.6.7
Radio
Radio frequency technology that utilises the wireless transmission is divided into
two, i.e. high frequency and low frequency. High frequency radio technology,
such as cellular radio, can penetrate office walls but has limited coverage. Low
frequency radio technology utilises the radio spectrum technology, has a big
penetrating power, wide coverage but has a problem of disturbances. Radio
spectrum technology utilises the normal radio frequency such as amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) and short wave. This technology
is normally used for pagers.
Pager is actually a radio receiver that receives a message or signals at a certain
frequency sent by a sender.
Cellular radio technology is designed for mobile computing and often uses
mobile phone, also called the cellular telephone. In Malaysia, there are many
cellular telephone operators like Celcom, Digi and Maxis. This cellular
technology uses radio frequency and cell sites. Cell site is a geographical area of a
circular shape that operates the cellular phone inside a specified physical area.
Users move from one cell to another cell. Each cell is linked to the master cell site
that provides a link to the normal telephone network. Normally, data transfer
rate for the cellular radio is up to 19,200bps.
Cellular radio technology can also use low earth orbit satellite. Examples of
cellular radio satellites are Iridium and Teledesic. Cellular radio technology has
progressed and various latest cellular technologies have been introduced in the
world.
TOPIC 9
9.6.8
COMMUNICATION
219
Telephone Network
The telephone network used by the public is called public switched telephone
network that handles voice. Public switched telephone network is also
sometimes called plain old telephone service (POTS). Now, public switched
telephone network has used various media such as optical fibre, microwave
system and satellite system. Data inside public switched telephone network can
be sent by dial-up lines, leased lines or dedicated lines.
The sender is the message transmitter or the place where a message begins.
The sender may be a person, software application, machine that can create
messages or replies without human assistance, system user, sensor, staff card
reader or other input devices.
Cellular radio technology concept has becoming more popular now. Many
communication companies like Maxis, Celcom and DiGi uses this technology.
220
TOPIC 9
COMMUNICATION
Analogue signal
Media
Asynchronous transmission
Microwave system
Coaxial cable
Networking
Coder
Radio
Communication
Receiver
Data communication
Satellite system
Decoder
Sender
Digital signals
Simplex
Synchronous transmission
Full-duplex
Telephone network
Half-duplex
Infrared system
Topic Information
10
Technology
Issues and
Opportunities
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
INTRODUCTION
Now, we are vigorously going through the process of information revolution
where the information technology (IT) has revolutionised our capability of
extracting, manipulating, storing, communicating and presenting information.
As discussed in the previous topics, IT is not only made up of computer
hardware and software, but also people with the know-how and people as users
of the technology.
222
TOPIC 10
10.1
In another word, ethics is a philosophy that deals with the principles of doing
good and bad, especially in the context of morality.
Morality is a traditional belief or religious belief in the conduct of doing right
and wrong.
TOPIC 10
223
When this issue is raised, you may be asking, what is the relationship between
ethics and IT? The advancement of IT has created a world without borders. We
can now interact with anyone regardless of location, while data too can be moved
from one location to another. Even your confidential data that used to be kept in
your drawer before, can be easily opened now, if they have been converted into
the electronic form. Behind these facilities provided by IT, we need to be aware of
irresponsible parties who take advantage of our carelessness in using IT in our
daily activities. Now, it is very important to emphasise the ethical aspect of IT to
user of this technology.
In most organisations, computers are used to help the management to ensure
smooth and efficient running. Top management too can use IT in making
important strategic decisions. Ethical problems are often discussed in the human
resource management, whereby, IT has opened up new ways of doing ethical
and unethical businesses electronically. IT users are now confronted with series
of ethical issues, especially when they perform duties in the office. Examples are:
(a)
(b)
Is there a need to see all the e-mails of junior staff to ensure that they do not
use e-mails for personal objectives?
(c)
(d)
224
TOPIC 10
There are many aspects of ethical practices in our society with regards to the
application of IT. For example, using IT creates an impact on the society and this
gives rise to ethical considerations in many other areas. IT has both positive and
negative effects on the society in many fields. Now, let us see further details of
the impacts of IT on society in the following Table 10.1:
Table 10.1: Seven Impacts of Information Technology in Society
Impact
Details
Societal
solutions
IT can address the needs of people on the street and provide solutions to
several problems in our society. Societal networking software like e-mail,
Facebook and chatting help people to communicate and interact easily
and quickly making distance quite a trivial matter. The world also has
been transformed into a virtual global village and without borders.
Employment
Working
conditions
Health
Where the use of IT hardware can endanger its users, such as spoiling
eyesight, exposure to radiation and strain on the back.
Privacy
Individuality
Crime
This can happen as a result of a wide use of IT, such as cloning credit
cards and siphoning money out of a bank account.
TOPIC 10
225
This is unethically done in the interest of the business. Many ethical risks may
arise when IT is implemented as a result of information error, trespassing privacy
and environmental pollution.
Recognizing that individuals need specific standards for the ethical use of
computers, a number of computer-related organisations have established IT
codes of conduct. An IT code of conduct is a written guideline that helps
determine whether a specific computer action is ethical or unethical.
Ten points that have been proposed by the Computer Ethics Institute as a guide
for users and computer professionals are:
226
TOPIC 10
If all computer users follow all these proposed guidelines, we may not worry
about security. Therefore, as discussed, ethics is a standard moral conduct while
computer ethics is a guideline for using computers so as to be morally acceptable
in our society. We can generalise the ethics of using computers into four main
issues, as shown in Figure 10.2.
Details
Individuality
Accuracy
Ownership
Someone who owns data and has a right over the software.
Accessibility
The responsibility of someone who has the data to control, about who
can use the data.
The Centre for Democracy and Technology controls the issue of individuality
and legality. To know the details of this organisation, please visit the website
www.cdt.org.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Nowadays, there are companies that monitor Internet activities and
websites. Most of these firms sell a list of mails and detailed personal
profiles without permission. How do you safeguard yourself? Share
your answers with your classmates.
TOPIC 10
10.2
227
10.2.1
228
TOPIC 10
Now, let us look at these threats in more depth, beginning with computer
criminals, followed by computer crime and disaster.
(a)
Description
Staff
Outside
Users
Not only staff but suppliers and customers can also access the
companys computer system, for example, bank customers who
use the ATM. Similar to staff, authorised users can obtain secret
password or look for alternative ways of committing computer
crimes.
Crackers
Vandals
Vandals perform the same thing like hackers but for the purpose of
vengeance. They may intend to steal technical information or to
introduce what is called a logical bomb, i.e. a computer program
that destroys the computer.
TOPIC 10
(b)
229
Description
Destruction
Workers who are not happy with their employers may try to
destroy the computer, programs or files. Crackers and vandals
can produce and spread dangerous programs such as viruses. A
virus is a program that spreads via network and operating
system. It always move from one computer to another through
floppy disc copies, programs downloaded from the Internet or email circulation.
Theft
Manipulation
Cloning
230
(c)
TOPIC 10
Disasters There are also other factors that can harm a computer system
and data security. Here are FOUR other disasters that could threaten the
security of computer systems and data (Table 10.5).
Table 10.5: Four Disasters that Could Threaten Computer
Systems and Data Security
Categories
Description
Natural Disaster
Sabotage
Technological
Failure
Human Error
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1.
What are the three types of computer crimes? Which is the most
extreme in terms of economic and social development? Explain.
2.
TOPIC 10
10.2.2
231
(a)
Example
Security codes, data entry screen, error signals and control
totals.
Processing
control
Output control
Storage control
232
(b)
TOPIC 10
(ii)
(d)
(ii)
TOPIC 10
233
Here are four examples of the physical facilities control described in Table 10.7.
Table 10.7: Four Examples of the Physical Facilities Control
Category
Description
Encryption and
Firewall
Physical Protection
Control
Biometric Control
Control on
Computer Failure
As computer users, we are advised to use computers in proper ways and some
good guidelines that should be followed are:
(a)
When sharing information or data, ensure that they are done carefully to
avoid virus from spreading;
(b)
(c)
(d)
234
TOPIC 10
(e)
If the information is sensitive, make sure that the computer and its files are
secured;
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(ii)
SELF-CHECK 10.2
State some of the actions to can be taken to safeguard computer
security.
10.2.3
Information Privacy
TOPIC 10
235
Today, huge databases store this data online. Much of the data is personal and
confidential and should be accessible only to authorised users. Many individuals
and organisations, however, question whether this data really is private. That is,
some companies and individuals collect and use this information without your
authorisation. Web sites often collect data about you, so that they can customize
advertisements and send you personalised e-mail messages. Some employers
monitor your computer usage and e-mail messages.
IT has facilitated the process of data collection and storage. For example, bank
stores data on every customer which includes age, marital status, total savings,
total loans, saving conducts and others. Universities keep student records which
include academic achievements, co-curricular activities, types of studies, types
of financial support, age, parent occupations, nationality and others. Road
Transport Department (JPJ) keeps car owners names and their detailed
particulars. All these are cases where individual privacy can be misused by the
keepers of information.
If customers have credit cards, the bank will have data on spending habits,
methods of debt repayments, types of purchase, income and others. Therefore,
bank and road transport officers may use these data to sell to some interested
parties for marketing and other purposes. All these data from banks, universities
and Road Transport Department are personal private data which can be used for
evaluating an individuals way of life.
Privacy issues can be:
(a)
(b)
Can the bank sell personal data on individuals to other companies for
marketing purposes?
(c)
(d)
How can individuals determine that their personal data are accurate?
(e)
Can the Road Transport Department sell information about cars and their
owners?
236
TOPIC 10
The Internet has opened up this issue of privacy even more widely. With the
Internet, users can use e-mails for communications.
Privacy issues that may arise from the use of e-mails are:
(a)
(b)
Whether the contents of e-mails are regarded as personal items that cannot
be publicised to other parties?
(c)
Whether the employer has the right to read e-mails of his/her employees?
(d)
(e)
Actually, e-mails that are sent through the Internet are not safe, as anyone from
anywhere can simply read them. The e-mail is like a piece of postcard. All e-mail
messages are open for all to read. A number of techniques have been introduced
to ensure safety of messages inside e-mails. A technique is to encrypt the
message, whereby it is converted into a form of codes, but the codes will be
reconverted back to the actual message upon reaching its destination. Research
on encryption is still ongoing and various techniques have been devised to better
safeguard against intrusion by irresponsible persons.
Another example is the use of multi-purpose smart cards. MyKad is a prime
project that has been developed for the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia
(MSC Malaysia). This card contains information on identity card numbers,
driving licence numbers, passport information, ATM, Touch n Go and health
information. The smart card that has been introduced is a kind of smart card with
multiple purposes. Before this, most of the smart cards that have been introduced
all over the world were multi-purpose, such as for boarding transit train systems,
toll payments and calling prepaid phones. The smart card being used in Malaysia
is a smart card that contains personal information. Such cards have been
introduced in other countries before, but they were not successful.
Privacy issues that arise as a result of using the smart card are:
(a)
(b)
Data security against intrusion by other parties if the card is lost or stolen;
and
(c)
TOPIC 10
237
Nowadays, privacy is an ethical issue because many records stored by the nongovernmental organisations are not covered by existing laws. In spite of that,
individuals have shown that they are very concerned with the control of who has
the right over personal information and how it is used.
10.3
Users are a key component in any information system. Thus, protecting users is
just as important as protecting hardware, software and data. The widespread use
of computers has led to some important user health concerns. Users should be
proactive and minimise their chance of risk. The following sections discuss health
risks and preventions, along with measures users can take to keep the
environment healthy.
10.3.1
238
TOPIC 10
You can take many precautions to prevent these types of injuries. Take frequent
breaks during the computer session to exercise your hands and arms. To prevent
injury due to typing, place a wrist rest between the keyboard and the edge of
your desk. To prevent injury while using a mouse, place the mouse at least six
inches from the edge of the desk. In this position, your wrist is flat on the desk.
Finally, minimise the number of times you switch between mouse and keyboard,
and avoid using the heel of your hand as a pivot point while typing or using the
mouse.
Another type of health-related condition due to computer usage is computer
vision syndrome (CVS). You may have computer vision syndrome if you have
sore, tired, burning, itching or dry eyes; blurred or double vision; distance
blurred vision after prolonged staring at a display device; headache or sore neck;
difficulty shifting focus between a display device and documents; difficulty
focusing on the screen image; colour fringes or after images when you look away
from the display device; and increased sensitivity to light. Eyestrain associated
with computer vision syndrome is not thought to have serious or long-term
consequences.
People who spend their workday using the computer sometimes complain of
lower back pain, muscle fatigue and emotional fatigue. Lower back pain
sometimes is caused from poor posture. Always sit properly in the chair while
you work. To alleviate back pain, muscle fatigue and emotional fatigue, take 15
to 30 minutes break every two hours do stand up, walk around, stretch and relax.
Another way to help prevent these injuries is to be sure your workplace is
designed ergonomically.
10.3.2
Ergonomics
Did you know that the use of a computer can make a person more productive in
the work or otherwise? Based on the effect, scientists and experts have developed
an interest in doing more research in this area, known as ergonomics.
Ergonomics is the study of ways on how to ensure that humans can handle
computer and other equipment in an easy to use manner to minimise
movement, energy, strain and ensure healthy life.
TOPIC 10
239
240
10.3.3
TOPIC 10
Green Computing
TOPIC 10
241
Do you know what the basic elements of this green concept are? The basic
elements of green computing consist of a system unit, display and
manufacturers. Further details on the green methods used by each of these
elements are described in Table 10.8.
Table 10.8: Three Green Computing Method
Category
System Unit
Displays
Manufacturers
Detail
Often used in portable computers, where the system unit:
Is using a processor and hard disk drives that save energy and able
to be in the idle mode when not in use.
Use display units that replace cathode ray tube (CRT) with flat
panels using special low energy monitors.
Use software that can alter screen displays into idle mode when
not in use.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1.
What are activities that you can do to avoid eye stress, headache,
pain in the backbone and neck that are related to computers
usage?
2.
242
TOPIC 10
To reduce the environmental impact of computing further, users simply can alter
a few habits. Figure 10.7 listed 11 green computing suggestions for you to
contribute to green computing effort.
Ethics is about behaviour and moral conduct; whether it brings good or bad
influences on human beings.
TOPIC 10
243
There are 10 items proposed by the Computer Ethics Institute guide for users
and computer professionals. Among them are do not use computer to harm
other people, do not disturb others computer work and do not intrude into
the others computer files.
There are three things that can threaten the safety of the computer:
Private issue revolves around the collection and storage of data consumers;
that has the right, usefulness, safety, reliability and so.
Computer use can cause users to experience health problems. This can be
overcome with the right techniques and methods.
There are three basic elements of green computing: system unit, display and
producers where these elements use various methods of environmentally
friendly, energy saving and etc.
244
TOPIC 10
Green computing
Health
Copyrights
Issues
Crimes
Privacy
Electronic vandalism
Encryption
Risks
Ergonomics
Security
Ethics
Threats
MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
OR
2.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology
(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.:
03-27732578
Fax No.:
03-26978702