Chapter 2

Student Lecture Notes

2-1

Contents
1.

Chapter 2
Methods for Describing
Sets of Data
1. Describe data using graphs
2. Describe data using numerical measures

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Frequency distributions and graphs for

Qualitative/Categorical Variables
Frequency distributions and graphs for Quantitative
Variables
Numerical Measures of Central Tendency
Numerical Measures of Variability
Interpreting the Standard Deviation
Numerical Measures of Relative Standing
Methods for Detecting Outliers: Box Plots and z-scores

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

2.1 Frequency distributions and graphs

for Qualitative/Categorical Variables
Presentation

Qualitative
Variable

Quantitative
Variable

Summary
Table

Frequency
Distribution

Bar
Graph

Pie
Chart

Pareto
Diagram

A class is one of the categories into which

qualitative data can be classified.
The class frequency is the number of
observations in the data set falling into a
particular class.

Histogram

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

2.1 Frequency distributions and graphs

for Qualitative/Categorical Variables
.
The class relative frequency is the class
frequency divided by the total numbers of
observations in the data set.
The class percentage is the class relative
frequency multiplied by 100.
2011 Pearson Education, Inc

Statistics, 10/e

DEGREE

Valid

Bachelors
Law
Masters
MBA
None
PhD
Total

Frequency
8
4
4
20
2
2
40

Percent
20.0
10.0
10.0
50.0
5.0
5.0
100.0

Valid Percent
20.0
10.0
10.0
50.0
5.0
5.0
100.0

Cumulative
Percent
20.0
30.0
40.0
90.0
95.0
100.0

2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Chapter 2

Student Lecture Notes

2-2

Summary Table

Bar Graph
150

2. Obtained by tallying responses in category

Percent
Used
Also

3. May show frequencies (counts), % or both

Row Is
Category

Major
Count
Accounting
130
Economics
20
Management
50
Total
200
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Frequency

1. Lists categories & number of elements in category

Equal Bar
Widths

50

Tally:
|||| ||||
|||| ||||

0
Acct.

Frequency

Percent
Used
Also

Vertical Bars
for Qualitative
Variables

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

Pie Chart

Bar Height
Shows
Frequency or %

100

Mgmt.

Zero Point

Like a bar graph, but with the categories arranged by

height in descending order from left to right.
Equal Bar
Widths

Econ.
Major

Pareto Diagram
150

Bar Height
Shows
Frequency or %

100

50

1. Shows breakdown of
total quantity into
categories
2. Useful for showing
relative differences

Majors
Econ.
10%

Mgmt.
25%
36

Acct.
65%

3. Angle size

0
Acct.

Mgmt.

Econ.

Major

Zero Point

(360)(percent)

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(360) (10%) = 36
Vertical Bars
for Qualitative
Variables

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

2.2 Frequency distributions and graphs

for Quantitative Variables

Frequency Distribution Table

Example

1. Determine range

Raw Data: 24, 26, 24, 21, 27 27 30, 41, 32, 38

2. Select number of classes

Usually between 5 & 15 inclusive

Class

3. Compute class intervals (width)

4. Determine class boundaries (limits)
5. Compute class midpoints
6. Count observations & assign to classes
2011 Pearson Education, Inc

Statistics, 10/e

Width

Midpoint Frequency

15 25

20

25 35

30

35 45

40

Boundaries

(Lower + Upper Boundaries) / 2

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Chapter 2

Student Lecture Notes

2.2 Frequency distributions and graphs

for Quantitative Variables

Relative Frequency &

% Distribution Tables
Relative Frequency
Distribution

Class

Graphical Methods
Histogram

Percentage
Distribution

Prop.

2-3

Class

15 25

.3

15 25

30.0

25 35

.5

25 35

50.0

35 45

.2

35 45

20.0

2011 Pearson Education, Inc

A histogram is a way of summarising data that are

measured on an interval scale (either discrete or
continuous). It is often used in exploratory data analysis
to illustrate the major features of the distribution of the
data in a convenient form.
An alternative visual display of a frequency distribution is a
frequency polygon. We construct a frequency polygon by
plotting each frequency at the midpoint of its interval.

14

Histogram
Class
15 25
25 35
35 45

Count
5
Frequency
Relative
Frequency
Percent

4
3
Bars
Touch

2
1

Freq.
3
5
2

Graph become an efficient way of

providing information.
Graph can be used to mislead as well as
inform.

0
0

15

25

35

45

55

Lower Boundary
2011 Pearson Education, Inc

Statistics, 10/e

2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc.