MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Improvisation: An Essential Element of Musical Proficiency

Author(s): Bill Dobbins
Source: Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5 (Jan., 1980), pp. 36-41
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for
Music Education
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AN

ESSENTIAL
ELEMENT OF

MUSICAL
PROFICIENCY
tq

Bill Dobbins

guage of music excels in the direc

communication of moods, emotions, physical sensations, and state
Music is unique in its ability to

project the vitality of life itselfof consciousness.

To achieve true clarity of exthrough images that cannot be expression, however, a highly propressed in words. Verbal language
ficient command of language is necexcels in the literal and figurative
essary. The capacities for creative
description of technical processes

self-expression and spontaneous

and physical properties. The lanconversational interaction indicate a

person's proficiency in the use of a

verbal language. The most exactly

The author is associate professor ofjazz
studies and contemporary media at Eastman equivalent music skill is that of imSchool of Music in Rochester, New York.

provisation: the spontaneous ex-

36 mej/jan '80
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pression of musical images that directly reflect the immediate ideas,

emotions, and sensations of the

improviser.

The conventional process of developing proficiency in the use of a

verbal language might be broken
into four general stages. In the
most primitive stage, the learner

begins to distinguish isolated words

and phrases from nonsense syllables. In the second stage a basic vocabulary is acquired through rote
imitation and, if possible, reading.
In the third stage vocabulary is ex-

panded and applied to spontaneous

term implies, whether it involves

playing from a score or from memory. It is an important and necessary stage of development, but it is

formance, since the improviser

himself is changing from one moment to the next. Just as a single

of little ultimate creative value if it

infinite number of sentences con-

does not lead to a capacity for

spontaneous musical expression.
The ability to play a Beethoven so-

veying ideas that are sharply contrasting or even contradictory, so a

single thematic music motif may be
the subject of a nearly infinite num-

nata or an Art Tatum solo is, by itself, no more an indication of musical creativity than is the ability to

read a Shakespeare play an indication of the ability to use the

English language creatively. Even

interpreters of classical music

should be creative conversation-

noun may be the subject of a nearly

ber of compositions or improvisations reflecting a variety of moods

and styles. Consider, for example,

the numerous classical composi-

tions based on the famous B-A-C-H

motive, or the numerous jazz improvisations based on the tune

alists, as well as readers, in the

"Stella by Starlight."
"languages" of the compositions
Improvisation has been described
with the intuitive and subconscious
they are interpreting. Otherwise,
as instant composition. The tradihow can one hope to faithfully inter- tional composer customarily revises
processes of thought, feeling, and
pret the works of early composers
physical movement. Only the most
his or her work many times over a
who were known for their formidiligent and highly motivated stuperiod of weeks, months, or years
dents reach this level of proficiency dable improvisational skills?
before permanently fixing its form
The process and discipline of im- in a completed score. The improin languages learned after early
childhood.
provisation provides the sole access viser develops a different version of
to the advanced stages of musical
These four stages are intera given work in every single perdevelopment, in which musical con- formance. Each version is simultadependent and do not necessarily
versation within a group and spon- neously a finished work and a
follow this precise order. For extaneous expression of musical ideas single stage of a work in progress.
ample, persons who move to a
foreign country often learn to con- as a soloist become possible. ImSince improvisers commonly retain
provisation can be studied in rela- certain works in their repertories
verse before developing an extention to any music style. In fact, the for many years, continuous improvisive reading vocabulary. Furthersation often results in several vernumerous stylistic varieties of immore, each stage irl this learning
provisation existing within the
process may be subdivided acsions of a single work that achieve
broad categories of jazz, Western
cording to the size of the vocabua degree of musical perfection on a
lary involved and the precision with classical music, Indian music, Afripar with the best written composican music, and other musics from tions. Miles Davis' numerous rewhich it is used. The practice of
conversational usage, for example, throughout the world are analogous cordings of Sonny Rollins' tune
usually begins with a relatively lim- to the various verbal languages and "Oleo" clearly illustrate this point.
dialects found in each particular
ited vocabulary. In any case, full
The basic principles of tension/
culture. While many contemporary
proficiency in the use of a verbal
relaxation or expectation/fulfillment
language must include the ability to improvisers have mastered only
are central to thematic development
command a considerable vocabuone music style, an increasing num- in many art forms. In music, the lisber are, in effect, music philologists, tener's attention is captivated
lary with equal facility at the readhaving mastered the vocabularies of through the creation of expectaing, conversational, and intuitive
levels.
several styles.
tions that subtly lead from one
The development of proficiency
point in the music to the next. In
in a music "language" involves the
the most successful improvisations
Principles of improvisation
same general process. Exposure to
the feeling of complete relaxation
The key to understanding the
a particular type of music over a
process of improvisation lies in the or fulfillment is effectively delayed
until the end. Consistent control of
long period of time results in the
ability to experience a work of murecognition of common melodic
sic as a fluid, ongoing development this type of development requires
of sounds rather than as a static oband rhythmic prototypes that charstrong powers of attention and concentration. If too much unrelated
acterize the style. Formal study usuject fixed by a notated score. Each
ailly begins with simple rote imitamaterial is inadvertently introduced,
musical idea suggests its own potion of the teacher and mastery of
clear musical expectations cannot
tential for variation and developbe created. If the initial thematic
elementary principles of notation
ment, which is realized through the
and music reading. Unfortunately,
ideas are not developed in a truly
course of the work, depending on
music education too often ends
the skill and sensitivity of the imcompelling manner, the attention of
when this second stage has reachedproviser. Because the process of
the listener is likely to wander.
an advanced level of development, improvisation directly reflects the
A brief comparison of practices
where the student can read, memo-inner state of the improviser as he
in various Western musics can prorize, or otherwise re-create music
or she is playing, the same musical vide some helpful clarification of
of considerable technical difficulty. idea may suggest different possiwhich elements of musical improviReading music is merely what the bilities of development in each per- sation are subject to change and

conversation. In the fourth stage the

language becomes fully integrated

mej/jan '80 37
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which remain constant. The most

common practice found in Baroque, Classical, jazz, and Western

ances of graphically notated works

by avant-garde classical composers.

simplicity. Complex and overwritten

melodies are less likely to make a

lasting impression on the listener.

The principal function of rhythm
traditional folk styles is spontaneous Mastering basic elements
ornamentation and embellishment
Although the music styles and vo- is that of framing the melodic conof melodies that are otherwise fixed
cabularies of various historical peri- tent and its accompaniment in figures that are appropriate to the
or precomposed. In most folk mu- ods and cultures may be vastly different, certain basic characteristics
tempo, mood, and general style of
sic this kind of improvisation octhe music. The music traditions of
curs naturally and does not result
of music improvisation seem strikAfrica,
India, South America, and
from any formal training or study. It ingly universal. To develop a capacis worth noting, however, that the
ity for improvisation in an advanced North America each possess distinct
remarkable intuitive sensitivity that
music style such as jazz, a musician rhythmic styles and vocabularies
sets apart the most evocative folk
must come to a clear understanding that help intensify their highly individual tonal and melodic charactermusicians from their less impresof the relationships between the
istics.
sive fellows is exactly the same
basic elements of melody, rhythm,
Rhythm is probably the most
quality that distinguishes exand harmony. Although an extencommunicative element in music.
ceptional classical and jazz artists
sive study of the creative use of
these elements is well beyond the Many listeners can identify a familfrom their mediocre colleagues.
Both the Baroque and jazz conscope of this article, some general iar tune just from hearing its
cepts of improvised melodic orna- comments may help to suggest
rhythm played on an indefinitely
mentation involve a specific knowltheir potential function in improvi- pitched instrument such as a snare
sation.
drum. Rhythm, then, has great poedge of appropriate ornamental
figures and style of delivery or exeMelody has been defined as sim- tential for an improviser in terms of
cution, although the actual effect is ply a succession of tones. All too of- clarifying the development of melodic ideas. Rhythmic figures also
ten, unfortunately, it is treated as no
often quite similar to the spontaneous colorations heard in a spirited more than that. An overly academic can be developed independently

folk performance. Baroque, Classical, and jazz musics also share the

approach to the understanding of through simple techniques such as

melody entirely misses the emo- call and response, repetition, exten-

practice of fully developed, sponta-

tional and intuitive aspects that en- sion, and fragmentation, as well as

tune. The true Classical cadenza is

ic content of musical sound is to

augmentation and diminution of

neous rhythmic and melodic reable a musician to "play melodiworkings of precomposed material. cally." In an actual performance, note values within a given figure.
In a Baroque passacaglia and chamelody can convey an almost vocal Harmony is the most developed
conne, the improviser follows a
transmission of tones and shapes element in Western music. Most trapreset chord progression or ground through an instrument. A thorough ditional musics outside of Europe
bass line in much the same way as understanding of tone production, and North America are not based
a jazz musician often follows the
phrasing, articulation, and dynamics on any system of vertical harmony,
is, therefore, essential if the melod- although these musics tend to be
chord progressions of a specific

highly advanced in terms of melodic and rhythmic development. Convincing harmonic progressions are
usually composed of several interdependent melodic lines that, together, suggest harmonic movement in relation to an implied tonal
center or key. Harmony can be
used effectively to increase the color and density of the melodic and
rhythmic content when this complexity seems appropriate. Furthermore, the tendencies of resolution
inherent in common harmonic proment are realized at the moment of
tive study of this aspect of melody gressions can be used to great adperformance. The Classical fantasia in European classical music. More vantage in heightening melodic and
rhythmic tensions or expectations.
or fantasy was remarkably similar in specific melodic designs include
concept. In fact, many musicians
call and response, groups of either Because harmony is the most signifand theorists of the eighteenth cen- similar or parallel phrases, simple icant Western contribution to world
music, any Westerner aspiring to
tury went so far as to contend that ternary forms, and phrase repetiif such a work were written down it
tion. These forms are often develbecome a musician in any meaningful sense of the word should begin
could no longer be called a true
oped further through phrase extenfantasia. In our own time a definite
by thoroughly mastering the prinsion, fragmentation, and various
ciples of functional harmony from
similarity exists between the freetypes of sequential patterns. It is
the eighteenth century to the presform improvisations of avant-garde
important to note that the most
ent day.
jazz artists such as Cecil Taylor, Paul commuhicative melodies are usualA skilled improviser in any tradiBley, and Anthony Braxton and the
ly developed from short motivic
tion, then, must be able to deal
variations that occur in performfragments of extreme clarity and

developed spontaneously from har-make a vivid impression.

monic and melodic material heard
The most convincing melodies
earlier in a given movement of a seem to follow certain basic scheconcerto; the manner of its develmatic designs. The most general of
opment, however, is much less
these patterns involves a gradual
strict than in Baroque music and stepwise movement, ascending or
more similar to unaccompanied
descending, through relatively long
jazz solo cadenzas.
melodic sections. This stepwise
Some contemporary jazz soloists, movement is often disguised
such as Keith Jarrett, improvise en- through decorative use of melodic
tire selections with no precomembellishments, arpeggios, octave
posed material whatsoever, so that displacement, and chromaticism.
the themes as well as their develop-Heinrich Schenker made an exhaus-

38 mej/jan '80
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musical material. Without such an

aim, improvisation becomes either

an empty technical display or an

uncontrolled emotional catharsis.

a song, but quite a substantial effect

on its delivery in terms of vocal and
instrumental inflections and embellishments that are the result of a

simple momentary inspiration

rather than technical or theoretical
study. These interpretive elements
Improvisation has played a promfor the fact that many
inent role throughout the historyaccount
of
world musics. Until quite recently subtle but clearly audible differences in rhythm and melodic orwe have tended to ignore the fact

A historical overview

namentation can be heard in nuthat European classical music from

merous performances of the same
1600 to the present comprises only

a small fraction of the world's mu- song as performed by different indi-

A skilled improviser in
any tradition must be
able to deal with the

relevant elements of
melody, rhythm, and
harmony in a spontaneous and expressive
manner. These music ele-

viduals from the same geographic

sic. Furthermore, our general neregion.
glect of improvisation as a creative
discipline stands in direct contrast The simple, repetitive nature of
much folk music therefore allows
to the rest of the world, where imboth for the strengthening of social
provisation has thrived in virtually
and cultural identification through
every cultural region.
The traditional folk music of
group singing and for cultivation of
most cultures survives and evolves
a modest but significant degree of
through an aural (and oral) tradi- individuality. The great beauty of
folk music lies in the fact that, apart
tion, being passed on by careful
rote imitation from one generation from ritual activities, it serves abso-

to the next. The classical music of

lutely no purpose beyond the basic

many Eastern cultures has been de- human need for self-expression.
Improvisation of a more complex
veloped through a synthesis of au-

ral and written traditions. In the

ments must be thoroughly

understood and assimi-

West, however, aural tradition has

essentially died out in relation to

lated technically, aurally,
classical music. This great loss has
and kinetically, as well
been the result of what can only be
as theoretically.
described as our obsession with

with the relevant elements of melo-

dy, rhythm, and harmony in a spon-

taneous and expressive manner.

These music elements must be

character than the spontaneous variation found in simple folk traditions

begatp in the West with the ancient
Greeks, who practiced it as an artistic discipline and as a form of self-

amusement. Special feast days were

occasions for the improvisation of
both music and poetry. Unfortuthe power of all visual media fromnately, little specific technical
the printing press to the television knowledge of this ancient tradition

written notation, a clear symptom

of our imprudent vulnerability to

screen. The inestimable value of an

has survived.

The introduction of improvised

thoroughly understood and assimi- aural tradition is clearly illustrated
lated technically, aurally, and kinet- by the simple fact that Hindustanis elaborations within precomposed
ically, as well as theoretically. More- and Japanese can still authentically music became a significant part of
the European tradition with the
over, the skillful yet imaginative
recreate classical music that origi-

control of these elements is of far

greater importance than mere technical virtuosity. Ear training, either

formal or contextual, is a vital aid
in developing this ability. During
actual improvisation no time exists
for mental analysis, and no score

can be consulted. An improviser

must be able to accurately hear the
melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic

tendencies in the music he or she

nated hundreds of years ago, while evolution of melismatic Gregorian

Western musicologists already are chant, continued to develop
through the late medieval practice
arguing about the correct interpretation of music written at the be-of improvised harmonizations (disginning of this century. Indeed, the cantus supra librum), and reached
its zenith during the Baroque and
severe limitations inherent in any
system of notation should be obvi-

early Classical era of the seven-

ous to anyone who has attempted teenth and eighteenth centuries.

to make a precisely notated tran-

Many music historians regard this

period as the peak of theoretical

scription of an improvised solo.
Folk songs in cultures relying on consolidation and general music lit-

eracy in Western history to date.

Music thrived in every church,
where the music logically can go
way. New verses and subtle varia- court, and social institution, and imfrom there. In addition, a musitions of refrains commonly are de- provisation was an integral part of
cian's kinetic knowledge of his or veloped from the natural feeling of musical activity.
her instrument must be developed the moment, and accompanying en- It would take a lifetime just to reto the point where it can accurately sembles often gre thrown together copy the complete works of J. S.
Bach. Only his ability to spontaneand dependably transmit musical
with whatever indigenous instruis making at any given moment in
an aural tradition rarely are perorder to intuit, with equal accuracy, formed twice in exactly the same

meaning to a listener. The highest ments happen to be available at theously improvise fully developed
fugues, inventions, passacaglias, and
time. Improvisation in folk music

ideal is the ability to achieve the

greatest clarity of expression

through the most concise use of

chaconnes can account for such an

thus usually has little direct effect
on the original thematic content of extraordinary output. It is no mere

mej/jan '80 39
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own sake. A rediscovery of the

power of music to reach people

physically, emotionally, and spiritually, as well as intellectually, could

lead to a major cultural renewal in

Improvisation, like verbal language skills, should be

introduced in the earliest stages of education to
become a natural and fully functioning part of a
person's creative skills. It should be taught through an
approach that integrates ear training, sight-reading,
instrumental and vocal technique, and theory into a
unified and complete understanding of music as a
language.
coincidence that musical proficiency in the Baroque period in-

contemporary Western civilization.

A revival of the practices and ideals

of improvisation could play a cen-

tral role in such a renaissance.

cadenza a performer freely developed thematic material from the

Jazz
There can be little argument that
jazz represents the most highly developed form of music improvisation currently practiced in the Western hemisphere. It is also the only
Western art form of our century
that has evolved legitimately from

cluded the ability to improvise

three- and four-part counterpoint

written sections of a movement. It

folk traditions. There are at least

was not uncommon for audiences

four basic concepts integral to the

on any given subject. Bach's Musical Offering was, in fact, the result
of a fugal improvisation on a theme
given to him by Frederick the

to burst into applause at the end ofevolution of jazz in America that

a particularly impressive cadenza, amply justify this high valuation.

Great.

The interpretation of Baroque

works customarily involved the

spontaneous use of florid embel-

lishments, particularly in slow

movements. Most performances of

Baroque music today represent only the bare skeletal outline that was
intended to be filled in by the musicians during actual performance.
This practice is clearly documented
in Bach's two versions of the "Sara-

bande" from the third English Suite

in G minor. In the second version

he wrote out characteristic embellishments and ornamentation to

suggest possibilities for further vari-

ation. This second version was nev-

er meant, however, to be taken as

the only valid ornamentation.

even before the orchestra had fin-

ished its concluding statement.

It is more than likely that the

The first and most important concept is that of instrumental sound

as an expressive extension of the

freewheeling nature of the cadenza musician's personality. The actual
contributed to the gradual decline notes in jazz are often of far less
of improvisation in European classi- significance than the manner in
cal music. The excesses of self-inwhich they are played. In addition
dulgent and insensitive improvisers to the usual development of themay have compelled Beethoven to matic material, a jazz musician attempts to directly express human
begin writing out his cadenzas,
experience through sound in an instarting with the Piano Concerto
No. 3 in C Minor. The standardtuitive manner beyond the scope of
verbal language. The usual comization of the written cadenza signaled the virtual death of improvi-

ments from listeners following a

sation in European classical music

particularly moving improvisationsuch as "He was really saying some-

of composer and performer into

separate roles.
Since the beginning of the 1960s
a renewed interest in improvisation
has been evident among contemporary classical composers. Its present

thing" or "He was really telling the

and hastened the schizoid division

truth"-are more revealing, perhaps, than we may suspect. An elu-

sive "something," an unspeakable

"truth," is momentarily captured in

the greatest jazz performances. This

Keyboard parts in Baroque chamuse is, unfortunately, relatively unber music were meant to be spon- disciplined, usually involving free

phenomenon completely transcends

the particular tune being played as

taneously realized from figured

well as the style in which it might

bass notation, and the accom-

paniments rarely were written out

in their entirety. Today, however,
the most creative aspects of Ba-

atonality, interpretation of graphic

notation, and arbitrary manipulation
of electronic gadgets that modulate

sound in various ways. The very

reappearance of improvisation,
roque music have been eliminated however, seems indicative of an un-

through strict adherence to various

derlying desire to restore sponta"complete" editions that have been neity and creative interaction to

prepared by well-meaning musi-

Western music. The recent reinves-

be categorized.
The concept of music as an extension of a person's being relates
to the jazz musician's unification of

all creative musical activities into a

whole, integrated approach. Virtually every jazz musician is an inter-

preter, improviser, composer, and

cologists. Thus, the greater part of a tigations by classical composers of arranger. It was precisely the fact
that most of the members of Duke
contemporary Baroque interpreter's lyrical melody, conventional
creative work has been removed.
Ellington's orchestra were skilled
rhythms, and tonal harmony also

During the Classical period, improvisation was approached in a

freer manner, though its use was,

for the most part, limited to the

seem to point toward such a direc- improvisers and composers in their

own right that enabled them to intion. Composers such as George
terpret Ellington's music with such
Crumb have shown the potential

authority and conviction.

value in preserving the strongest
spontaneous invention of cadenzas
The second important concept
elements from all existing music
in solo concertos, one of the princi- traditions, free from the avant-garde that has been indispensable to the
evolution of jazz is its reliance on
pal forms of the period. During a
preoccupation with novelty for its

40 mej/jan '80
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aural transmission of musical infor-

real meaning for young players unand coloristic range beyond that of

mation. Imagine the absurdity of attempting to learn the style of Louis

Armstrong from a printed page. Jazz

most twentieth-century classical muless they hear what they are playing

musicians always have learned the

most expressive elements of their
skills through meticulous imitation

of established masters of the tradi-

tion. Each generation simultaneously studies the previous generation

and teaches what it has learned to

the subsequent generation.

sic. Pianist-composers from Dukeand have some understanding of

Ellington and Art Tatum to Bill

why it sounds the way it does.
Evans and Keith Jarrett have applied In general music classrooms, jazz
the vertical sounds of impression- should be studied and discussed
ism, neo-Classicism, polytonality, with at least the same emphasis and
enthusiasm as classical music.
and free atonality to functional har-

monic movement. The resultant

Teachers should encourage pride in

harmonic vocabulary and freedom the jazz tradition as America's major

have remained virtually unknown to contribution to world musics. Amermost classically trained contempo- icans should feel the same admir-

The third important characteristic rary composers. It is strange, inof the jazz tradition is its tendency
deed, that many American musitoward inclusion and assimilation
cians show great enthusiasm for
rather than exclusion and elitism.

ation and respect for Duke Ellington that educated Europeans feel

for Bach and Beethoven. The

various exotic Asian musics while, jazz ensemble should be recog-

far too often, they are inexcusably nized at all levels of music education as the single truly indigenous
ignorant of a rich music heritage
ern music history. Since its initial
from their own country that contin- American orchestra. It seems ironic
ues to evolve within their own lifedevelopment by black Americans,
that ensembles that perform pritimes.
jazz has readily assimilated elemarily nineteenth-century European
ments from such diverse traditions
music generally receive the most atas European impressionism; Indian, Educational potential
tention in terms of budgets, reLatin American, and African musics;
hearsal time, and administrative
In sum, improvisation is a comand numerous American common thread running through the
support, while ensembles that permercial styles. Yet in every new hy- musics of the world. For jazz musiform contemporary American jazz
The flexibility and adaptability of

jazz has been unequalled in West-

brid form the unmistakable ex-

cians it remains a natural and nec-

pressive qualities rooted in the folk

origins of the earliest jazz and blues
are immediately recognized by audiences throughout the world. No

essary element of their craft. For

other form of Western music has

proved to be so resilient. It is possible to play a wider range of styles

under the guise of being a jazz mu-

sician than within the confines of

any other contemporary musical

category.

The fourth basic concept embod-

music educators it holds an

enormous potential that has been

largely untapped. Improvisation,

in musically educating our chiland fully functioning part of a per- dren? Do we wish to educate them
son's creative skills. It should be
so that they can dutifully perform
taught through an approach that in- for our own edification and entertegrates ear training, sight-reading, tainment in the concert hall or on
instrumental and vocal technique, the football field? Or do we wish to
and theory into a unified and com- educate them so that they can enplete understanding of music as a rich themselves through musical

treat rhythm as an extremely cere-

When students are given their

first five-tone scales to practice, they

bral element, sometimes controlled

or serial procedures and sometimes

left entirely to chance. Most commercial or pop styles treat rhythm
as a totally mechanical element that
seldom varies in either pattern or
tempo from one work to the next.
In the best jazz, however, rhythm is

an accurate reflection of the human

should be encouraged to make

their own melodies from those five

tones. When the first tunes are as-

jazz has developed the most highly

inventive use of common meter in

recent Western music.

self-expression and communication?

If we choose the latter, then improvisation is an essential tool for

initiating the process of discovering
and developing the music within
oneself. Nothing is more important

signed, students should be encour- for the future of music than the recaged to spontaneously vary and em- ognition, cultivation, and love of
bellish the melodies and rhythms as that process. For it is certain that
if there is no real music inside us,
soon as they have mastered the
the sounds that we make will reoriginal versions. Methods should
be developed that motivate students main no more than cheap, empty
imitation.
toward expressing themselves

physical experience: loosely flowing through the music they play rather
than competing with each other in
mechanical precision. The study of
harmony should be included in in-

and regularly pulsating at the same

time. Jazz frequently superimposes
a wide variety of meters over an
underlying 4 meter. In this respect

The most crucial question, in the

final analysis, to which an honest

of education to become a natural

language.

by arbitrarily chosen mathematical

own money.

like verbal language skills, should answer must be found is simply

be introduced in the earliest stages this: What are our real motivations

ied in the jazz tradition is that of

rhythm as a physical rather than an
abstract element. Twentieth-century

classical composers have tended to

often must find time to rehearse after school and raise most of their

Selected readings

Ferand, Ernest T. Improvisation in

Nine Centuries of Western Music.
as it begins to play a significant role Cologne, Germany: Arno Volk Verin the assigned works. Ear training lag, 1961.

strumental or vocal lessons as soon

and theory should be included as

Jazz also has developed the use often as possible in every aspect of Wollner, Gertrude Price. Improvisa-

of chromatic harmony to the pointmusic activity and at every grade

level. A work of music can have no
where it encompasses an expressive

tion in Music. New York: Double-

day & Company, Inc., 1963. Al

mej/jan '80 41
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