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Industrial Training Report
Industrial Training Report
REPORT
SIX WEEK TRAINING AT
NATIONAL FERTILIZERS LTD.
NANGAL UNIT (PUNJAB)
MITRA
(HRD DEPARTMENT)
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING (B.Tech)
DAV
UNIVERSITY,JALANDHAR
4.
NITRIC
ACID
&
NOX
PLANT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
All plants for the production of nitric acid are currently based on the
same basic chemical
operations: Oxidation of ammonia with air to give nitric oxide
Oxidation of the nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide and absorption in
water to give a solution
of nitric acid.
The efficiency of the first step is favoured by low pressure whereas that
of the second is
favoured by high pressure. These considerations, combined with
economic reasons give rise
to two types of nitric acid plant, single pressure plants and dual
pressure plants.
In the single pressure plant, the oxidation and absorption steps take
place at essentially the
same pressure. In dual pressure plants absorption takes place at a
higher pressure than the
oxidation stage.
The oxidation and absorption steps can be classified as: Low pressure (pressure below 1.7bar)
Medium pressure (pressure between 1.7 and 6.5bar)
High pressure (pressure between 6.5 and 13bar)
Except for some very old plants, single pressure plants operate at
medium or high pressure
and dual pressure plants operate at medium pressure for the oxidation
stage and high pressure
for the absorption.
The main unit operations involved in the nitric acid process are the
same for all types of
plant and in sequential order these are: Air filtration
Air compression
Air/ammonia mixing
Air/ammonia oxidation over catalytic gauzes
Energy recovery by steam generation and/or gas re-heating
Gas cooling
Gas compression, energy recovery and cooling (dual pressure plants
only)
Absorption, with the production of nitric acid
Waste gas (tail gas) heating
Energy recovery by expansion of the waste gas to atmosphere, in a
gas turbine
The fertilizer industry uses weak nitric acid in the range of 50 to 65%
strength and thus the
high concentration (above 70% weight) nitric acid production process is
not included.
A typical plant of 1,000t.d-1 capacity has been selected for further
description but all data
are calculated for one tonne of 100% nitric acid because plant size has
only a marginal effect
on input and output-specific data, apart from energy.
The most common energy scheme has been adopted. That is: make up
power for the compressor
set power supplied by a condensing
from tail gas in a gas turbine
(1)
(2)
(3)
Temperature (C)
NO yield (%)
below 1.7
810 - 850
97
1.7 to 6.5
850 - 900
96
above 6.5
900 - 940
95
ammonia-air
mixing
and
poor
gas
may reduce the yield by 10%. Some of the platinum and rhodium
vaporises during the reaction
process and in most cases a platinum recovery system is installed
below the catalyst. In
this system a palladium alloy, known as a getter or catchment, allows
a 60 to 80% recovery
of the total catalyst losses.
The enthalpy of the hot reaction gases is used to produce steam and/or
to preheat the waste
gas (tail gas). The heated waste gas is discharged to the atmosphere
through a gas turbine for
energy recovery.
4.2.1 COMBUSTION PROCESS
The combustion gas after this heat transfer for energy recovery, has a
temperature of 100 to
200C, depending on the process and it is then further cooled with
water. The water produced
(4)
(5)
A cooler condenser ensures final cooling down to 50C after the final
heat recovery. Weak
acid solution is formed and is separated and pumped to the absorption
tower.
Absorption section
The modern absorber design uses counter-current flow circulation with
high efficiency trays
which are usually sieve trays or bubble cap trays. The tray spacing
increases progressively
from the bottom to the top of the absorber. Many of the trays are fitted
with internal cooling
coils to remove the heat of reaction. The absorption section consists of
one or more columns
in series.
Demineralised water or steam condensate is added at the top of the
tower as make-up.
Process condensate from the manufacture of ammonium nitrate may be
used after acidification.
The acid solution leaving the absorption section is rich in dissolved
nitrogen oxides and
is passed to a bleaching tower where it is contacted with a countercurrent flow of secondary
air. The secondary air and the nitrogen oxides which have been stripped
out are mixed with
the gases leaving the cooling section and are recycled to the absorption
section. The gas leaving
the absorption section is commonly known as tail gas.
Expander section
The tail gas from the absorber is passed through the heat recovery and
the expander sections
for energy recovery and is then passed to the stack.
Steam turbine section
The expander generates insufficient energy to drive the air compressor.
A steam turbine using
whose
ph is
and these gases gets absorbed and the solution contains the following
component:-NO gas
-NaNO2 (sodium nitrate)
-Water
Then this solution is sent to Evaporiser cum condenser where water
gets evaporated by the heat of a
steam turbine which supplies heat at the temp. Of 1750
temp is maintained at the
temp. Of 800C and thus the water gets evaporated and then the
remaining solution is sent to
centrifugal section and the volatile
atmosphere along with NO gas which
components
are
fed
to
the
1.
aMMONIA
PLANT
Introduction
Ammonia is produced basically from water, air, and energy. The energy
source is usually
hydrocarbons, thus providing hydrogen as well, but may also be coal or
electricity. Steam
reforming of light hydrocarbons is the most efficient route, with about
77% of world ammonia
capacity being based on natural gas .
The total energy consumption for the production of ammonia in a
modern steam reforming
plant is 40-50% above the thermodynamic minimum. More than half of
the excess consumption
is due to compression losses. The practical minimum consumption is
assumed to be
about 130% of the theoretical minimum.
The typical size of a large single-train ammonia plant is 1,000-1,500t.,
although capacities
of 1,800t. and above are not uncommon for new plants. In this Booklet
1,500t.
(500,000t.) will be considered as a standard capacity. The process and
energy systems
are integrated to improve overall energy efficiency. Further, the
ammonia plant may stand
alone or be integrated with other plants on the site, eg. a urea plant.
Plant battery limits are generally feedstock and fuel supply by pipelines
at sufficient pressure
for reforming; untreated water and air; and ammonia product stored as
liquid, either
refrigerated at atmospheric pressure or non-refrigerated at ambient
temperature. In the case of
steam and/or carbon dioxide export those battery limit conditions will
depend on the receivers
requirements.
The equipment and machinery used in todays large ammonia plants
have achieved high
The small amounts of CO and CO2, remaining in the synthesis gas, are
poisonous for the
ammonia synthesis catalyst and must be removed by conversion to CH4
in the methanator:CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
CO2 + 4H2- CH4 + 2H2O
The reactions take place at around 300C in a reactor filled with a nickel
containing catalyst.
Methane is an inert gas in the synthesis reaction, but the water must
be removed before
entering the converter. This is done firstly by cooling and condensation
downstream of the
methanator and finally by condensation/absorption in the product
ammonia in the loop or in a
make-up gas drying unit.
2.2.1.8 Synthesis gas compression and ammonia synthesis
Modern ammonia plants use centrifugal compressors for synthesis gas
compression, usually
driven by steam turbines, with the steam being produced in the
ammonia plant. The refrigeration
compressor, needed for condensation of product ammonia, is also
usually driven by a
steam turbine.
The synthesis of ammonia takes place on an iron catalyst at pressures
usually in the range
100-250bar and temperatures in the range 350-550C:N2 + 3H2 2NH3
DH0298 = 46 kJ.mol-1 NH3
Only 20-30% is reacted per pass in the converter due to the
unfavourable equilibrium conditions.
The ammonia that is formed is separated from the recycle gas by
cooling/condensation,
and the reacted gas is substituted by the fresh make-up synthesis gas,
thus maintaining
the loop pressure. In addition, extensive heat exchange is required due
to the exothermic reaction
and the large temperature range in the loop. A newly developed
ammonia synthesis catalyst
containing ruthenium on a graphite support has a much higher activity
per unit of volume
and has the potential to increase conversion and lower operating
pressures.
Synthesis loop arrangements differ with respect to the points in the
loop at which the
make-up gas is delivered and the ammonia and purge gas are taken
out. The best arrangement
is to add the make-up gas after ammonia condensation and ahead of
the converter. The loop
purge should be taken out after ammonia separation and before makeup gas addition. This
ratio.
The ammonia synthesis is quite similar to that used in steam reforming
plants, but simpler
and more efficient, due to the high purity of synthesis gas from liquid
nitrogen wash units and
the synthesis loop not requiring a purge.
2.2.5.2 Steam and power system
Auxiliary boilers are required if the compressors are steam-driven. The
flue-gas from these
power plants is the main source of emissions which are mainly SO2,
NOx, and CO2. The site
emissions are very low if the compressors are driven by imported
electric power.
3.
STEAM
GENERATI
ON
PLANT
Introduction:
A steam power station is a power plant in which the prime mover
is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a
steam turbine which either drives an electrical generator or does
some other work, like ship propulsion. After it passes through the
turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to
where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle.
The greatest variation in the design of steam power stations is
due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term
energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat
energy into electrical energy .Power Plants is an establishment
for power generation. The consumption of per capita generation
is very low only 220 kWh. Presently about47% of the total
population have access to electricity.
The power division of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources is the umbrella organization that controls power
generation, transmission and distribution. An Independent Power
Project (IPP) of the ministry is under implementation for
improvement in generation and distribution of electricity by
government and private agencies.
The harnessing of steam power ushered in the industrial
revolution. It began with Thomas Newcomen(Dartmouth) in the
early 1700's. Early developments were very slow and Newcomen's
design was used in England for nearly 100 years. New comen's
through the super heater. Superheated steam then flows through the
turbine. After doing work in the turbine the pressure of steam is
reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through the condenser
which is maintained the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of
turbine.
Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and
temperature of cooling water and on effectiveness of air removal
equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from
the various sources such as river, lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of
water is not available the hot water coming out of the condenser may
be cooled in cooling towers and circulated again through the condenser.
Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent
to low pressure and high pressure water heaters .Air taken from the
atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is
heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The
flue gases after passing over boiler and super heater tubes, flow
through the dust collector and then through economizer, air pre-heater
and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.
Steam condensing system consists of the following:
(a)Condenser
(b)Cooling water
(c)Cooling tower
(d)Hot well
(e)Condenser cooling water pump
(f)Condensate air extraction pump
(g)Air extraction pump
(h)Boiler feed pump
(i)Make up water pump.
(b)Horizontal
(c)Inclined.
According to application:
(a)Stationary
(b)Mobile, (Marine, Locomotive).
According to the circulating water:
(a)Natural circulation
(b)Forced circulation.
According to steam pressure:
(a)Low pressure
(b)Medium pressure
(c)Higher pressure.
large nozzle rather than many small nozzles and there is no concern of
nozzle arrangement with respect to the boiler tubes.
Condenser
The use of a condenser in a power plant is to improve the efficiency of
the power plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below
atmosphere. Another advantage of the condenser is that the steam
condensed may be recovered to provide a source of good pure feed
water to the boiler and reduce the water softening capacity to a
considerable extent. A condenser is one of the essential components of
a power plant.
Cooling Tower
The importance of the cooling tower is felt when the cooling water from
the condenser has to be cooled. The cooling water after condensing the
steam becomes hot and it has to be cooled as it belongs to a closed
system. The Cooling towers do the job of decreasing the temperature of
the cooling water after condensing the steam in the condenser .The
type of cooling tower used in the Columbia Power Plant was an Inline
Induced Draft Cross Flow Tower. This tower provides a horizontal air
flow as the water falls down the tower in the form of small droplets.
The fan centered at the top of units draws air through two cells that are
paired to a suction chamber partitioned beneath the fan. The
outstanding feature of this tower is lower air static pressure loss as
there is less resistance to air flow. The evaporation and effective
cooling of air is greater when the air outside is warmer and dryer than
when it is cold and already saturated.
Superheater
The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater
elements. Steam from the main steam pipe arrives at the saturated
steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into the
superheater elements. Superheated steam arrives back at the
superheated steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into
the steam pipe to the cylinders. Superheated steam is more expansive.
Reheater
The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to
elevate the steam temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high
pressure turbine. After passing through the high pressure turbine, the
steam is returned to the boiler for reheating (in a reheater) after which
it is sent to the low pressure turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be
provided.
3.2 SUPER HEATER:
One of the most important accessories of a boiler is a super heater. It
effectsimprovement and economy in the following ways
(a)The super heater increases the capacity of the plant.
features two or more shafts not in line driving two or more generators
that often operate at different speeds. A cross compound turbine is
typically used for many large applications.
stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of
the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed
relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both
the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and
decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity
across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.
3.5 CONDENSER
3.5.1 Functions of Condensers
The main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam
from the turbine for reuse in the cycle and to maximize turbine
efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum. As the operating pressure of
the condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the enthalpy drop of
the expanding steam in the turbine will also increase. This will increase
the amount of available work from the turbine (electrical output). By
lowering the condenser operating pressure, the following will occur:
(a)Increased turbine output
(b)Increased plant efficiency
(c)Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)It is therefore very
advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure
(highest vacuum).
3.5.2 Condenser Types
There are two primary types of condensers that can be used in a power
plant:
(a)Direct Contact
(b)Surface
Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by
mixing it directly with cooling water. The older type Barometric and JetType condensers operate on similar principles. Steam surface
condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power
plants. The exhaust steam from the turbine flows on the shell side
(under vacuum) of the condenser, while the plants circulating water
flows in the tube side. The source of the circulating water can be either
a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or once through (i.e.
from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine,
called condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is
called a hot well. The condensate is then pumped back to the boiler to
repeat the cycle.
as it is downward flowing which mixes with the above air flow, which in
turn cools the water. Part of this water will also evaporate, causing it to
lose even more heat.
3.6.3 Types of Cooling Towers
One way to distinguish between cooling towers is how the air and water
interact, open cooling towers or closed cooling towers. Open cooling
towers, also called direct cooling towers, allow the water to come into
contact with outside air. If cooled water is returned from the cooling
tower to be used again, some water must be added to replace the water
that has been lost. Pollutants are able to enter into the water used in
these processes and must be filtered out.
Another method of combating the excess minerals and pollutants is
some means of a dissolved solid control, such as a blow down. With
this, a small percentage of the flow is drained off to aid in the removal
of these contaminants. This is fairly effective, but not as efficient as
filtration. Closed loop (or closed circuit) cooling tower systems, also
called indirect cooling tower systems, do not allow the water to come
into contact with any outside substance, therefore keeping the water
more pure due to the lack of foreign particles introduced. Another
classification of cooling towers is made between field assembled towers
and factory assembled towers.
The air flow in either class may be cross flow or counter flow with
respect to the falling water. Cross flow indicates that the airflow is
horizontal in the filled portion of the tower while counter flow means
the air flow is in the opposite direction of the falling water. The counter
flow tower occupies less floor space than a cross flow tower but is taller
for a given capacity. The principle advantages of the cross flow tower
are the low pressure drop in relation to its capacity and lower fan
power requirement leading to lower energy costs. All mechanical
towers must be located so that the discharge air diffuses freely without
recirculation through the tower, and so that air intakes are not
restricted. Cooling towers should be located as near as possible to the
refrigeration systems they serve, but should never be located below
them so as to allow the condenser water to drain out of the system
through the tower basin when the system is shut down.
Forced Draft
The forced draft tower, has the fan, basin, and piping located within the
tower structure. In this model, the fan is located at the base. There are
no louvered exterior walls. Instead, the structural steel or wood framing
is covered with paneling made of aluminum, galvanized steel, or
asbestos cement board.