Big Bang nucleosynthesis

In physical cosmology, Big Bang nucleosynthesis (abbreviated BBN, also known as primordial
nucleosynthesis,arch(a)eonucleosynthesis, archonucleosynthesis, protonucleosynthesis and
pal(a)eonucleosynthesis) refers to the production of nuclei other than those of the lightest isotope
of hydrogen (hydrogen-1, 1H, having a single proton as a nucleus) during the early phases of
theuniverse. Primordial nucleosynthesis is believed by most cosmologists to have taken place from
10 seconds to 20 minutes after the Big Bang, and is calculated to be responsible for the formation of
most of the universe's helium as the isotope helium-4 (4He), along with small amounts of the
hydrogen isotope deuterium (2H or D), the helium isotope helium-3 (3He), and a very small amount of
the lithium isotope lithium-7 (7Li). In addition to these stable nuclei, two unstable
or radioactive isotopes were also produced: the heavy hydrogen isotope tritium (3H or T); and
theberyllium isotope beryllium-7 (7Be); but these unstable isotopes later decayed into 3He and 7Li, as
above.
Essentially all of the elements that are heavier than lithium were created much later, by stellar
nucleosynthesis in evolving and exploding stars
The lightest elements (hydrogen, helium, deuterium, lithium) were produced in the Big Bang
nucleosynthesis. According to the Big Bang theory, the temperatures in the early universe were so
high that fusion reactions could take place. This resulted in the formation of light elements:
hydrogen, deuterium, helium (two isotopes), lithium and trace amounts of beryllium.
Nuclear fusion in stars converts hydrogen into helium in all stars. In stars less massive than the Sun,
this is the only reaction that takes place. In stars more massive than the Sun (but less massive than
about 8 solar masses), further reactions that convert helium to carbon and oxygen take place in
succesive stages of stellar evolution. In the very massive stars, the reaction chain continues to
produce elements like silicon upto iron.
Elements higher than iron cannot be formed through fusion as one has to supply energy for the
reaction to take place. However, we do see elements higher than iron around us. So how did these
elements form? The answer is supernovae. In a supernova explosion, neutron capture reactions
take place (this is not fusion), leading to the formation of heavy elements. This is the reason why it is
said that most of the stuff that we see around us come from stars and supernovae (the heavy
elements part). If you go into technical details, then there are two processes of neutron capture
called rapid process (r-process) and the slow process (s-process), and these lead to formation of
different elements.

Nuclear Reactions in Stars

The energy of the stars comes from nuclear fusion processes. For stars like the
sun which have internal temperatures less than fifteen million Kelvin, the
dominant fusion process is proton-proton fusion. For more massive stars
which can achieve higher temperatures, the carbon cycle fusion becomes the
dominant mechanism. For older stars which are collapsing at the center, the
temperature can exceed one hundred million Kelvin and initiate the helium
fusion process called the triple-alpha process.

Index

Another class of nuclear reactions is responsible for the nuclear synthesis of

elements heavier than iron.

Nuclear fusion in stars

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Nuclear Fusion in Stars

The enormous luminous energy of the stars comes from nuclear

fusionprocesses in their centers. Depending upon the age and mass of a star,
the energy may come from proton-proton fusion, helium fusion, or the carbon
cycle. For brief periods near the end of the luminous lifetime of stars, heavier
elements up to iron may fuse, but since the iron group is at the peak of
thebinding energy curve, the fusion of elements more massive than iron would
soak up energy rather than deliver it. While the iron group is the upper limit in
Index
terms of energy yield by fusion, heavier elements are created in the stars by
another class of nuclear reactions. This nuclear synthesis of elements heavier
Nuclear
than iron uses energy rather than supplies it.

fusion
concept
s

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