Master of Business Administration- MBA Semester 3

MB0034 Research Methodology - 3 Credits

(Book ID:B0800)
Assignment Set- 1 (60 Marks)
Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions.

Qus.1 Explain the different types of research.

Answer:
Research simply means a search for facts - answers to questions and solutions to problems. It is a purposive
investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the
doubtful facts and to correct the misconceived facts.

Types of Research

Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary, Research may be classified crudely according to its
major intent or the methods. According to the intent, research may be classified as:
1. Pure Research

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice, e.g., Einstein's theory of
relativity, Newton's contributions, Galileo's contribution, etc. It is also known as basic or fundamental research. It
is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at
extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays
foundation for applied research. It offers solutions to many practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in
a practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best solution.

2. Applied Researches

It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem-
oriented and action-directed. It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for
developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience of customers. Though the immediate
purpose of an applied research is to find solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or conceptual
clarity. It can put theory to the test. It may aid in conceptual clarification. It may integrate previously existing
theories.

3. Exploratory Researches
It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It
usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas, or to increase
the researcher's familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather
information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes
two levels of exploratory studies. "At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at
the second, the discovery of relationships between variables."
4. Descriptive Study
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is more specific
than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution or
problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of
study. It contributes to the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts through
empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The
information obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research.
They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action program.
5. Diagnostic Study
It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why
it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible
solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated.
This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the
given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables,
statistical analysis and test of significance.

6. Evaluation Studies
It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes
implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development of the project area. It is
thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance, and to specify its
attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively
guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.

7. Action Research
It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched for solving a
problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic
information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of organizational change, implementation of
participation and communication process, and post experimental evaluation.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

Experimental Research: It is designed to asses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping
the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are
related to each other.

Analytical Study: It is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data. It may
consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also
known as the Statistical Method. It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships.

Historical Research: It is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to reconstructing the
origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and discovering the trends in the past. It is
descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and logical analysis or recorded
data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct observation.

Survey: It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from a population
or a sample thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information, explain phenomena, to make
comparisons and concerned with cause and effect relationships can be useful for making predications

Qus.2 Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Ans. Research really begins when the researcher experiences some difficulty, Le., a problem demanding a
solution within the subject-are of his discipline. This general area of interest, however, defines only the range of
subject matter within which the researcher would see and pose a specific problem for research. Personal values
play an important role in the selection of a topic for research. Social conditions do often shape the preference of
investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.

The formulation of the topic into a research problem is, really speaking the first step in a scientific enquiry. A
problem in simple words is some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or practical situation.
Solving this difficulty is the task of research

Criteria of Good research Problem

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers can see and check.

Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things
exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.

Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids colorful
literature and vague meanings.

Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and organized
way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and
give unreliable judgments and conclusions.

Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means observation is unaffected by the
observer's values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as they
are, not as he might wish them to be .
Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is fallible, all data
collected are recorded.

Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what
happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation - allowing one
variable to vary while holding all other variables constant.

Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators to make them understand what
to look for, how to interpret in and avoid inaccurate data collection.

Qus.3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis

Ans. Procedure for Testing Hypothesis

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has collected) whether or not the
hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to
accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that we undertake for
making a choice between the two actions Le. rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps
involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:

1. Making a Formal Statement

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (H o) and also of the alternative hypothesis
(Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For
instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge
which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis as under:
Null hypothesis He: \ . .=I 10 tons Alternative hypothesis Ha: \ . .>10
I tons

Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is 80. To evaluate
a state's education system, the average score of 100 of the state's students selected on the random basis was
75. The state wants to know if there is a significance difference between the local scores and the national scores.
In such a situation the hypothesis may be state as under:

The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be accomplished with due care in accordance with
the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a tailed test or
a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone tailed test, but when Ha is of the type ''whether
greater or smaller" then we use. a two-tailed test.

2. Selecting a Significant Level

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should have specified.
Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1 % level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of
significance are:
The magnitude of the difference between sample;
The size of the sample;
The variability of measurements within samples;
Whether the hypothesis is directional or non - directional (A directional hypothesis is one which predicts the
direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context
of the purpose and nature of enquiry.

3. Deciding the Distribution to Use

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate
sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for
selecting the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.

4. Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value

Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data
concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical
data.
5. Calculation of the Probability
One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from
expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.

6. Comparing the Probability

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated wit~ the specified value for a, the
significance level. If the calculated probability i s equal to smaller than a value in case of one tailed test (and a/2 in
case two-tailed hypothesis In case committing two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (Le. accept the
alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject H o we
run a risk of (at most level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho, then we run some
risk of committing error type II.

Testing of Hypothesis

The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as null hypothesis) with a
view to choose between the conflicting hypotheses about the value of the population hypothesis about the value
of the population of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to secede on the basis of a sample data,
whether a hypothesis about the population is likely to be true or false. Statisticians have developed several tests
of hypothesis (also known as tests of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified
as:

Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis;

Non Parametric test or distribution - free test of the hypothesis.

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw samples.
Assumption like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large, assumptions about the
population parameters like mean, variants etc must hold good before parametric test can be used. But there are
situation when the researcher cannot or does not want to make assumptions. In such situations we use statistical
methods for testing hypothesis which are called non parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any
assumption about the parameters of parent population. Besides, most non-parametric test assumes only nominal
or original data, where as parametric test require measurement equivalent to at least an interval scale. As a result
non-parametric test needs more observation than a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I & Type II
error.
1 Important Parametric Tests The important parametric tests are:

z-test
t-test

x2-test

f-test

All these tests are based on the assumption of normality Le., the source of data is considered to be normally
distributed. In some cases the population may not be normally distributed, yet the test will be applicable on
account of the fact that we mostly deal with samples and the sampling distributions closely approach normal
distributions.

Z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several statistical
measures, particularly the mean. The relevant test statistic is worked out and compared with its probable value (to
be read from the table showing area under normal curve) at a specified level of significance for judging the
significance of the measure concerned. This is a most frequently used test in research studies. This test is used
even when binomial distribution or t-distribution is applicable on the presumption that such a distribution tends to
approximate normal distribution as 'n' becomes larger. Z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a
sample to some hypothesis mean for the population in case of large sample, or when population variance is
known as z-test is also used for judging the significance of difference between means to of two independent
samples in case of large samples or when population variance is known z-test is generally used for comparing the
sample proportion to a theoretical value of population proportion or for judging the difference in proportions of two
independent samples when happens to be large. Besides, this test may be used for judging the significance of
median, mode, co-efficient of correlation and several other measures

T-test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of sample mean
or for judging significance of difference between the two means of the two samples in case of samples when
population variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate the population
variance). In case two samples are related, we use paired t-test (difference test) for judging the significance of
their mean of difference between the two related samples. It can also be used for judging the significance of co-
efficient of simple and partial correlations. The relevant test statistic, t, is calculated from the sample data and
then compared with its probable value based on t-distribution at a specified level of significance for concerning
degrees of freedom for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis it may be noted that t-test applies only in case of
small sample when population variance is unknown.

X2test is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for comparing a sample variance to a
theoretical population variance is unknown.

F-test is based on f-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two-independent samples. This test is
also used in the context of variance (AN OVA) for judging the significance of more than two sample means at one
and the same time. It is also used for judging the significance of multiple correlation coefficients. Test statistic, f, is
calculated and compared with its probable value for accepting or rejecting the Ho.

Qus.4. Write a note on experimental design

Ans.Principles of Experimental Designs,

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

1. The principle of replication:

The experiment should be reaped more " than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units
instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we
are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts r and grow
one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. ; We can compare the yield of the two parts and
draw conclusion on that C lbasis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this e. experiment, then we
first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining
parts. We can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result
so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of
replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Consequently replication
does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication is
introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the
main effects and interactions can be estimated.

2. The principle of randomization:

It provides protection, when we, conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by.... designs
randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should; those randomization principle and protect
ourselves against the effects of extraneous factors. As such, through the application of the principle of
randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.

4. Principle of local control:

It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factors, the known source of
vanability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a
way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means
that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the
total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and
experimental error. In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several
homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of
treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In general, blocks are the levels
at which we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the variability of the data
by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the
variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental error.

Important Experimental Designs

Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as such there are several
experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories, viz., informal experimental
designs and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a
less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes, where as formal experimental designs
offer relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis. Informal experimental designs:

Before and after without control design: In such a design, single test group or area is selected and the
dependent variable is measureo before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is the~ introduced and the
dependent variable is measured again after the treatment has been introduced. The effect of the treatment would
be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment minus the leve of the phenomenon before the
treatment.

After only with control design: In this design, two groups or areas (test and control area) are selected and the
treatment is introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then measured in both tl1l areas at the
same tir.1e. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the control area
from its value in the test area.

Before and after with control design: In this design two areas a n selected and the dependent variable is
measured in both the areas f a an identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment is the~ introduced into
the test area only, and the dependent variable n measured in both for an identical time-period after the introduction
of t~ treatment. The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the chan91 in the dependent variable in the
control area from the change in tit dependent variable in test area.

Formal Experimental Designs

1. Completely randomized design (CR design): It ~involves only principle viz., the principle of replication and
randomization. It generally used when experimental areas happen to be homogenous~ Technically, when all
 the variations due to uncontrolled extraneous~ factors are included under the heading of chance variation, we
refer the design of experiment as C R Design.

2. Randomized block design (RB design): It is an improvement over t~ C Research design. In the RB design
the principle of local control can applied along with the other two principles.

3. Latin square design (LS design): It is used in agricultural research. The treatments in a LS design are so
allocated among the plots that no treatment occurs more than once in any row or column.

4. Factorial design: It is used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one factor are to be
determined. They are especially Important in several economic and social phenomena where usually a large
number of factors affect a particular problem.

Qus.5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

Ans. Making Case Study Effective

let us discuss the criteria for evaluating the adequacy of the case history or life history which is of central
importance for case study. John Dullard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows:

i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from its total context
for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or community. The
scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify thee community values, standards and
their shared way of life.

ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the individual cases must be viewed
as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words, the social meaning of behavior must be taken
into consideration.

iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized. That is, in case of an
individual being the member of a family, the role of family in shaping his 'behavior must never be overlooked.

iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be clearly shown. That is
case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a
social person, are especially fruitful.
v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed. In other
words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between thee person's various
experiences.
vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the important criteria for the
life history is that a person's life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owe to specific
social situations.

vii}The-life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual framework, this in turn would
facilitate generalizations at higher level.
Case Study as a Method of Business Research
In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of variables
may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities~ For
instance, an in-depth study of a firm's top sales people and comparison with the worst sales people might reveal
characteristics common to stellar performers. The exploratory investigator is best served by the active curiosity
and willingness to deviate from the initial plan, when the finding suggests new courses of enquiry, might prove
more productive

Qus.6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.

Ans. Non-probability or Non Random Sampling

Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of probability. This sampling does
not provide a chance of selection to each population element.

Advantages: The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity, convenience and low cost.

Disadvantages: The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to each population unit. The selection
probability sample may not be a representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers from
sampling bias which will distort results.

The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible alternative due to non-availability of a
list of population, when the study does not aim at generalizing the findings to the population, when the costs
required for probability sampling may be too large, when probability sampling required more time, but the time
constraints and the time limit for completing the study do not permit it.

Probability or Random Sampling

Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as random sampling. It provides a
known nonzero chance of selection for each population element. It is used when generalization is the objective of
study, and a greater degree of accuracy of estimation of population parameters is required. The cost and time
required is high hence the benefit derived from it should justify the costs.
The following are the types of probability sampling:
Simple Random Sampling: This sampling technique gives each element an equal and independent chance of
being selected. An equal chance means equal probability of selection. An independent chance means that the
draw of one element will not affect the chances of other elements being selected. The procedure of drawing a
simple random sample consists of enumeration of all elements in the population.
1. Preparation of a List of all elements, giving them numbers in serial order 1, 2, B, and so on, and
2. Drawing sample numbers by using (a) lottery method, (b) a table of random numbers or (c) a computer.

Suitability: This type of sampling is suited for a small homogeneous population.

Advantages: The advantage of this is that it is one of the easiest methods, all the elements in the population
have an equal chance of being selected, simple to understand, does not require prior knowledge of the true
composition of the population.

Disadvantages: It is often impractical because of non-availability of population list or of difficulty in enumerating

the population, does not ensure proportionate representation and it may be expensive in time and money. The
amount of sampling error associated with any sample drawn can easily be computed. But it is greater than that in
other probability samples of the same size, because it is less precise than other methods.

b) Stratified Random Sampling: This is an improved type of random or probability sampling. In this method, the
population is sub-divided into homogenous groups or strata, and from each stratum, random sample is drawn.
E.g., university students may be divided on the basis of discipline, and each discipline group may again be divided
into juniors and seniors. Stratification is necessary for increasing a sample's
statistical efficiency, providing adequate data for analyzing the various sub-populations and applying different
methods to different strata. The stratified random sampling is appropriate for a large heterogeneous population.
Stratification process involves three major decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number of strata and
strata sample sizes.

Stratified random sampling may be classified into:

a) Proportionate stratified sampling: This sampling involves drawing a sample from each stratum in
proportion to the latter's share in the total population. It gives proper representation to each stratum and its
statistical efficiency is generally higher. This method is therefore very popular. E.g., if the Management Faculty
of a University consists of the following specialization groups:
Advantages: Stratified random sampling enhances the representative ness to each sample, gives higher
statistical efficiency, easy to carry out, and gives a self-weighing sample.

Disadvantages: A prior knowledge of the composition of the population and the distribution of the population, it is
very expensive in time and money and identification of the strata may lead to classification of errors.

b) Disproportionate stratified random sampling: This method does not give proportionate representation
to strata. It necessarily involves giving over-representation to some strata and under representation to others.
The desirability of disproportionate sampling is usually determined by three factors, viz, (a) the sizes of strata, (b)
internal variances among strata, and (c) sampling costs.

Suitability: This method is used when the population contains some small but important subgroups, when certain
groups are quite heterogeneous, while others are homogeneous and when R is expected that there will be
appreciable differences in the response rates of the subgroups in the population.

Disadvantages: The disadvantage is that it does, nalgive each stratum proportionate representation, requires
prior knowledge of composition of the population, is subject to classification errors and its practical feasibility is
doubtful
Disadvantages: The disadvantage is that it does, nalgive each stratum proportionate representation, requires
prior knowledge of composition of the population, is subject to classification errors and its practical feasibility is
doubtful

b)Systematic Random Sampling: This method of sampling is an alternative to random selection. It consists of
taking;,kith item in the population after a random start with an item form 1 took. It is also known as fixed interval
method. E.g., 1st, 11th, 21st. ....... Strictly speaking, this method of sampling is not a probability sampling. It
possesses characteristics of randomness and some non-probability traits.

Suitability: Systematic selection can be applied to various populations such as students in a class, houses in a
street, telephone directory etc. Advantages: The advantages are it is simpler than random sampling, easy to use,
easy to instruct, requires less time, it's cheaper, easier to check, sample is spread evenly over the population,
and it is statistically more efficient.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages are it ignores all elements between two kith elements selected, each element
does not have equal chance of being selected, and this method sometimes gives a biased sample.
 Master of Business Administration- MBA Semester 3
MB0034 Research Methodology - 3 Credits
(Book ID:B0800)
Assignment Set- 2 (60 Marks)
Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions.

Qus.1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?

Ans.Use of Secondary Data

The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information from secondary
sources may be used for reference purpose. For example, the general statistical information in the number of co-
operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc.,
may be taken from published reports and quoted as background information in a study on the evaluation of
performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected district/state.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research may be tested, e.g.,
the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national averages; the performance indicators
of a particular bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so
on.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project. Such studies as
securities Market Behavior, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks,
sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books,
statistical reports of government departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises,
Censes Reports etc, serve as major data sources for such research studies.
Advantages of Secondary Data Secondary sources have some advantages:

1. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source of documents and reports
are located, collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the
source can now be avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities.

2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus, the use of
secondary data extends the researcher's space and time reach.

3. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be made.
4. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.

5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data. It readily meets
the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can
be collected

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.

1. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific needs. The definitions adopted by
those who collected those data may be different; units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be
different.

2. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we need to know how the data
were collected.

3. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in
producing them. For example, population census data are published tow or three years later after compilation,
and no new figures will be available for another ten years.

3. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social scientists. Even if
the location of the source is known, the accessibility depends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the
unpublished official records and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach
of researchers based in far off places.
Qus.2. Explain the prerequisites and advantages of observation.

Ans. Prerequisites of Effective Observation The prerequisites of observation consist of:

Observations must be done under conditions which will permit accurate results. The observer must be in
vantage point to see clearly the objects to be observed. The distance and the light must be satisfactory. The
mechanical devices used must be in good working conditions and operated by
skilled persons.
Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the cases.
Recording should be accurate and complete.
The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain number of cases can be
observed again by another observer/another set of mechanical devices, as the case may be. If it is feasible,
two separate observers and sets of instruments may be used in all or some of the original observations. The
results could then be compared to determine their accuracy and completeness.
An advantage of observation Observation has certain advantages:
1. The main virtue of observation is its directness: it makes it possible to study behavior as it occurs. The
researcher need not ask people about their behavior and interactions; he can simply watch what they do and say.

2. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in their natural settings.
Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the researched situation for instance, in interview; the
respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is no such artificiality in observational studies, especially
when the observed persons are not aware of their being observed.

3. Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate meaningfully, e.g. studies of
children, tribal, animals, birds etc.

4. Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of behavior. Further more
verbal resorts can be validated and compared with behavior through observation. The validity of what men of
position and authority say can be verified by observing what they actually do.

5. Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example only observation can
provide an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management
representatives.

6. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their conduct than
questioning.

7. It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning.

8. Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more accurate data and also of
making continuous observations over longer periods.

Qus.3. Discuss the stages involved in data collection.

Ans.Process of Data Collection

The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected respondents b y collecting the addresses from the
telephone directory of the association or organization to which they belong. A covering letter should accompany a
copy of the questionnaire. Exhibit 7.1 is [V1] a copy of a covering letter used by the author in a research study on
'corporate planning'. It must explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and the importance of his
cooperation to the success of the project. Anonymity may be assured.

1 Alternative Modes of Sending Questionnaires

There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents. They are: (1) personal
delivery, (2) attaching questionnaire to a product (3) advertising questionnaire in a newspaper of magazine,
and (4) news stand insets.

2 Personal Delivery
The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to the potential respondents with a request to
complete them at their convenience.

After a day or two he can collect the completed questionnaires from them. Often referred to as the self-
administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview and the mail survey.
Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in person and the completed questionnaires may be returned
by mail by the respondents.

3 Attaching Questionnaire to a Product

A firm test marketing a product may attach a questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it
and mail it back to the firm. The respondent is usually rewarded by a gift or a discount coupon.

4 Advertising the Questionnaires

The questionnaire with the instructions for completion may be advertised on a page of magazine or in section
of newspapers. The potential respondent completes it tears it out and mails it to the advertiser. For example,
the committee of Banks customer services used this method. Management studies for collecting information
from the customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for large-scale on topics of
common interest.

5 News-Stand Inserts
This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and self addressed reply-paid envelope into a
random sample of news-stand copies of a newspaper or magazine

Qus.4. Briefly explain the types of interviews.

Ans.Types of Interviews
The interview may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview, (b) unstructured or non-directive
interview, (c) focused interview, (d) clinical interview and (e) depth interview.

1 Structured Directive Interview

This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions are put to all the
respondents and in the same order. Each question is asked in the same way in each interview, promoting
measurement reliability. This type of interview is used for large-scale formalized surveys.
Advantages: This interview has certain advantages. First, data from one interview to the next one are easily
comparable. Second, recording and coding data do not pose any problem, and greater precision is achieved.
Lastly, attention is not diverted to extraneous, irrelevant and time consuming conversation.

Limitation: However, this type of interview suffers from some limitations. First, it tends to lose the spontaneity of
natural conversation. Second, the way in which the interview is structured may be such that the respondent's
views are minimized and the investigator's own biases regarding the problem under study are inadvertent
introduced. Lastly, the scope for exploration is limited.

2 Unstructured or Non-Directive Interview

This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely about a give topic with a
minimum of prompting or guidance. In this type of interview, a detailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Only a
broad interview guide is used. The interviewer avoids channeling the interview directions. Instead he develops a
very permissive atmosphere. Questions are not standardized and ordered in a particular way.

This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is particularly useful in exploratory
research where the lines of investigations are not clearly defined. It is also useful for gathering information on
sensitive topics such as divorce, social discrimination, class conflict, generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It
provides opportunity to explore the various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner.

Advantages: This type of interview has certain special advantages. It can closely approximate the spontaneity of
a natural conversation. It is less prone to interviewers bias. It provides greater opportunity to explore the problem
in an unrestricted manner.

Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research instrument, it is not free from limitations. One
of its major limitations is that the data obtained from one interview is not comparable to the data from the next.
Hence, it is not suitable for surveys. Time may be wasted in unproductive conversations. By not focusing on one
or another facet of a problem, the investigator may run the risk of being led up blind ally. As there is no particular
order or sequence in this interview, the classification of responses and coding may required more time. This type
of informal interviewing calls for greater skill than the formal survey interview.

3 Focused Interview
This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of
a given experience to which the respondents have been exposed. It takes place with the respondents known to
have involved in a particular experience, e.g., seeing a particular film, viewing a particular program on TV.,
involved in a train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An interview guide specifying
topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is focused on the subjective experiences of the
respondent, Le., his attitudes and emotional responses regarding the situation under study. The focused interview
permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions, specific emotions and the like.
Merits: This type of interview is free from the inflexibility of formal methods, yet gives the interview a set form and
insured adequate coverage of all the relevant topics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has
plenty of opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also free to choose the sequence of questions and
determine the extent of probing,

4 Clinical Interview
This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the focused interview is concerned with
the effects of specific experience, clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or
with the course of the individual's life experiences.
The 'personal history' interview used in social case work, prison administration, psychiatric clinics and in individual
life history research is the most common type of clinical interview. The specific aspects of the individual's life
history to be covered by the interview are determined with reference to the purpose of the study and the
respondent is encouraged to talk freely about them.

5 Depth Interview
This is an intensive and searching interview aIming at studying the respondent's opinion, emotions or convictions
on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much more training on inter-personal skills than structured
interview. This .deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions.
This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of affectively charged information. It
requires probing. The interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he should
use encouraging expressions like "uh-huh" or "I see" to motivate the respondent to continue narration. Some
times the interviewer has to face the problem of affections, Le. the respondent may hide expressing affect' with
great care.

Qus.5. Describe the principles involved in the table construction.

Answer:
Principles of Table Construction
There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to construction of tables. They are:

1. Every table should have a title. The tile should represent a succinct description of the contents of the table. It
should be clear and concise. It should be placed above the body of the table.

2. A number facilitating easy reference should identify every table. The number can be centered above the
title. The table numbers should run captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.

3. The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.

4. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath the table and in order to
obviate any possible confusion with the textual footnotes such reference symbols as the asterisk (*) DAGGER (+)
and the like may be used.

5. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it is ordinarily advisable to indicate
the specific sources in a place just below the table.

6. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table
and below the captions.

7. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.

8. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and "plus" or "minus" signs should be in perfect
alignment.
9. Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be brought closed together.

10. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals of columns at the bottom.

11. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of type, spacing and
identifications can be used.

12. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical, alphabetical or according to
magnitude. Numerical categories are usually arranged in descending order of magnitude.

13. Miscellaneous and exceptions items are generally placed in the last row of the table.

14. Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means that a table's length is more than its width.

15. Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks should not be used in a table.

16. The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.

Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such expressions as "the table above" or "the
following table". Tables should not Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such
expressions as "the table above" or "the following table". Tables should not exceed the page size by photo stating.
Tables those are too wide for the page may be turned sidewise, with the top facing the left margin or binding of
the script. Where tables should be placed in research report or thesis? Some writers place both special purpose
and general purpose tables in an appendix and refer to them in the text by numbers. This practice has the
disadvantages of inconveniencing the reader who wants to study the tabulated data as the text is read. A more
appropriate procedure is to place special purpose tables in the text and primary tables, if needed at all, in an
appendix.

Qus.6.Write a note on contents of research report.

Ans.Contents of the Research Report The outline of a research report is given below:

I. Prefatory Items
Title page
Declaration
Certificates
Preface! acknowledgements
Table of contents
List of tables
List of graphs! Figures! charts
Abstract or synopsis

II. Body of the Report

Introduction
Theoretical background of the topic
Statement of the problem
Review of literature
The scope of the study
The objectives of the study
Hypothesis to be tested
Definition of the concepts
Models if any
Design of the study
Methodology
Method of data collection
Sources of data
Sampling plan
Data collection instruments
Field work
Data processing and analysis plan
Overview of the report
Limitation of the study
Results: findings and discussions
Summary, conclusions and recommendations
III. Reference Material

Bibliography
Appendix
Copies of data collection instruments
Technical details on sampling plan
Complex tables
Glossary of new terms used.