ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY,

ISLAMABAD
(Department of English Language & Applied Linguistics)

Course: Language Variation & Stylistics (5665)

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Submitted to

: Mrs. Saira

Submitted By :

Syed Asim Raza

Roll No: BI587782

A l l a m a

I q b a l O p e n
U n i v e r s i t y ,
I s l a m a b a d

Q1.

What is a Dialect?
(10)

Dialect
Any variety of a language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary from other varieties of the same language is called a dialect. Everyone speaks a dialect in fact,
many dialects at different levels. The people who speak a certain dialect are called a speech community.
Some of the larger dialectal divisions in the English speaking world:
1.
British English vs. American English vs. Australian
2.
English (along with others). Northern American
3.
English, Southern American English, etc.
(1) Brit/American: lay by/rest area, petrol/gasoline lorry/truck, minerals/soft drinks
Dialect
The first set of influences produce dialect features. These are the product of the individual's geographical
and class origin. Educational experience is also significant, but this is partly dependent on class anyway. If
two speakers differ in grammar pronunciation and vocabulary, we will conclude that they speak different
dialects. Variation in pronunciation, but not in grammar and vocabulary, would be considered difference of
accent. There is no clear quantitative linguistic measure to indicate where difference of dialect becomes
difference of language. The issue is political and social, not linguistic. Everybody speaks a dialect, which is
not seen, as it is traditionally, as some kind of deviation from the norm of standard English. Nor would a
linguist feel that there was any linguistic justification for saying that one dialect or accent is better than
another. It is a social judgment that leads people to say that one English dialect is the correct one. Dialect is
not an important type of language variation for teaching. Although the potential teacher and the advanced
learner might be made sensitive to the fact that there is dialect variation in the target language just as there is
in their mother-tongue, we rightly settle for the teaching of a single dialect to most learners. All language
teaching,

however,

at

least

implies

an

assumption

about

the

best

dialect

to

teach.

Idiolect:
A dialect spoken by an individual is called an idiolect. Everyone has small differences between the way they
talk and the way even their family and best friends talk, creating a minimal dialect.

Accent
An accent is a certain form of a language spoken by a subgroup of speakers of that language which is
defined by phonological features. Everyone has an accent, just as everyone speaks a dialect. Its not a
question of having or not having an accent or dialect, its a question of which accent or dialect you
speak with. Note that you can speak the same dialect as someone else while using a different accent

(though frequently the two vary together). Thus people from Boston and Brooklyn use about the same
dialect, but their accents are radically different.
How Do We Tell a Language From a Dialect? This is not always easy. The clearest definition would seem to
be that speakers of the same language can understand each other The Principle of mutually intelligibility:
If two speakers can understand each other, then they speak two dialects of the same language; if they cannot
understand each other, then they speak two different languages. But this doesnt capture everything. There is
a continuum between the two in many cases. Examples Chinese: different parts of country mutually
unintelligible, but very cohesive cultural history one language, various dialects.

More examples Czech & Slovak: Mutually intelligible, different histories. two languages. Dutch/German:
continuum. Dutch/Flemish: same language, one spoken in The Netherlands, one in Belgium.
Danish/Swedish: one-way intelligible (Danes can understand Swedes more or less, but not vice-versa.)
Brazilian Portuguese/Spanish: one-way intelligible
Geographic dialects
The most widespread type of dialectal differentiation is regional, or geographic. As a rule, the speech of one
locality differs at least slightly from that of any other place. Differences between neighbouring local dialects
are usually small, but, in traveling farther in the same direction, differences accumulate. Every dialectal
feature has its own boundary line, called an isogloss (or sometimes heterogloss). Isoglosses of various
linguistic phenomena rarely coincide completely, and by crossing and interweaving they constitute intricate
patterns on dialect maps. Frequently, however, several isoglosses are grouped approximately together into a
bundle of isoglosses. This grouping is caused either by geographic obstacles that arrest the diffusion of a
number of innovations along the same line or by historical circumstances, such as political borders of long
standing, or by migrations that have brought into contact two populations whose dialects were developed in
noncontiguous areas.
In Punjab , Punjabi has varied range of dialects (variation in the spoken language) are being spoken in
different regions. (just take an example of the variation in dialect between the Punjab spoken in Multan and
is that of in Sargodha).
Social dialects
Another important axis of differentiation is that of social strata. In many localities, dialectal differences are
connected with social classes, educational levels, or both. More-highly educated speakers and, often, those
belonging to a higher social class tend to use more features belonging to the standard language, whereas the
original dialect of the region is better preserved in the speech of the lower and less-educated classes. In large
urban centres, innovations unknown in the former dialect of the region frequently develop. Thus, in cities the

social stratification of dialects is especially relevant and far-reaching, whereas in rural areas, with a
conservative way of life, the traditional geographic dialectal differentiation prevails.
Educational differences between speakers strongly affect the extent of their vocabulary. In addition,
practically every profession has its own expressions, which include the technical terminology and sometimes
also the casual words or idioms peculiar to the group. Slang too is characterized mainly by a specific
vocabulary and is much more flexible than an ordinary dialect, as it is subject to fashion and depends
strongly on the speakers age group. Slangjust as a professional dialectis used mainly by persons who
are in a sense bi-dialectal; i.e., they speak some other dialect or the standard language, in addition to slang.
Dialectal differences also often run parallel with the religious or racial division of the population.
Dialectal Change And Diffusion
The basic cause of dialectal differentiation is linguistic change. Every living language constantly undergoes
changes in its various elements. Because languages are extremely complex systems of signs, it is
inconceivable that linguistic evolution could affect the same elements and even transform them in the same
way in all localities where one language is spoken and for all speakers in the same locality. At first glance,
differences caused by linguistic change seem to be slight, but they inevitably accumulate with time (e.g.,
compare Chaucers English with modern English or Latin with modern Italian, French, Spanish,
or Romanian). Related languages usually begin as dialects of the same language.
When a change (an innovation) appears among only one section of the speakers of a language, this
automatically creates a dialectal difference. Sometimes an innovation in dialect A contrasts with the
unchanged usage (archaism) in dialect B. Sometimes a separate innovation occurs in each of the two
dialects. Of course, different innovations will appear in different dialects, so, in comparison with its
contemporaries, no one dialect as a whole can be considered archaic in any absolute sense. A dialect may be
characterized as relatively archaic because it shows fewer innovations than the others, or it may be archaic in
one feature only.
After the appearance of a new dialectal feature, interaction between speakers who have adopted this feature
and those who have not leads to the expansion or the curtailment of its area or even to its disappearance. In a
single social milieu (generally the inhabitants of the same locality, generation, and social class), the chance
of the complete adoption or rejection of a new dialectal feature is very great; the intense contact and
consciousness of membership within the social group fosters such uniformity. When several age groups or
social strata live within the same locality and especially when people speaking the same language live in
separate communities, dialectal differences are easily maintained.
Communication lines such as roads (if they are at least several centuries old), river valleys, or seacoasts
often have a unifying influence. Also, important urban centres, such as Paris, Utrecht, or Cologne, often
form the hub of a circular region in which approximately the same dialect is spoken. In such areas, the

prestige dialect of the city has obviously expanded. As a general rule, those dialects, or at least certain
dialectal features, with greater social prestige tend to replace those that are valued lower on the social scale.
In times of less-frequent contact between populations, dialectal differences increase; in periods of greater
contact, they diminish. The general trend in modern times is for dialectal differences to diminish, above all
through the replacement of dialectal traits by those of the standard language. Mass literacy, schools,
increased mobility of populations, and, more recently, the ever-growing role of mass communications all
contribute to this tendency. Naturally, the extent of such unifying action varies greatly in different linguistic
domains. Also, the arrival of immigrant groups, especially in growing urban complexes, has increased
dialect differentiation somewhat. Nevertheless, the most thorough example of linguistic force exerted by a
single dominating civilization belongs to ancient times: in theHellenistic era, almost all ancient Greek
dialects were replaced by the so-calledKoine, based on the dialect of Athens.
Mass migrations may also contribute to the formation of a more or less uniform dialect over broad
geographic areas. Either the resulting dialect is that of the original homeland of a particular migrating
population, or it is a dialect mixture formed by the leveling of differences between migrants from more than
one homeland. The degree of dialectal differentiation depends to a great extent on the length of time a
certain population has remained in a certain place.

Q. 2.What is Standard Language?

(10)

What is language?
We use language in most of our waking life (and sometimes in dreams, too). Language is so indispensable
to us that we all tend to take it for granted. Few of us ever think about what it is that allows us to talk about
everything in the universe and our inner world, to do things together with others. As a learner of a foreign
language, have you ever thought about the nature of the subject that you learn through painstaking effort? As
a professional English teacher, have you ever pondered at the nature of the subject you teach?
Probing into this question, one may understand the multi-faceted nature of language. Language is many
things indeed: a medium of communication, a system of code, a carrier of culture, an instrument for
thinking, a glue of a community, a social institution, etc. This multi-faceted nature of language explains the
fact that there is no universally accepted definition of language. Linguists must face up to this question, as
language is the object of study in their research. Hundreds of definitions have been proposed in the past. We
cite a few here for discussion.
Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity.(de Saussure,
1916)
[Languages is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of
elements (Chomsky, 1957)
Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by
means of voluntarily produced symbols. (Sapir, 1921)

Each of these definitions pinpoints some aspects of the essence of language, but all have left out something.
In broad terms, linguists agree to define language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication (Wardhaugh 1977). This definition is based on a number of theoretical assumptions.
Defined as such, language is seen as unique to human beings. In other words, it is assumed that only human
beings have language. Animal communication systems (bird chips, bee dances, dog barks, and so on), are all
excluded. Is this justified? Are communication systems possessed by other creatures qualitatively different
from human languages?
Standard language also termed as standard dialect, standardized dialect, or standardized dialect, is a
particular variety of a language that has been given either legal or quasi-legal status. Choice of standard
language is often connected to issues of prestige, is usually associated to economically and culturally
important regions, and is linked with economically important groups (higher classes). It is said to be the
most correct dialect of language.
A standard language is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include
government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools;
published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a "correct" spoken and written form; and an
extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.). There may be multiple
standard dialects associated with a single language. For example, Standard American English, Standard
British English, Standard Australian English, etc. which may all be said to be standard dialects of the
English language.

As standard language is usually promoted in schools and the media, it is usually considered to be more
"correct" in some sense than other dialects. This is the version of a language that is typically taught to
learners of the language as a foreign language, and most texts written in that language follow its spelling and
grammar norms.

Some of the features that identify a standard language include:

A recognized dictionary or group of dictionaries which embody a standardized spelling and

vocabulary.

A recognized grammar which records the forms, rules and structures of the language, and which
commends some forms and castigates others.
A standard system of pronunciation, which is considered "educated" or "proper" speech by the
speakers, and which is considered free from regional marking.

An institution promoting the use of the language and given some authority in defining the norms of its
use.

Statutes or constitutions giving that language an official legal status in a country's system of law.

The use of the language in public life, such as in the work of courts and legislatures; A canon of
literature.

Translations of important sacred texts into that language, which are considered to be authoritative by
their believers.

The selection of this particular dialect of a language as being especially appropriate to be taught to
learners of foreign languages.

In some countries, the selection of a standard language is a social and political issue. The act of seeking to
define a language standard can be an act of nationalism or support of political devolution. Most governments
establish a standard variety of their language (or languages) to be taught in schools and used in official
documents, courts and so on; often it is also promoted for use in the media.

A nonstandard language or dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax,
but is not the beneficiary of institutional support

Standard Languages
Standard languages arise when a certain dialect begins to be used in written form, normally throughout a
broader area than that of the dialect itself. The ways in which this language is usede.g., in administrative
matters, literature, and economic lifelead to the minimization of linguistic variation. The social prestige
attached to the speech of the richest, most powerful, and most highly educated members of a society
transforms their language into a model for others; it also contributes to the elimination of deviating linguistic
forms. Dictionaries and grammars help to stabilize linguistic norms, as do the activity of scholarly
institutions and, sometimes, governmental intervention. The base dialect for a countrys standard language is
very often the original dialect of the capital and its environsin France, Paris; in England, London; in
Russia, Moscow. Or the base may be a strong economic and cultural centrein Italy, Florence. Or the
language may be a combination of several regional dialects, as are German and Polish.
Even a standard language that was originally based on one local dialect changes, however, as elements of
other dialects infiltrate into it over the years. The actual development in any one linguistic area depends on
historical events. Sometimes even the distribution of standard languages may not correspond to the dialectal
situation. Dutch and Flemish dialects are a part of the Low German dialectal area, which embraces all of
northern Germany, as well as the Netherlands and part of Belgium. In one part of the dialectal area, however,
the standard language is based on High German, and in the other part the standard language is Dutch or
Flemish, depending on the nationality of the respective populations. In the United States, where there is no

clearly dominant political or cultural centresuch as London or Parisand where the territory is enormous,
the so-called standard language shows perceptible regional variations in pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary. All standard languages are in any case spoken in a variety of accents, though sometimes one
particular accent (e.g., Received Pronunciation in Britain) may be most closely associated with the standard
because of its shared social or educational origins.
In most developed countries, the majority of the population has an active (speaking, writing) or at least
passive (understanding) command of the standard language. Very often the rural population, and not
uncommonly the lower social strata of the urban population as well, are in reality bi-dialectal. They speak
their maternal dialect at home and with friends and acquaintances in casual contacts, and they use the
standard language in more formal situations. Even the educated urban population in some regions uses the
so-called colloquial language informally. In the German-, Czech-, and Slovene-speaking areas of middle
Europe, for example, a basically regional dialect from which the most striking local features have been
eliminated is spoken. The use of this type of language is supported by psychological factors, such as feelings
of solidarity with a certain region and pride in its traditions or the relaxed mood connected with
informal behaviour.

Q.3 What is a Language Variety? How does any language variety get acceptance? (10)
Varieties of a language
The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a
particular field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the
group. Varieties of a language are of four types:

the standard variety,

regional (geographical) dialects,

sociolects (social dialects) and

registers (functional varieties).

The Standard Variety : The standard variety is the form of a language used by the government and
communication media, taught in schools and universities and is the main or only written form. The standard
variety is the most widely used in a community. It is more fixed than other varieties, allowing less variation
in pronunciation, spelling/writing and grammar. Mandarin Chinese (pu tong hua) and RP (Received
Pronunciation) English are both standard varieties of the two languages.
A regional dialect: Is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area. This kind of language
variation is most noticeable. When we travel throughout a wide geographical area where the same language

is spoken, we are sure to notice differences in pronunciation, in the choices and forms of words, and even in
syntax. Such a situation is often referred to as dialect continuum. Dialectologists may gather data from
speakers of different regions and draw a dialect atlas.
The English language has many regional dialects. British English, American English, Australian English,
Indian English, South African English, etc. are all regional varieties of the language. One dialect is
distinctive from another phonologically, lexically and grammatically. Between British English and American
English, differences can be easily found in pronunciation, in spelling, in words and in syntactic structure.
The word hot, for example, is pronounced differently in the two regional dialects. The vowel is a mid back
in British English, while in American English it is a low back. The same word is spelt differently, such
aslabour and labor. The same concept or object is represented by different lexis (dialectal synonyms, such
as flat and apartment). In some sentences, the constituents are different. The auxiliary do may not be
necessary in a yes/no question in British English if the predicate verb is have. For example Have you a
match? is equivalent to Do you have a match?
Regional varieties of a language: It may have their sub-varieties. British English has its standard form,
which can be represented by the BBC broadcast, as well as other varieties of British English, those of
Lancashire, Yorkshire, Glasgow, etc. The same is true with American English and other regional dialects.
American English can be divided into North, Mid-north and South. A video tape on varieties of American
English shows that people in these different regions use different syntactic structures. The sentence My hair
needs combing in the north becomes My hair needs to be combed in the mid-north, and My hair needs
combed in the south.
The term dialect denotes a wider notion than the term accent. A dialect is a variety of a language that is
distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. The term accent is used
for less drastic differences which are restricted to variation in pronunciation.
Sociolects : are forms of a language that characterize the speech of different social classes. This correlation
between language and socio-economic status is often referred to as social stratification of language. A
pioneering investigation was done by William Labov in 1966. He studied the pronunciation of postvocalic
[r] as in words like car, floor, four, etc. Labov (1966: 64) predicted: If any two subgroups of New York City
speakers are ranked in a scale of social stratification, they will be ranked in the same order by their
differential use of [r]. In order to test this hypothesis, he recorded his conversations with the salespeople of
three large department stores in Manhattan. They are ranked in the order:
(1) Saks Fifth Avenue;
(2) Macy's;
(3) S. Klein.

He believed that jobs in the three stores would be socially evaluated in the same order and the salespeople
would talk the way the customers do. He elicited the response by asking questions like Excuse me, where
are the ...? The answer would be Fourth Floor. The results are as predicted. The salespersons, ranked
according to the three stores, could also be ranked by their pronunciation of [r]. The percentages of
occurrence of [r] pronounced in his conversations with the salespersons are as follows:
Saks Macy'sS. Klein
62%51% 21%
S. Klein is a department store for lower class customers, Saks is one for upper middle class customers, and
Macy's for middle class people. There is a clear correlation between pronunciation of postvocalic [r] as a
prestigious form and the socio-economic status of the speakers.
While some sociolinguists focus on socio-economic status as a correlate, others look at gender as a factor for
social variation of language. Some Australian sociolinguists find that there is a striking difference between
men and women in the pronunciation of -ing. The standard pronunciation is [-i], which is paralleled by [-in],
a nonstandard form. It has been found that women tend to use the standard form while men are inclined to
use the nonstandard.
Register is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to varieties according to use, in contrast with
regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are varieties according to user (Halliday, McIntosh &
Strevens 1964). To put the distinction in simple terms, we may say that one's dialect shows who you are and
where you are from, while the register shows what you are doing and with whom.
Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor. Field is
concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication. Mode refers to the means by which
communication takes place, through speech or writing. Tenor depends on the relations between the
participants. If you are doing an experiment, you may ask your partner: Would you please pass me the
sodium chloride? If you are having dinner with that person, you may say: Please pass me the
salt. Sodium chloride and salt denote the same substance, but the two terms differ in field of
communication. When you greet your friend face-to-face, you may select from expressions like Hiand
Hello. In writing to your friend you will not use these expressions for greeting. This shows that mode of
communication determines the choice of linguistic items. When you write to your boss you will not use the
same expressions which you use in a letter to your close friends. The relation between the participants is
another important factor that affects the choice of linguistic items. When you start a conversation with
someone, the very first thing to consider is how to address the person. The appropriate form of address is
determined largely by your personal relation with that person. To generalize: field is concerned
with why and about what we communicate; mode is related to howwe communicate; tenor is

about with whom we communicate. All the three dimensions function simultaneously in determining the
variety of language in use.
Having discussed dialectal varieties and functional varieties (also called diatypic varieties), a question may
arise: How is it possible that people speaking different dialects understand each other? The question
presupposes that all dialects are mutually intelligible. That is not true. Some dialects of a language are not.
Cantonese, for example, is a dialect of Chinese, but is not understood by speakers of other dialects. With
regard to languages of which dialects are mutually intelligible, the answer is: there is a common core in the
language. English has a common core of phonology, lexicon and grammar that underlie all the dialects of the
language.

Q.4 Illustrate with examples how British English and American English differ with regard to
grammar, lexis and spelling?
(20)
These two varieties of English are very similar. The differences that exist are gradually disappearing, mainly
because modern British English is heavily influenced by American English. The main differences are in
vocabulary and idiom, but there are also differences in grammar, spelling and pronunciation.
There are other influences as well ( French, German, Greek, Spanish, Dutch). Besides there is borrowing
from these languages and many of the words have the touch of these languages.
Grammar : The difference in grammatical aspects have been mentioned in the following table.

American English
He just went home.
(Or: Hes just gone home.)
Did you eat already?
I ate already.
Do you have a problem?
(Or: Have you got a problem?)
Ive never really gotten to know her.
(on the phone) Hello, is this Susan?
It looks like its going to rain.
He looked at me real strange. (very informal)
(Or: He looked at me really strangely.)

He probably has arrived by now.

(Or: He has probably arrived by now.)

Spelling
A number of words end in or in American English and in our in British English (e.g. color/colour).
Some words end in er in American English and in re in British English (e.g. center/centre).
Many verbs which end in ize in American English (e.g. realize) can be spelt in British English with ize or
ise.
Here are some of the commonest words with different forms:
American English
aluminum
analyze
catalog
center
check
color
defense
honor
jewelry
labor

British English
aluminium
analyse
catalogue
centre
cheque
colour
defence
honour
jewellery
labour

American English
pajamas
paralyze
practice, practise
program
organize
theater
tire
gray
whiskey
spelt

British English
pyjamas
paralyse
practise (verb)
programme
organise/organize
theatre
tyre
grey
(Scotch) whisky
spelled

Vocabulary
Sometimes the same word has different meanings (GB mad = crazy; US mad = angry). Very often
different words are used for the same idea (GB lorry = US truck). Here are some examples:
American English
airplane
anyplace/anywhere
apartment
area code (phone)
attorney, lawyer

British English
aeroplane
anywhere
flat/apartment
dialling code
barrister, solicitor,
lawyer
engaged
reverse the charges
tin

American English
pavement
pitcher
purse, handbag
(potato) chips
railroad

British English
road surface
jug
handbag
crisps
railway

raise
rest room
round trip

candy
check/bill
(restaurant)
coin-purse

sweets
bill

schedule, timetable
sidewalk

rise (in salary)

public toilet
return
(journey/ticket)
timetable
pavement

purse

sneakers

cookie, cracker
corn
crazy
cuffs (trousers)
diaper
doctors office
dumb, stupid
elevator
eraser

biscuit
sweet corn, maize
mad
turn-ups
nappy
doctors surgery
stupid
lift
rubber, eraser

spigot, faucet
stand in line
store, shop
subway
truck
trunk
two weeks
vacation
windshield

fall, autumn

autumn

zee

busy (phone)
call collect (phone)
can

trainers (= sports
shoes)
tap (outdoors)
queue
shop
underground, tube
lorry
boot (of a car)
fortnight, two weeks
holiday(s)
windscreen (of a
car)
zed (name of letter

faucet, tap
first floor, second
floor
flashlight
flat (tire)
french fries
garbage, trash

tap
ground floor, first
floor
torch
flat tyre, puncture
chips
rubbish

garbage can,
trashcan
gas(oline)
gear shift (on a car)
highway, freeway

dustbin, rubbish bin

hood (on a car)

intersection
mad
mail
mean
movie, film
movie theater
one-way (ticket)
pants, trousers

stroller
shopping cart

z)
pram, pushchair
shopping trolley

cell phone
checking account
turn signal
Add your own
examples:

mobile phone
current account
indicator

petrol
gear lever
main road,
motorway
bonnet
crossroads
angry
post
nasty
film
cinema
single (ticket)
pants

Expressions with prepositions and particles

American English

British English

American English

British English

different from/than

different from/to

live on a street

live in a street

check something out check something

on a team

in a team

do something
over/again
be good in
something
fill out a form

Monday through
Friday
Please write me
soon.

Monday to Friday

do something again
be good at
something
fill in a form

Please write to me
soon.

Further points
The trend to eliminate periods
(BE: full stops) is more
marked in American English.
British English can be more
restrained, concise or
impersonal.

American English
A.D.
Mrs.
e.g.
This problem is an ongoing
situation.
The project team is violating
accepted norms.
You are not obligated to do
this.

British English
AD
Mrs
eg
This problem continues.
The project team is breaking
the rules.
You are not obliged to do this.

You did a fantastic job.

Youve done rather well.

Q.5 Distinguish between General Stylistics and Literary Stylistics.

(15)

Stylistics is the application of linguistics to the in-depth study of the unexplored beauty of the literary style. Stylistic
analysis is description, explication and evaluation of literary style. Stylistic analysis in linguistics refers to the
identification of patterns of usage in speech and writing. Stylistic analysis in literary studies is usually made for the
purpose of commenting on quality and meaning in a text. Its types under discussion are:
1. General Stylistics
2. Literary Stylistics

1. General Stylistics or Stylistics:

This is stylistics viewed from the broad notion of the linguistic study of all types of linguistic events from different
domains of life. It is used as a cover term for the analysis of non-literary varieties of language, or registers(Wales 458).
Hence, one can undertake a stylistic study of a religious sermon, a sport commentary, a legal document, a political speech, a
business conversation, etc.
General stylistics (theoretical stylistics, theory of stylistics) studies universal stylistic language means which
exist in any language as well as regularities of language functioning irrespective of the content, aim,
situation and sphere of communication. Stylistics of a national language deals with the expressive resources
of a definite national language. Some more types of stylistics are singled out on the basis of the following
principles: 1) The principle of language activities manifestation. One of the fundamental linguistic concepts
is the dichotomy language speech introduced by F. de Saussure. Language is viewed as a system of the
sings, the relations between them and the rules of their usage. Speech is the materialisation of language in
the process of communication. According to the principle of language activities manifestation stylistics is
subdivided into stylistics of language and stylistics of speech. Stylistics of language deals with inherent
(permanent) stylistic properties of language means while stylistics of - 14 - speech analyses acquired
stylistic properties, i. e. which appear only in the context. 2) The principle of language description.
According to this principle stylistics is divided into linguistic stylistics (linguostylistics) and literary
stylistics. Linguistic stylistics studies the language units from the point of view of their effectiveness in
definite types of speech. It investigates not only stylistic inventory of a national language, but also the means
of its organization in different types of speech. It examines the correlation between a speech situation and
linguistic means used by speakers and hence different functional styles of speech and language. In the
narrow sense of a word linguostylistics is also called functional stylistics. M.M. Kozhyna singles out
functional stylistics as a separate branch of stylistics [, 1983]. It is defined by the stylistician as a
linguistic science that studies peculiarities and regularities of language functioning in different types of
speech, speech structure of functional styles, norms of selection and combination of language units in them.
Its object is functional styles of speech and their types.

2. Literary Stylistics:
This is the type of analysis that focuses on literary texts. In the broad sense, such a study may be linguistic or nonlinguistic, but in the more specialized sense, it is essentially linguistic. To make this linguistic orientation clearer, the terms
linguistic stylistics or linguo stylistics are sometimes employed to denote the linguistic analysis or interpretation of literary
events. Other types of stylistics below are largely sub types of this linguistic literary stylistics
Literary Stylistics : Literary stylistics is synonymous to literary criticism, in a way. The ultimate purpose of
literary stylistics is to explain the individual message of the writer in terms which makes its importance clear
to others. The task of literary stylistics is to decipher a message encoded in an unfamiliar way, to express its
meaning in familiar and communal terms and thereby to provide the private message with a public
relevance. This activity is not essentially different from the criticism of other art forms. The literary
stylistician is obviously sensitive to language, but his/her concern is not principally with the way the signals
of the artist are constructed but with the underlying message which an interpretation of the signals reveals.
Furthermore, literary stylistics is less interested in devising a meta language into which the original message
can be transferred. The literary stylistician is rather concerned with figurative and evocative uses of
language which characterize the message being interpreted. Literary stylistics, then, is primarily concerned
with messages and the interest in codes (language) lies in the meaning they convey in particular instances of
use. The beauty of language and how it is used to capture reality is also the focal concern of literary
stylistics. Literary stylistics takes interpretation as its aim. It is interested in finding out what aesthetic
experience or perception of reality a poem, for example, is attempting to convey. Its observation of how
language system is used will serve only as a means to this end. Literary stylistics, therefore, searches for
underlying significance, for the essential artistic vision which language is used to express. It treats literary
works as messages. Literary stylistics undertakes the interpretation of a text as the ultimate objective of
analysis. It is based on the consideration of the stylistically significant features of the text (including clause
and sentence structure, paragraphing and cohesion) and of lexis. It is however the stylistic effects and
functions produced by these features rather than the objective description of them that is more important
here (i.e. in literary stylistics). To the literary stylistician, the description of language and style is not
important in itself; instead, the primary task is to provide an account of his intuitions concerning the effect
and functions produced by the text. This is expected to provide a sure basis for the interpretation of texts and
for teaching interpretation.

Q6. Discuss some of the key features of Literary Language.

(15)

Allegory: An allegory is a story that has a second meaning, usually by endowing characters, objects or
events with symbolic significance. The entire story functions symbolically; often a pattern relates each
literal item to a corresponding abstract idea or principle. Although the surface story may have its own
interest, the author's major interest is in the ulterior meaning.

Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.

Example: "...many a man is making friends with death/ Even as I speak, for lack of love alone."
(Edna St. Vincent Millay's "Sonnet 30").
Alliteration is used by an author to create emphasis, to add beauty to the writing style, and occasionally to
aid in shaping the mood.
Allusion: Allusion is a reference to something from history or literature.
Antithesis: Antithesis means "exact opposite". In writing, it usually means using opposite ideas in the same
thought or sentence. He decided to finish his chores before his chores finished" him.
Apostrophe It is (figure of speech) Similar to 'personification' but indirect. The speaker addresses someone
absent or dead, or addresses an inanimate or abstract object as if it were human.
Diction: Diction is the choice of specific words to communicate not only meaning, but emotion as well.
Authors writing their texts consider not only a word's denotation, but also its connotation. For example, a
person may be described as stubborn or tenacious, both of which have the same basic meaning, but are
opposite in terms of their emotional background (the first is an insult, while the second is a compliment).
Similarly, a bargain seeker may be described as either thrifty (compliment) or stingy (insult). An author's
diction is extremely important in discovering the narrator's tone, or attitude.
Dramatic irony: Dramatic Irony is when the reader knows something important about the story that one
or more characters in the story do not know. For example, in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, the drama of
Act V comes from the fact that the audience knows Juliet is alive, but Romeo thinks she's dead. If the
audience had thought, like Romeo, that she was dead, the scene would not have had anywhere near the same
power.
Exaggeration: An overstatement or stretching of the truth used to emphasize a point or paint a clearer
picture. (See hyperbole and overstatement.) I've eaten so much that I could burst.
Figurative Language: A figure of speech is any way of saying something other than the ordinary way.
Figurative language is language using figures of speech. Some examples of Figurative Language
are:
1. Metaphor

2. Simile

3. Synecdoche

4. Metonymy

5. Personification

6. Apostrophe

7. Charactonym

8. Symbol

9. Allegory

10. Imagery

11. Motif

12. Paradox

Flashback: A flashback (which is one of the most easily recognized utilization of plot structure) is a scene
in a writing which occurs outside of the current timeline, before the events that are actually occurring in the
story. It is used to explain plot elements, give background and context to a scene, or explain characteristics
of characters or events. For instance, one chapter may be at the present time in a character's life, and then the

next chapter might be the character's life years ago. The second chapter gives meaning to the first, as it
explains other events the character experienced and thus puts

present events in context. In Khaled

Hosseini's The Kite Runner, the first short chapter occurs in the narrative's real time; most of the remainder
of the book is a flashback.
Hyperbole: An extreme exaggeration or overstatement that a writer uses for emphasis. (Similar to
exaggeration and overstatement.) My mother exploded when she saw the damage on her car
Imagery:

This is when the author invokes sensory details. Often, this is simply to draw a reader more

deeply into a story by helping the reader visualize what is being described. However, imagery may also
symbolize important ideas in a story. For example, in Saki's "The Interlopers," two men engaged in a
generational feud become trapped beneath a fallen tree in a storm: "Ulrich von Gradwitz found himself
stretched on the ground, one arm numb beneath him and the other held almost as helplessly in a tight
tangle of forked branches, while both legs were pinned beneath the fallen mass." Readers can not only
visualize the scene, but may infer from it that it is actually the feud that has trapped him. Note also the
diction used within the imagery: words like "forked" and "fallen" imply a kind of hell that he is trapped in.
Irony Irony, in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or event characterized by an
incongruity, or contrast, between reality (what is) and appearance (what seems to be). The term may be
further defined into several categories, among which are: verbal, dramatic, and situational.
Metaphor: A metaphor is a comparison used to add descriptive meaning to a phrase (without using
the words "like" or "as"). Metaphors are generally not meant literally, and may have little connotative
similarity to the concepts they are meant to portray.
Example: The man's arm exploded with pain, cobwebs of fire crawling up and down its length as the tire of
a passing car crushed it. (There is no literal explosion, cobwebs, or fire, but the words are used to create
images and draw similarities to the way such an event would feel)
Metonymy:

Metonymy is similar to synecdoche, but instead of a part representing the whole, a related

object or part of a related object is used to represent the whole. Often it is used to represent the whole of an
abstract idea.
Example: The phrase "The king's rifles stood at attention," uses 'rifles' to represent infantry.
Example: The word 'crown' may be used metonymically to refer to the king or queen, and at times to the
law of the land.
Motif: When a word, phrase, image, or idea is repeated throughout a work or several works of literature.
For example, in Ray Bradbury's "There Will Come Soft Rains," he describes a futuristic "smart house" in a
post-nuclear-war time period. All life is dead except for one dog, which dies in the course of the story.

However, Bradbury mentions mice, snakes, robins, swallows, giraffes, antelopes, and many other animals in
the course of the story. This animal motif establishes a contrast between the past, when life was flourishing,
and the story's present, when all life is dead. Motifs may also be used to establish mood (as the blood motif
in Shakespeare's Macbeth), for foreshadowing (as when Mary Shelley, in Frankenstein, mentions the moon
almost every time the creature is about to appear), to support the theme (as when, in Sophocles' drama
Oedipus Rex, the motif of prophecy strengthens the theme of the irresistibility of the gods), or for other
purposes.
Onomatopoeia

: This includes words that sound like their meaning, or imitations of sounds.

Example: "The bees were buzzing"

Overstatement: An exaggeration or stretching of the truth. (See exaggeration and hyperbole.) They
screamed until their eyes bugged out.
Oxymoron: A technique in which two words with opposite meanings are put together for a special effect.
Bitter sweet, old news, small fortune
Paradox:

In literary terminology, a paradox is an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless

somehow true. Paradox can take the form of an oxymoron, overstatement or understatement. Paradox can
blend into irony.
Paradox:

A statement that is true but that seems to be saying two opposite things. The more free time

you have, the less you get done.

Personification: Giving human or animal characteristics to inanimate objects.
Example: The wind whistled through the trees. (Wind cannot whistle, humans whistle.)
Plot: Plot includes the storyline, and is more; it includes the way in which elements in the story interact to
create complexity, intrigue, and surprise. It is often created by having separate threads of storyline interact at
critical times and in unpredictable ways, creating unexpected twists and turns in the overall storyline.
Plot structure Plot structure refers to the configuration of a plot in terms of its exposition, rising action,
climax, falling action, and resolution/denouement.
For example, Dickens' novel Great Expectations is noted for having only a single page of exposition before
the rising action begins, while The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien has an unusually lengthy falling
action. Plot can also be structured by use of devices such as flashbacks, framing and epistolary elements.

Repetition : Repetition is the deliberate use of a word or phrase more than once in a sentence or a text
to create a sense of pattern or form or to emphasize certain elements in the mind of the reader.
Rhyme:

The repetition of identical or similar sounds, usually accented vowel sounds and succeeding

consonant sounds at the end of words, and often at the ends of lines of prose or poetry.
For example, in the following lines from a poem by A.E. Housman, the last words of both lines rhyme with
each other.
Loveliest of trees, the cherry now
Is hung with bloom along the bough
Rhythm:

It is most important in poetry, but also used in prose for emphasis and aesthetic gain.

Example: The fallibly irrevocable cat met its intrinsic match in the oppositional form of a dog.
Satire Using sarcasm, irony, or humor to make fun of people's habits or ideas. Satire is often used to
raise questions about current event or political decision. (See sarcasm and irony.)
Simile: The easiest stylistic device to find is a simile, because you only have to look for the words "as" or
"like". A simile is a comparison used to attract the reader's attention and describe something in descriptive
terms.
Example: "From up here on the fourteenth floor, my brother Charley looks like an insect scurrying among
other insects." (From "Sweet Potato Pie," Eugenia Collier)
Example: The beast had eyes as big as baseballs and teeth as long as knives.
Example: She put her hand to the boy's head, which was steaming like a hot train.
Situational irony: This is when the author creates a surprise that is the perfect opposite of what one would
expect, often creating either humor or an eerie feeling. For example, in Steinbeck's novel The Pearl, one
would think that Kino and Juana would have become happy and successful after discovering the "Pearl of
the World," with all its value. However, their lives changed dramatically for the worse after discovering it.
Similarly, in Shakespeare's Hamlet, the title character almost kills King Claudius at one point, but resists
because Claudius is praying and therefore may go to heaven. As Hamlet wants Claudius to go to hell, he
waits. A few moments later, after Hamlet leaves the stage, Claudius reveals that he doesn't really mean his
prayers ("words without thoughts never to heaven go"), so Hamlet should have killed him after all. The way
to remember the name is that it's for an ironic situation.
Sound Techniques: These are devices which play on sounds and phonemes to enhance the overall impact of
the written work. Some examples of sound techniques are as follows:
1. Rhyme
5. Consonance

2. Repetition
6. Rhythm

3. Alliteration
7. Onomatopoeia

4. Assonance

Storyline :

The storyline is the chronological account of events that follow each other in the narrative.

Symbol: A symbol may be an object, a person, a situation, an action, a word, or an idea that has literal
meaning in the story as well as an alternative identity that represents something else. It is used as an
expressive way to depict an idea. The symbol generally conveys an emotional response far beyond what the
word, idea, or image itself dictates.
Example: A heart standing for love. (One might say "It broke my heart" rather than "I was really upset")
Example: A sunrise portraying new hope. ("All their fears melted in the face of the newly risen sun.")
Synecdoche: Synecdoche occurs when a part of something is used to refer to the whole. Many examples
of synecdoche are idioms, common to the language.
Example: Workers can be referred to as pairs of hands, a vehicle as ones wheels or mounted infantrymen
as horse, the latter appearing to be singular but actually employing the generic plural form: "Napoleon
deployed two thousand horse to cover the left flank."
Syntax :

Sentences can be long or short, written in the active voice or passive voice, composed as

simple, compound, complex, or compound complex. They may also include such techniques as inversion or
such structures as appositive phrases, verbal phrases (gerund, participle, and infinitive), and subordinate
clauses (noun, adjective, and adverb). These tools can be highly effective in achieving an author's purpose.
Example: The ghetto was ruled by neither German nor Jew; it was ruled by delusion. (from Night, by Elie
Wiesel) In this sentence, Wiesel uses two parallel independent clauses written in the passive voice. The first
clause establishes suspense about who actually rules the ghetto, and then the first few words of the second
clause set up the reader with the expectation of an answer, which is metaphorically revealed only in the final
word of the sentence.
Tone : Tone expresses the writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject, the reader, or herself or himself.
Verbal Irony :This is the simplest form of irony, in which the speaker says the opposite of what he or she
intends. There are several forms, including euphemism, understatement, sarcasm, and some forms of
humour.

Q7. Discuss the advantages of using literary texts for the purpose of language learning. (20)
The employment of English literature in teaching language skills was considered a given a hundred and fifty
years ago. Works of literature that bring delight to readers of a language should, by that very fact, should
also be naturally suitable material in the teaching of the language itself. Thus, when promising young men
from erstwhile British colonies were being trained to carry bureaucratic responsibility in the Empire, they
were exposed to the great classics of English literature at Oxford and Cambridge. This remained the default
methodology of language teaching until approximately fifty years ago, when language teachers began to
raise concerns about the effectiveness of the use of literature in language teaching contexts. This assignment
posits the idea that the use of literary texts in the teaching of English language has many benefits. Reaping
these benefits is, however, subject to the judicious choice of appropriate works of literature in the ESL
classroom. We will first examine the benefits that could accrue from using literature in language teaching.
Next, we will look at some of the concerns that have been raised in this regard. Some lesson plans have also
been created to demonstrate the use of literature in teaching language.
2. Concept: Benefits and Concerns The arguments against using English literature in teaching English
language began when a new emphasis was placed on learning communicative language. Teachers of
English as a Second language (TESL) found using classic literary works unsuitable in teaching
conversational skills, for example. Further, linguists proclaimed the primacy of speech, thus implying that
the written form of language is rather static. Again, literary texts such as the works of Shakespeare and
Milton were thought to employ language that is archaic and therefore unsuitable in teaching language. The
very complexity of the structure of literature affords it regular nonstandard use of language. Teachers
teaching grammar, for example, would find this creative use of language in literary art, with its structural
complexity quite unsuitable to language teaching. Further, globalization and international trade has required
the creation of specialized language areas such as EAP (English for Academic Purposes) and ESP (English
for Specific Purposes). Using classic texts in such situations is quite impossible, since the aim of these
courses is to develop the academic and professional abilities of individuals, rather than enable them to
appreciate literary works.
Finally, the literature of every language is situated in the cultural milieu of the society that speaks the
particular language. Thus, such literary texts will contain a complexity of concept, which would burden
rather than facilitate the acquisition of the target language for a non-native. In answering the charge that
using literature does not actually help promote the teaching of academic or specific occupation-related goals,
it must be remembered that literature can help develop an overall increase in reading proficiency. And in
doing so, it will certainly contribute towards EAP or ESP goals. Therefore, if a language teacher uses
literature to help her students develop reading skills, she empowers them to interact with a text by
understanding the language and comprehending the concepts presented. Obviously, this will need sensitivity

on the part of the teacher in selecting texts that do not overwhelm the student with linguistic and conceptual
difficulty. In recent times, both scholars and teachers have begun to reduce the rather artificial gap that is
seen between the study of language and the study of literature. Perhaps it was this distance between
language and literature that reduced the role of literature in the language classroom. In the last quarter of a
century, a renewed interest is observable in the usage of literature in teaching language. Teachers have begun
to claim that literature can indeed enhance the efficiency of language learning programs. Linguist and
researcher T.T.M. Van (2009) gives six key reasons as to why the use of literature is of benefit in the ESL
classroom:
1- It provides meaningful contexts;
2- It involves a profound range of vocabulary, dialogues and prose;
3- It appeals to imagination and enhances creativity;
4- It develops cultural awareness;
5- It encourages critical thinking;
6- It is in line with CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) principles.
A vastly important advantage to the use of literature in language teaching is in the realm of its authenticity.
Classroom activities in the realm of ESL are characterized by attempts at meaningful and real
communication, at all levels. As a result, there is great need to create lessons that use authentic materials,
these being texts that are written in real language; produced for the native speakers and originally designed
without teaching purposes in mind. Given this criterion, literature would fit ideally, since it is inherently
authentic. Two literary genres particularly stand out in this respect: the novel and drama. The latter provides
conversations, expressions of emotions, phrases used in normal speech and expressions that are
contextualized. Similarly, novels provide descriptive writing, helping the ESL learner use imagination in
language acquisition
Further, the use of literary texts also provides a degree of motivation to the learner, given their authenticity
and the meaningful contexts they provide. Again, the engagement of a languages literature with its own
culture helps non-native learners to develop a cultural and intercultural awareness. This particular factor
becomes of increased significance in the time in which we live, an era where globalization is pervasive.
However, it needs to be noted that literature also helps meet another need that of expressing universally
shared needs and wants, and not just needs that are particular to an individual or culture. It needs no
elaboration that literature deals with concepts that are endemic to the human condition nature, business,
relationships, finances, family, nationality and do on. Since literature embodies such universal concepts, the
language learner is usually able to identify with it, thereby making its acceptance easy. The four skills
associated with ELT teaching reading, writing, listening and speaking all are helped by the employment
of literature in the language classroom. Novels, for example, are excellent material for extensive reading
purposes. Students can be taught to read such works with a dictionary at hand, thereby simultaneously

increasing their vocabulary too. The use of poetry enables intensive reading, so that language students can
be taught close analysis, along with an understanding of other literary elements such as sarcasm and
metaphor. Such deep reading should also train language learners in skills needed to extricate meaning in
texts. Since literature is not written with the express purpose of language teaching in mind, it generally
contains a variety of language genres as well as subject themes. The use of literature therefore is of great use
in teaching grammar and vocabulary. The use of current literature will also serve in helping students
understand semantic shifts in word meanings. For example, the word gay has moved from its original
meaning of happy to represent a homosexual inclination. Modern literary texts could help learners
understand such semantic evolutions and bring maturity to their vocabulary repertoire. Acquisition of
syntactic knowledge can also be accelerated through the use of literary texts in the language classroom. One
very practical way in which students can be taught to develop language syntax related skills is poetry
transformation. This is the process by which a student takes a given poem and then writes its meaning own
in prose. This leads us to the use of literature in developing writing skills. Numerous exercises can be used
in this regard, but the one that I have personally found helpful with my students is the complete the end
yourself exercise. As would be obvious, students are given a short story, perhaps by a writer such as Anita
Desai, but without including the ending. They are then asked to write the end of the story in their own
words. Exercises such as these also help in developing spoken language skills. Learners can be asked to
explain their reasons for the particular ending that they have crafted, whilst also offering their thoughts on
the entire piece itself. Indeed, giving students the freedom to reflect on literary pieces helps develop
advancing speaking proficiency. Critics of the use of literature in teaching English often raise the facts that
literary texts are linguistically complex and quite different from the Standard English that students desire in
ELT classes. However, a shift in perspective can render this complexity a useful source for practice
especially for learners. If teachers create literature-based teaching material with sensitivity, syntactic
complexity will enable students learn new language skills. Another criticism leveled at the use of literature
in language teaching is that literary texts use outdated vocabulary words that will not help the language
learner of today. However, this is a weak argument in that ESL teachers are not bound to solely use literature
of Shakespeares day; numerous fiction writers of our time use language that is very close to Standard
English. The use of such texts written in our day will sensitize students to contemporary syntactical
structures.
Thus, a variety of benefits of using literary works in ESL classrooms seem to far outweigh the concerns
previously mentioned. Last, but not least, using native literature to teach nonnative language speakers could
have additional benefits in that it could simultaneously increase their understanding of the culture of the
language that they hope to learn.