Mechanical testing

Location and contact details

Senior Technical Officer - Andrew Rayment

Email AWR22@cam.ac.uk
Webpage http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/mechtest/
Room -1 037
Telephone 34337

Machines list

Machine
Creep
ESH

Mayes

Instron
8501
LCF

TMF
Instron
8800
Tinius
Olsen
5kN

Tinius
Olsen
25kN

Load

Extensometry Temp

Grips

20kN

Contact

Max 900C

Screw

250N
1kN

Twin LVDT
Optical

Max 900C

100kN

Contact

Ambient

Tension
Compression
Flexural
Torsion
Tension
Compression
Flexural
Fibre

100kN

Contact

Ambient

Hydraulic tensile
only.

100kN

Contact

Max 1000C

Collet system for

tension,
compression and
fatigue.

50kN

Contact

Induction
heating

Fatigue screw
system

100kN

Contact

-150 to 300C

5N
250N
5kN

Laser
Contact
Optical

Ambient
Halogen heater
300C

As
above

As above

As above

Tension
Compression
Flexural
Fibre
Tension
Compression
Flexural
Fibre
Fabric
Wire
Wet tensile
Needle /
puncture.
Syringe.
As above

Miss.

General
purpose
machine used
for nonroutine tests.

General
purpose
fatigue
testing at
ambient or
elevated
temperatures.
Limited
operation at
present.

Mostly used
for biological
and difficult
low load
samples.

Specialist equipment.

Machine
Charpy

Low load
compression
creep
Low load
tension
creep
Friction

Izod impact

Load

Extensometry Temp

Grips

50J

n/a

100N

Twin LVDT

Ambient or
independently
heated or
cooled
samples
Ambient or
halogen light
heated

Charpy
standard
sample sizes,
adjustable
gauge lengths
Compression
platterns

100N

Twin LVDT

Ambient or
halogen light
heated

Tensile

Variable

LVDT

Flat plate

40kpcm

n/a

Max 90C
(constant
temperature
heated water)
Ambient or
independently
heated or
cooled
samples

Standard
IZOD

Miss.

Extensometery
Name

Type

Ranges

Resolution

Instron contact

Contact extensometer

10mm

Instron high
temperature

Ceramic arm contact

extensometer max
temperature 1000C
Ceramic arm contact
extensometer max
temperature 1000C
Time scan using
reflective markers
Image recognition
designed by AW
Rayment for general
purpose strain
measurement.
Two eight channel
1/4,1/2 and full bridge
configuration.

-0.5 to 5mm

Grade 1
<1 um
Grade 1
<1 um

MTS high temperature

Laser non-contact
Optical

Strain gauge amplifiers

-0.5 to 2.5mm

Grade 1
<1 um

Variable up to 500%

Variable <0.2%

Dependant on optics

Dependant on image
size. Max 1024 pixel
resolution. Eg 10 mm
full screen would be
about 1um.
1 microstrain
depending on noise
levels.

20,000 micro-strain
maximum.

Control systems and data logging

Name

Type

Comments

Bluehill

Digital control system for all the

Instron test frames.

Templates for tensile,

compressive, stress relaxation ,
creep and simple fatigue. Full
test profile capability via
profiler.
Program for cyclical testing and
multi block testing.
Program for tensile,
compressive, cyclical testing
and multi block testing.
Extensive database of standard
test methods.
These programs are developed
for specific applications where
existing packages are
insufficient.

Wavemaker
Horizon

Labview

Digital control system for

Instron machines.
Tinius Olsen control program
for the Hounsfield and Tinius
Olsen frames.

Multiple purpose programs by

AW Rayment for control, data
logging and analysis.

The Laboratory

We have several types of machines

including.

Servo-hydraulic
Electric screw
Creep
Impact
Friction
Nano-indentation

The servo-hydraulic and electric screw

machines can be thought of as general
purpose machines for pushing pulling
or twisting, whereas the creep, impact,
friction and nano-indentation machines
are single purpose.
The Laboratory layout has two areas. The central block has the electric screw driven machines and
several other specialist and prototype equipment. The servo-hydraulic machines are around the
edge of the laboratory as they need to connect to the hydraulic ring main. There is also a recessed
area for the creep testing machines.

Servo hydraulic machines

Servo hydraulic machines use hydraulic oil at high

pressure (typically 3000PSI) to control the
movement of an actuator. Pressure is applied via
two ports, P1 and P2. The pressure difference
between the ports determines the direction of
motion of the actuator.

Servo valve
The signal from a control transducer is converted into a current, typically 0-20mA. This energises the
armature which moves left or right depending on the system set up. The armature is attached to an
inlet jet that directs the supply pressure towards one of the two inlet tubes to the spool chamber.
The pressure difference between the two spool inlet pipes makes the spool move to the left or the
right. As it moves pressure is directed into the actuators chamber to apply force to the sample.

Servo valve operation

Feedback

The servo-valve gets the feedback signal

transducer which is normally an LVDT
later) a load cell or an additional transducer
extensometer.

from a
(described
such as an

Screw machines
The electric screw machines have a single or twin screw set up. As the screws rotate the crosshead
moves up or down. Control is much more basic and generally not as sensitive or flexible as a servo
system. (Servo electric machines are available but we do not have any on site).

Typical Test methods

Tensile testing

Sample design
The easiest designs utilise either a flat or cylindrical geometry and full details can be found in test
standards like ASTM D 412.

Compression testing

Sample design
The general rule is to keep the length to width / diameter to less than 2.

Another problem is barrelling when theres friction present at the grip sample interface. Use
graphite or other suitable lubricant.

Flexural testing

Sample design
The important dimensions here are the ratio of width, depth and length. These are defined in
various test standards and one example a Type C is shown below.

Torsion

Sample design
The best sample design has hexagonal or square ends so that the grip chucks can interlock with the
ends. As these can be difficult to machine so often we use simple cylindrical samples.

Fracture toughness
We can run fracture toughness tests and crack propagation tests on specific sample geometries. The
diagrams show the compact tension set up but we can also run three and four point bend
configurations.

Charpy Impact
We have a 50J impact machine , sample size is 10x10x55mm with suitable notch.

Frame grips
These are used where the samples are very small or cannot be cut into dumbbell shape specimens.

Torsion adaptor: bone implant testing.

Low load horizontal wet cell system.

This design is for thin samples that cannot be handled directly and mounted in the grips. It was
designed for biological samples. The idea is based around techniques I use for mounting decal
transfers in model making. Because of the inherent problems associated with determining strain it
should only be used with my optical extensometer and when conventional methods are impractical.

Micro CT and particle compression

These chambers can be used for compression of particles or fragments for further examination by
micro CT.

A larger capacity version.

Penetration/puncture test

We have many plungers for puncture resistance and penetration tests. The test is very similar to
compression testing and uses the same control software.

Fatigue

Sample design
Fatigue test with a compressive and tensile component (say R= -1) need very carefully machined
samples such as the LCF sample shown here. The sample design reduces the risk of buckling during
the compressive phase. For pure tensile or compression fatigue then use a simple tensile or
compression sample respectively. You cannot normally use a standard tensile sample for
compression testing.

Sample preparation
Surface finish

Sample preparation is critical, always ensure the surface finish is free of machining marks otherwise
you will get failure at these defects. A typical high quality finish is N5 to N6 which equates to 0.4 to
0.6 m. (However please refer to your sponsors requirements before testing).

Parallelism (compression testing)

Non parallel samples cause stress concentrations and can shatter the grips.

Transducers
Load cells

Load cells convert forces by measuring the

bend in beams with attached strain gauges.
As a force is applied to the connector rods
the beams flex altering the resistance of the
strain gauges. These signals are then
converted into electrical signal that can be
calibrated measured and recorded.

Extensometer

Contact

These are difficult to use with most problems due to setting the gauge length incorrectly and curved
samples.

This effect is also occurs in bent tensile samples but with the strains reversed.

LVDT
Linear variable differential transducers are robust devices that measure displacement very
accurately. A typical arrangement is shown below.

An AC voltage across the primary coil induces voltages in the secondary coils that depend on the
position of the ferromagnetic core. As the core moves the difference between the voltages in the
secondary coils is therefore proportional to the displacement.

Strain gauges

Resistance changes from the strain gauges are very small (typically fractions of an Ohm) and to
convert the output into manageable voltages we use a Wheatstone bridge configuration. This circuit
is formed by a set of resistors arranged in the layout shown (normally one will be a variable resistor
to enable the circuit to be balanced).
Voltage from the bridge (Vo) is proportional to the values
of the resistors and is in fact given by;

R4

R3

Vo = (R1.R2 R2.R4).1/ ((R1+R2)(R3+R4)

So it follows that when all the resistances are equal the
output voltage is 0 Volts.

(As R1= R2= R3=R4 = R our numerator is therefore 2R-2R

= 0)
R1

R2

Vo

There are several ways of arranging the gauges in a

Wheatstone bridge (depending on the application) but
probably the most common is in the quarter bridge
configuration where one of the fixed resistors is the strain
gauge (see opposite),
let the resistance of the strain gauge = Rs
then
Vo = (Rs.R2 R2.R4).1/((Rs+R2)(R3+R4)
This means that we get a change in voltage proportional to
the resistance. The voltage is easy to measure and scale with
an amplifier to give the calibrated strain value.
So with this system we can now mount strain gauges on
sample and measure the strain very accurately.
If we use two strain gauges on either side of the sample wired in a half bridge configuration we
average the strain so compensate for bend within the sample.
Alternatively if the second gauge is mounted at right angles to the first then you can compensate for
thermal drift (assuming uniaxial loading) as the change in resistance is the same in both gauges.
This sample has eight gauges attached used for alignment. The gauges are placed equally around the
circumference of the sample and we measure the strain of each around the sample (in quarter
bridge configuration.)

Creep testing extensometers

This system uses four extensometer arms that are held together by springs and locate against ridges
on the sample. Displacement is measured with two LVDTs.

Preparation and general information.

You will need to work out geometry, loads and strain rates. The best guides for this are in
the standard test methods published by organisations like ASTM and ISO. You can find many
of these methods in the library and on line.

If you do not understand any instructions or have problems understanding anything you
must let me know. People can be seriously hurt and equipment damaged if you are unsure
of what you are doing.

The geometry will depend on whether the test is compression, tension, fatigue or torsion
etc. This will be dealt with later.

The loads you expect from your sample as all of our load cells are rated in N.
Stress = force / area

The strain rates for the test are often expressed in [L][s-1] and not [s][s-1]
The software tends to prefer mm/s.
(If you are interested in load control then the rate is in N/min, N/s )
So strain rate is simple to determine as

Hence if we wish to convert the strain rate into mm/s then we have

v(t) = .L0

Please note that consumables like superglue, gloves, pens, lab books etc cannot be supplied
in the lab and you will need to source them. They can all be purchased direct from stores.

Risk assessments have to be provided and signed by your supervisor.

You must follow all of the Departmental safety policies.

Laser Extensometer

Preparing thin sheet samples

Thin samples should be cut with purpose made
die cutters so that they are defect free. Cutters
can be purchased for almost any size of sample
and a typical one (ASTM D412 type C) is shown
here.