Hydrocarbon Processing 10 2016 PDF

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OCTOBER 2016 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
PROCESS CONTROL AND

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Use process knowledge management
systems to accelerate innovation
Optimize a CDU using process simulation
and statistical modeling
BUSINESS TRENDS
Refining outlook: Asia-Pacific
PROCESS ENGINEERING
Build a diesel fuel performance additive, the right way
The effect of various parameters on tray point efficiency
HITTING
TOP QUARTILE
MEANS
Reclaiming the dead money
buried in your operation
Emerson.com/Reliability
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OCTOBER 2016|Volume 95 Number 10

HydrocarbonProcessing.com
S55
34
SPECIAL FOCUS: PROCESS CONTROL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
35 Optimize a CDU using process simulation and statistical modeling methods
41 The history, and possible future, of model-less multivariable control
A. Kern
45 Use process knowledge management systems to accelerate innovation
J. Bird, D. Seillier and E. Piazza
S. Hall and P. Mahoney
51 Measure naturally occurring radioactive material in polypropylene plants
D. Williams
DEPARTMENTS
4
Industry Perspectives
Business Trends
15
Industry Metrics
17
Global Project Data
96 Innovations
99 Marketplace
100
Advertiser Index
101 Events
ADVANCES IN SULFUR MANAGEMENTSUPPLEMENT

S-56 Stricter standards in sulfur treating
102 People
COLUMNS
B. Andrew
S-64 Low-sulfur projects dominate the downstream construction landscape

L. Nichols
PROCESS ENGINEERING AND OPTIMIZATION

71 Build a diesel fuel performance additive, the right wayPart 1

N. Kasiri, P. Jouybanpour and M. Reza Ehsani
MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY

83 Monitor medium-voltage switchgear in refineries
B. Jazayeri
93 Use dynamic simulation to maximize plant operating performance
M. A. Als
GAS PROCESSING SUPPLEMENT

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reliability and operator comfort, for Reliance refinery operations. Photo courtesy of Barco Inc.
The 2016 Top Project award

nominees are out!
Reassess and redirect your approach
to a long-term career
J. Murray
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

88 Lessons learned in commercial scale-up of new chemical processes
Editorial Comment
19 Reliability
21
Automation Strategies
23
Project Management
27
Codes and Standards
K. E. Litz, K. Edison and J. Rankin
79 The effect of various parameters on tray point efficiency
G. G. Pipenger
75 Remove sulfur and nitrogen from liquid hydrocarbons

with absorption process

Identify challenges in
alarm management
Global trends in energy savings:
Are emerging technologies the solution?
Overcome technical difficulties
in field pumps ordered to
API 610/ISO 13709
31 Viewpoint
New challenges demand

innovative solutions
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Industry Perspectives
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EDITORIAL
What is the future of the

downstream HPI?
What is the state of downstream processing capacity? What
regions and sectors are seeing growth, and which are stagnant,
or possibly shrinking? Capital-intensive investments are being
made in every sector and region of the hydrocarbon processing
industry (HPI). These investments are ensuring that global demand for petroleum products will be met in the future.
At present, Hydrocarbon Processings Construction Boxscore
Database is tracking over 2,100 projects around the world.
These projects represent more than $1.6 T in total capital expenditures through 2030.
The editors of Hydrocarbon Processing have provided their
insight into the major trends affecting the global downstream
oil and gas industry. Their views are expressed in Hydrocarbon
Processings HPI Market Data 2017. Available now, the report
provides detailed information on topics such as:
New and active construction projects around the globe
Latest developments in the refining, petrochemical
and gas processing/LNG industries
Forecast spending for capital, maintenance
and operating expenditures
Supply and demand of transportation fuels by region
and country
The effect of low oil prices on the downstream industry
Market dynamics and trade flows of refined products.
Hydrocarbon Processings HPI Market Data report has been
produced for more than 40 years, and provides the HPI professional with comprehensive data to make informed, strategic decisions and recognize new opportunities in the global HPI.
For more information on Hydrocarbon Processings
HPI Market Data 2017, visit HydrocarbonProcessing.com
and click Market Data.
600
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ARC Advisory Group
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300
200
100
0
Africa
Asia-Pacific
Canada
Europe
Latin America Middle East
FIG. 1. Total active projects by region. Source: Hydrocarbon

Processings Construction Boxscore Database.
4OCTOBER 2016|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Editorial
Comment
LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The 2016 Top Project award nominees are out!

Its that time again!
Hydrocarbon Processing
has announced the nominees for its annual Top
Project awards. Using
Hydrocarbon Processings
Construction Boxscore Database, the editors of Hydrocarbon Processing have identified nine projects that are anticipated
to heavily impact the global or regional
downstream industry. All of the nominees will contribute significantly to the
hydrocarbon processing industry, whether
through contributing capital expenditures,
satisfying domestic or adding to regional
demand, diversifying product offerings,
or the resurgence in refining and/or petrochemical processing capacity.
These nine projects span the globe and
represent over $60 B in total capital expenditures. The winners of this prestigious
award over the last two years include:
Refining
o 2014Saudi Aramco and Total
Refining and Petrochemcial Co.s
(SATORP) Jubail Refinery
o 2015SOCARs Turkey
Aegean Refinery (STAR)
Petrochemicals
o 2014Saudi Aramco and
Dow Chemicals SADARA
Petrochemical Complex
o 2015Sasols Ethane Cracker
and Derivatives Complex
This years refining nominees represent
nearly 800 Mbpd of new refining capacity
by the end of the decade. All of these projects are located in non-OECD countries
and represent a total capital investment of
nearly $40 B. The four petrochemical nominees span four different regions, have a total cost of more than $23 B and represent
more than 10 MMtpy of additional petrochemical products production by 2020.
The choice is now up to you! Beginning October 1, readers of Hydrocarbon
Processing can make their choices known
in an exclusive online poll. The winners
will be revealed in Hydrocarbon Processings December issue, with a subsequent
ceremony to be held at the Hydrocarbon
Processing Awards in June 2017.
Top refining project nominees

Operator
Project
Location
Capacity
Bharat Petroleum
Corp. Ltd.
Kochi Integrated Refinery

expansion
Kochi, India
120 Mbpd
(expansion)
Saudi Aramco
Jazan Refinery
Jazan, Saudi Arabia
400 Mbpd
Petroperu
Talara Refinery expansion

and modernization
Talara, Peru
30 Mbpd
(expansion)
Nghi Son Refinery

and Petrochemicals
Nghi Son Refinery and

Petrochemicals Complex
Nghi Son, Vietnam
Kuwait National
Petroleum Co.
Clean Fuels Project
Mina Abdullah/Mina
Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait
200 Mbpd
64 Mbpd
(expansion)
Top petrochemical project nominees

Operator
Project
Location
Capacity
Carbon Holdings
Tahrir Petrochemicals Complex
Ain Sokhna, Egypt
1.36 MMtpy
Petronas
Refining and Petrochemical

Integrated Development (RAPID)
Pengerang, Johor,
Malaysia
7.7 MMtpy
Dow Chemical
Oyster Creek PDH Unit
Freeport, Texas, US
750 Mtpy
Turkmengas
Kiyanly Petrochemical Complex
Kiyanly, Turkmenistan
480 Mtpy
INSIDE THIS ISSUE
8 Business Trends.
continues its series on the global
refining industry. Part 2 provides a
detailed overview of the refining sector
and capacity construction outlook
for the Asia-Pacific region.
31 Viewpoint.
Rebecca Liebert,
President and CEO of Honeywell
UOP, discusses how the future refiner
must emulate an entrepreneurial spirit
one driven by world-class research and
development, innovative cost elimination,
commercial excellence and modern
control and automation systems.
34 Special Focus.
Process
control and information
systems are an integral part of refinery
and plant operations. Advanced process
control solutions provide hydrocarbon
processing companies with inventive
ways to manage difficult and complex
operational and reporting applications.
The special report addresses concerns
regarding human-machine interfaces,
as well as innovations in control devices,
hardware and software.
S-55 Sulfur.
Around the
world, legislation
mandating decreased emissions and
lower levels of airborne pollutants
is coming into effect. In response,
refiners are implementing operational
and processing changes to reduce
sulfur levels in transportation fuels.
Hydrocarbon Processings Sulfur
Supplement includes companies taking
on this sulfur challenge, as well as those
that handle this element every day.
75 Process Engineering.
Although adsorbents have yet

to be broadly adopted in the treatment
of refinery liquid hydrocarbon streams,
the field is very active. As capacity,
adsorption kinetics and selectivity
continue to improve, widespread
adoption may soon be seen.
Hydrocarbon Processing|OCTOBER 20167
| Business Trends
Hydrocarbon Processing continues its series on the global refining
industry. Part 1 provided a look at the present state of the refining
industry, new project developments, demand outlooks for the
refining sector and the move to low-sulfur transportation fuels.
Part 2 focuses on the refining sector and capacity construction
outlook for the Asia-Pacific region. This detailed overview
analyzes major trends in the region and offers data on planned
refinery capacity additions, upgrades and grassroots facilities.
Photo courtesy of Toyo Engineering.

Business Trends
Global refining overviewPart 2
At the time of publication, the Construction Boxscore Database was tracking
nearly 775 total active refining projects
around the world (FIG. 1). According to
the International Energy Agencys (IEAs)
Medium-Term Oil Market Report 2016,
global oil demand will increase to nearly
102 MMbpd by 2022. The majority of
oil demand growth will be in non-OECD
Asia and the Middle East. By 2022, the
IEA forecasts that global refining capacity will reach nearly 105 MMbpd (FIG. 2).
The following is an overview of the
refining sector and capacity construction
outlook for the Asia-Pacific region. Part 3
of Hydrocarbon Processings global refining
overview will be published in November.
Asia-Pacific. The region has witnessed
incredible growth over the past several
years, and is forecast to account for the
majority of oil demand growth through
the rest of the decade. As OECD Asia
countries have witnessed stagnant or decreasing oil demand, non-OECD Asia has
led the charge in global consumption over
the past few years.
Asias oil refining capacity has increased
by over 8 MMbpd over the past decade.
According to BP data, total refining capacity in Asia has expanded from 24.3
MMbpd in 2005 to over 32.5 MMbpd in
2015. The majority of new regional refining capacity will be located in non-OECD
countriesprimarily China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia.
However, the slowdown in Chinas
economy is paralyzing the regions refining margins. Chinas overcapacity has
transformed the country into a net exporter of refined fuels. In turn, Chinese
refined fuels, primarily diesel and gasoline, have flooded the regional market.
Coupled with that phenomenon, new
Middle Eastern refineries have started
exporting high-quality refined fuels into
Asia, which has added to the glut. The
supply overhang has impacted Asian re-
fining margins, as well as forced the regions refiners to cut run rates to maintain
profitability. The hope is that reduced utilization rates and seasonal maintenance
will help draw down refined fuel stockpiles and increase margins in the long run.
China. The countrys oil consumption has expanded by over 5 MMbpd in
the past 10 years. Total oil consumption
has reached nearly 12 MMbpd, making
China the second-largest oil consumer
on the planet, after the US.
Although China is importing large
amounts of crude oil, it is not a reflection
of the robust China of a few years ago.
The Chinese economy is slowing, and
much of the additional imported crude
oil is going toward its strategic petroleum
reserves program, teapot refinery quotas
and to replace lost production. The flood
of oil in China has changed the countrys
refined products dynamics, and has inadvertently turned the country into a major
diesel exporter.
As the country moves toward a more
service-oriented economy, the need for
diesel fuel to power heavy machinery
and heavy-duty trucks is slowing. Overcapacity and slowing industrial buildout

have created an oversupply of diesel,
which led the country to become a net
diesel exporter in 2014. In 2015, Chinese diesel exports jumped 75%, reaching over 300 Mbpd in 2016. This trend
will continue to negatively affect refining
margins in Asia.
Conversely, Chinas demand for gasoline has skyrocketed. The need for additional gasoline to fuel passenger vehicles
continues to increase. The countrys refining network was designed to produce
diesel, so Chinese refiners have been adjusting their refineries to maximize output of gasoline. By mid-2016, however, it
appeared that the country had overproduced. Crude processing rates topped 11
MMbpd in June, which was a record for
the country. Gasoline supplies are beginning to stockpile. The surplus fuel is also
being exported into the Asian market. If
domestic gasoline demand does not increase, or if Chinese refiners do not cut
run rates, then gasoline could become
the countrys new diesel.
250
200
150
100
50
Africa
Asia-Pacific
Canada
Europe
Latin America
Middle East
US
FIG. 1. Total active refining projects by region, September 2016. Source: Hydrocarbon
Processings Construction Boxscore Database.
Business Trends
The countrys refining network has increased substantially over the past decade.
According to BP, Chinas refining capacity
increased from 7.6 MMbpd in 2005 to 14.3
MMbpd in 2015, and it is expected to increase an additional 1.5 MMbpd by 2020.
Major refinery projects in China are
listed in TABLE 1. Due to the surge in new
refining capacity, the country has delayed
many refining projects for up to a year or
longer. Some of the major delays include
the construction of the Kunming, Jieyang
and Zhanjiang refineries, as well as the expansion of the Huabei refinery.
Lastly, over the past year, the world has
witnessed the rise of Chinese teapot refineries. Although these refineries tend to be
less complex than their nationally owned
counterparts, teapot refineries account for
one-third of Chinas total domestic refining capacity. In 2015, expansions in teapot
refining operations increased the independent refining sectors total capacity to nearly 4.5 MMbpd. In 2015, China loosened
restrictions on the teapots ability to secure
crude oil from the international market.
Now that Chinese independent refiners can utilize crude oil in lieu of lowquality fuel oil, non-state refineries are expected to boost run rates. This action will
likely add to the fuel supply glut already
being witnessed domestically, as well as in
other countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
Since the majority of Chinese independent refiners lack infrastructure to export
their products to the global market, their
refined products will be sold primarily
to the domestic market. With increased
refined product output, Chinese teapot
refinery production will ultimately eat
into the market share held by state-owned
entities. Chinese teapots growing crude
TABLE 1. Major refinery projects in China

Company
Project
Capacity, Mbpd
Completion
Sinopec
Sinopec
Tianjin refinery
240
2020 or after
Zhanjiang refinery
300
2019/2020
Sinopec
Hainan refinery
100
2020 or after
Sinopec
Luoyang refinery
160
2020
CNPC/PetroChina
Huabei refinery
100
2017
CNPC/PetroChina
Anning refinery
260
2016
CNPC/PetroChina/PDVSA
Jieyang refinery
400
2021
PetroChina/Rosneft
Tianjin refinery
200
2020
CNOOC
Huizhou expansion
200
2017
Zhejiang Petrochemical
Dayushan Island complex
400
2020 or after
PetroChina/Qatar Petroleum
Taizhou refinery
300
2021 or after
Note: Data from the US EIA and Hydrocarbon Processings Construction Boxscore Database
2021
2015
Africa
Latin America
Middle East
Other Asia
China
FSU
Europe
North America
0
10
15
20
FIG. 2. Global refinery capacity additions by region, MMbpd, 20152021. Source: IEA.
25
processing market share may force stateowned refiners to either find additional
export markets or cut run rates.
India. The country is emerging as the
globes new oil demand center, with burgeoning consumption providing huge potential for downstream oil and gas growth.
With a GDP ranked in the top 10 globally
and a large, growing population, India
has continuously seen increases in demand for energy in all forms. According
to IMFs World Economic Outlook 2016,
India is forecast to be the fastest-growing
economy over the next decade.
Indias domestic refining capacity sits at
approximately 4.6 MMbpd. The countrys
refining network has more than tripled in
capacity over the past two decades. The
countrys refining capacity is adequate to
meet consumption rates. However, due
to the projected growth in demand, additional refining capacity is needed. Both
public and private refiners are planning, or
have already commenced, major refinery
expansions, upgrades and grassroots facility constructions. According to Indias 12th
and 13th Five-Year Plans, domestic refining capacity is expected to reach approximately 366 MMtpy by the early 2020s.
Major Indian refining programs include:
Hindustan Petroleum Corp.
(HPCL) is investing nearly $8 B
to increase refining capacity
by two-thirds, as well as meet
new fuel standard requirements.
These investments will help
HPCL hit its refining capacity
target of 500 Mbpd by 2021.
Reliance is investing more than
$18 B in refining and petrochemical
capacity projects. This investment
includes the $4.5-B petcoke
gasification project, which will
allow the company to eliminate
approximately 6.5 MMtpy
of petcoke.
Essar Oil will invest nearly
$280 MM in upgrades to its Vadinar
refinery over the next 23 years.
These projects include upgrades to
the facilitys naphtha hydrotreater
unit, isomerization unit and
continuous catalytic reformer units,
along with the construction of
additional sulfur recovery units.
Chennai Petroleum is conducting
a feasibility study to boost capacity
ninefold at its Nagapattinam
Business Trends
refinery in Tamil Nadu. Total
capacity will increase from 20
Mbpd to 180 Mbpd. This project
will be carried out in addition to
Chennai Petroleums $500-MM
delayed coker and crude oil pipeline
project at its Manali facility.
IOCL plans to invest $600 MM to
upgrade its recently commissioned
Paradip refinery in Odisha to meet
new Bharat Stage 6 (BS-6) fuel
standards. The company will also
invest $6 B to expand domestic
refining by 30% by the early 2020s.
Bharat Petroleum Corp. Ltd.
(BPCL) is investing $4 B to expand
and modernize its Kochi refinery.
Numaligarh Refinery, a subsidiary
of BPCL, is planning a $3-B
expansion project at its Numaligarh
refinery in Assam. The projects
scope calls for the tripling of
capacity from 60 Mbpd to
180 Mbpd. If built, the refinery
would satisfy fuel demand in the
northeast portion of the country.
IOCL, BPCL, HPCL and
Engineers India are conducting a
feasibility study on a 1.2-MMbpd
refinery on Indias west coast.
The initial capacity of Phase 1
will be approximately 800 Mbpd
and cost nearly $15 B.
In total, Indian refiners are investing
more than $30 B in additional refining
projects through the early 2020s. Capital expenditures are expected to be even
higher due to new regulations to curb air
pollution and produce Euro 6-standard
fuels by 1Q 2020. India is skipping the
implementation of Bharat Stage 5 (BS-5)
and moving directly to BS-6 standards.
The BS-6 regulation is being imposed four
years ahead of schedule and calls for a 68%
reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions.
Indonesia. At present, the country
lacks adequate refining capacity to satisfy
the growing demand for refined products.
The countrys refining network is in desperate need of expansions and upgrades
to meet booming demand for petroleum
products. To increase domestic refining capacity, Indonesia has developed
the Refinery Development Master Plan
(RDMP). This plan will make way for
new downstream investments, primarily from heavy downstream players, to
expand and modernize Indonesias ailing
refining network.
The RDMPs goal is to raise the countrys domestic refining capacity from 1
MMbpd to 2.3 MMbpd. Indonesia will
accomplish the RDMP by upgrading five
of its major refineries, and through the
construction of grassroots facilities. The
refinery upgrades, which will cost approximately $5 B each, will allow the countrys
refineries to process heavier, less expensive
crudes into high-quality products. The
refineries involved in the RDMP are the
Balongan, Cilacap, Dumai, Plaju and Balikpapan facilities. The ambitious program
would not be possible without the help of
Saudi Aramco and Sinopec. The RDMP
also includes the construction of grassroots
facilities. These facilities include the Tuban
and Bontang refinery projects. The RDMP
is scheduled to be completed by 2025.
Vietnam. The country has seen its oil
consumption rates rise substantially over
the past decade. At present, it has only one
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Business Trends
operating refinery, located at Dung Quat.
The 176-Mbpd plant is unable to satisfy
domestic demand for refined products. As
a result, the country is dependent on fuel
imports. Vietnam has ambitious plans to
completely eliminate the refined fuels supply gap. This program is outlined in the nations 20202025 development plan. The
countrys initial plan called for the development of six large-scale refinery projects:
Dung Quat refinery expansion
Nghi Son refinery and
petrochemical complex
Vung Ro refinery and
Nhon Hoi refinery and
(abandoned)
Nam Van Phong refinery
Long Son refinery and
petrochemical complex.
These projects have the potential to
add 1.36 MMbpd of new domestic refining capacity at a total cost of more than $50
B. This would reverse the countrys status
from a net importer of refined products to
a net exporter by 2020. However, several
variables may act as a deterrent to these

plans. These variables include the need
to secure a massive amount of crude oil
feedstock and financial backing, overcapacity concerns that could lead to a glut of
fuel in the Asia-Pacific region, the need to
secure export supply contracts with other
nations, and the threat of future government and environmental regulations.
The massive amount of new domestic
capacity could be overkill. Many analysts
question where the surplus refined products will go. The region is already being
flooded by excess diesel supplies from
China. If Vietnam builds more refining
capacity, can it compete with countries
like China for market share? The country
will also need to construct a large amount
of new infrastructure to support the new
refineries and export refined fuels.
The uncertainty in global oil markets
has already forced the cancelation of the
$20-B Nhon Hoi refinery and petrochemical complex. The project would have seen
the construction of a 400-Mbpd refinery
and an olefins and aromatics plant with
production of up to 5 MMtpy.
Regardless of the demise of the Nhon

Hoi complex, the country is poised to
become a major refined fuels producer
by 2021. Vietnams second refinery is expected to begin operations in late 2017.
The $7.5-B, 200-Mbpd Nghi Son refinerys completion date has been delayed
from its initial completion date of mid2017. The delay in completion means the
country will continue to rely on refined
products imports through 2017.
Malaysia. The country is developing numerous projects under its Economic Transformation Program (ETP).
Launched in 2010, the ETPs goal is to
transform Malaysia into a developed
country by 2020. One of the major investments in the ETP is the construction
of the Pengerang Integrated Petroleum
Complex (PIPC). The PIPC includes the
$27-B Refining and Petrochemical Integrated Development (RAPID) project.
RAPID will include the construction of a
300-Mbpd refinery, a petrochemical complex with a total capacity of 7.7 MMtpy
and an LNG regasification terminal. The
projects scheduled startup date is 2019.
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Business Trends
Thailand. In response to increasing
demand, the country has announced multiple expansion and upgrade projects to
boost domestic refining capacity. Costs
could eclipse $3 B by the early 2020s.
The projects include the expansion and
upgrade of Thai Oils refinery in Sriracha,
and Bangchak Petroleum Public Co.s Energy, Efficiency and Environment (3E)
Improvement project in Bangkok. Thai
Oils Sriracha expansion project aims to
add 125 Mbpd of refining capacity to the
already operational 275-Mbpd refinery.
The company aims to make a final investment decision on the project in 2017.
Thai Oil has already awarded contracts to
upgrade the facility. The residue upgrading project will allow the refinery to produce Euro 5-standard fuels. The projects
study phase is expected to be completed
by the end of 2016.
Meanwhile, Bangchak Petroleums 3E
project will increase the Bangchak refinerys crude distillation capacity, debottleneck units to increase run rates, change
out catalysts and add a cogeneration
power plant.
South Korea. With over 3.1 MMbpd,

South Korea has the sixth-largest refining capacity in the world. Nearly 80% of
the countrys refining capacity resides in
three giant complexes. Together, these
refineries represent approximately 2.3
MMbpd of refining capacity, and all are
among the top five largest refineries in the
world; only Reliances Jamnagar complex
in India and PDVSAs Paraguana refinery
complex in Venezuela have higher capacities. Refining capacities for South Koreas
big three are listed below:
SK Energy Ulsan refinery complex:
840 Mbpd (third-largest worldwide)
GS Caltex Yeosu refinery: 775
Mbpd (fourth-largest worldwide)
S-Oil Ulsan refinery: 669 Mbpd
(fifth-largest worldwide).
Like much of Asia, South Korean refiners experienced strong refining margins in
2015 as oil prices dropped by more than
50%. This caused a run-up in the countrys refining utilization rates to over 90%.
The increased production allowed South
Korea to maintain a dominant position in
the Asia-Pacific fuels export market. How-
ever, this trend is changing as the region

is being flooded by additional fuels from
China and other countries. Some South
Korean refiners, such as GS Caltex and
Hyundai Oilbank Co., have already cut refinery run rates.
Regardless of the decrease in refining
utilization, South Korea is still investing
in its downstream sector, with a focus on
petrochemical and refining expansion
projects. The most notable project is SOils Residue Upgrading Complex Project
(RUCP). The project is being constructed
in unison with the facilitys olefin downstream complex (ODC). The project is
part of the companys strategic growth initiative, which includes refining and petrochemical integration. RUCP will convert
heavy fuel oil into high-value-added gasoline and olefins. The RUCP and ODC will
act as an integrated complex. RUCP will
supply its production as feedstock to the
olefins plant. Both projects are expected
to begin operations by 3Q 2018.
Next month. Part 3 of this overview will
appear in November.
Drier Steam Means Higher Profits

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SEPARATION AND STEAM DRUM SOLUTIONS SINCE 1961
MIKE RHODES, MANAGING EDITOR

Mike.Rhodes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Industry Metrics
An expanded version of Industry Metrics can be found

online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Global refining margins, 20152016*

20
10
Cracking spread, US$/bbl
Aug.-16
July-16
June-16
May-16
April-16
Mar.-16
Feb.-16
Jan.-16
Dec.-15
Aug.-16
July-16
June-16
May-16
April-16
Mar.-16
Aug.-16
Joly-16
June-16
May-16
April-16
Mar.-16
Feb.-16
Jan.-16
Dec.-15
Nov.-15
Sept.-16
Aug.-16
July-16
June-16
May-16
Mar.-16
30
Dubai
Urals
20
10
0
Prem. gasoline
Jet/kero
Gasoil
Fuel oil
Sept.-16
Aug.-16
July-16
June-16
May-16
April-16
Mar.-16
Feb.-16
Jan.-16
Dec.-15
Nov.-15
Oct.-15
Aug.-16
Aug.-16
July-16
June-16
May-16
April-16
Mar.-16
Feb.-16
Jan.-16
Dec.-15
Nov.-15
Oct.-15
Sept.-15
Aug.-15
-10
-20
Sept.-15
Aug.-15
Light sweet/medium sour

crude spread, US$/bbl
Oct.-15
Singapore cracking spread vs. Oman, 20152016*
Brent dated vs. sour grades

(Urals and Dubai) spread, 20152016*
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
April-16
Source: EIA Short-Term Energy Outlook, September 2016.
Gasoil
Fuel oil
Feb.-16
-10
-20
Prem. gasoline
Jet/kero
Jan.-16
2017-Q1
Dec.-15
2016-Q1
10
Nov.-15
2015-Q1
30
20
Oct.-15
2014-Q1
Stock change and balance, MMbpd
Supply and demand, MMbpd
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
40
Aug.-15
2013-Q1
Sept.-15
Rotterdam cracking spread vs. Brent, 20152016*
World liquid fuel supply and demand, MMbpd

Forecast
Prem. gasoline
Jet/kero
Diesel
Fuel oil
July-15
Oil prices, $/bbl
A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A
2014
2015
2016
2012-Q1
Nov.-15
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
W. Texas Inter.
Brent Blend
Dubai Fateh
Source: DOE
Stock change and balance

World supply
World demand
Oct.-15
US Gulf cracking spread vs. WTI, 20152016*
Selected world oil prices, $/bbl
100
98
96
94
92
90
88
86
84
82
2011-Q1
Feb.-16
Production equals US marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.
Jan.-16
60
Japan
Singapore
Dec.-15
J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J
2014
2015
2016
US
EU 16
70
Aug.-15
80
Sept.-15
20
2
1
0
Nov.-15
Monthly price (Henry Hub)

12-month price avg.
Production
Oct.-15
40
90
Sept.-15
Aug.-15
60
Utilization rates, %
100
Gas prices, $/Mcf
Production, Bcfd
Global refining utilization rates, 20152016*
80
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Sept.-15
Aug.-15
US gas production (Bcfd) and prices ($/Mcf)

100
WTI, US Gulf
Brent, Rotterdam
Oman, Singapore
15
Margins, US$/bbl
US gasoline demand contributed to falling inventories. Operational

problems at several refineries and the potential impact of a tropical
storm strengthened margins. Asian margins recovered slightly amidst
firm demand and falling inventories ahead of autumn maintenance.
Improvements seen in European gasoline crack spreads allowed refinery
margins to recover, despite the oversupply environment.
* Material published permission of the OPEC Secretariat; copyright 2016;

all rights reserved; OPEC Monthly Oil Market Report, September 2016.
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2013 by AMETEK Inc. All rights reserved.

Global Project Data

New project announcements have hovered in the low teens for
several months. This trend is due to several factors, which include
an oversupplied fuels market, economic uncertainty and reduced
funds to expand capacity due to the drop in oil prices. Although
new project announcements have decreased over the past several
months, announced global downstream project investments are
near an all-time high. Hydrocarbon Processings Construction

Boxscore Database is tracking over $1.6 T in announced projects
around the world. The majority of this new capacity is located in
non-OECD countries in the Asia-Pacific and Middle East regions,
as well as petrochemical and gas processing/LNG capacity
additions in the US.
$222 B
Canada
$168 B
$332 B
Europe
$275 B
US
$430 B
$140 B
Middle East
Africa
$77 B
Asia-Pacific
Latin America
Total announced downstream project investments

by region, 20162030
27
17
18
27
26
20
18
18
7% Africa
18% US
21
15
13
12
12
13
Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June- July- Aug.- Sept.15
15
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
Boxscore new project announcements,

August 2015present
30% Asia-Pacific
21% Middle East
3% Canada
13% Europe
8% Latin America
Market share analysis of active
downstream projects by region
Detailed and up-to-date information for active construction projects in the refining,
gas processing and petrochemical industries across the globe|ConstructionBoxscore.com
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HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR

Heinz.Bloch@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Reassess and redirect your approach

to a long-term career
It was not too long ago that a prospective employee could expect a 30-year
career within an oil refinery or a petrochemical plant. Overall, the qualifications
for such jobs were dependability, integrity
and the desire to learn. It helped to maintain a focus on being better than average.
For most of us, being in the upper 50% of
professional performers was not difficult.
Our goal was not necessarily to display a
passion for our job; instead, it was to carry
out our assignments well enough that our
absence would have been noted.
Advice for job holders. Chances are
that not much has changed in this assessment. For someone who is presently employed, this philosophy is still the general
roadmap for maintaining employment.
However, our approach and actions may
have to be redirected if we work at a plant
that is endangered by corporate takeovers,
consolidation, automation or failure to
keep up with top-quartile performers.
In this case, it might be best to obtain
a more detailed roadmap, figuratively
speaking. Instead of being a good instrument technician, we should strive to learn
the interaction of electronics, pneumatics
and computer-guided automated processes. We may have to learn more about the
logic that drives the meshing of software
and hardware.
That means that we must actively pursue and make use of adult education opportunities. For example, could acquiring
a foreign language skill set us apart from a
slightly more complacent competitor?
Advice to job seekers. Suppose that
you are among the young people that are

preparing themselves for the job market.
Industry employment opportunities seek
new entrants; after all, people retire and
must be replaced. Suppose that you are
enrolled in a community college and are
taking a course in automated drafting of
electrical schematics. Would it not be

advantageous to be in a position to explain, during a job interview, to what the
various symbols on your schematic refer?
Along those lines, and all things being
equal, would it not also be advantageous
to list on a resume, Fluency in Spanish as
a secondary language?
It never hurts to develop widely varying interests. No one has ever been dismissed from a job interview for knowing
the difference between oils and greases,
or between rolling element bearings and
sleeve bearings. Conversely, others may
not be eligible for employment if they
spent years in a machine shop and never
bothered to understand the limitations of
one lubricant relative to the other, or the
maintenance requirements and lubricant
application details of each.
Potential advice for all. During a job
search, it pays to know what the company

produces and how the processes work
that yield the product. An entry-level applicant is not expected to be an expert.
However, it is expected that you have
shown interest in how things are being
made, what raw materials are being used,
what the end use is for the products that
leave the plant, and whether those products are shipped in wooden crates, cardboard boxes or railroad tank cars.
Know what the interviewer does and
why you are being interviewed: All companiesin particular, within the hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI) segmentseek applicants who are focused,
dependable and teachable. When you are
asked about your goals, or where you see
yourself in 10 years, try to explain how
you intend to add value, not just collect a
paycheck. Never give the interviewer an
immature answer by saying that your goal
is to secure the available position.
Let us revert back to the possibility
of a job holder becoming a job seeker in
a struggling economy. Today, while still

gainfully employed operating a filling or
packaging machine for a motor oil producer, the groundwork for a wider range
of future jobs should be laid. Ample time
exists to become familiar with the fact
that these machines have bearings, and
that those bearings require lubrication.
Suppose that time had been spent observing and understanding the maintenance
details of these carton setups, and oil dispensing and quality-control monitoring
machines or devices. Consider how those
proactive efforts might open doors in a
potential search for employment, because
virtually all maintenance involves lubricants and lubricant application.
Face the facts: Good jobs go to valueadders. Dont put all your energy into an
expensive college education, only to graduate near the bottom of the class. Become
a person who moves from the level of being inquisitive to the knowledge level, and
from there to the next levelwisdom.
The process of becoming a value-adder
can begin somewhere between the inquisitive and knowledge levels.
Set a time budget; write the numbers
and targets on a piece of paper and be
specific. Resolutely distinguish between
your needs and your wants. Our needs are
finite, while our wants are limitless and
have no boundaries.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides
in Westminster, Colorado.
His professional career
commenced in 1962
and included long-term
assignments as Exxon
Chemicals regional
machinery specialist
for the US. He has
authored over 650
publications, among
them 19 comprehensive
books. Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS degrees in
mechanical engineering. He is an ASME life fellow
and maintains registration as a professional engineer
in New Jersey and Texas.
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Automation
Strategies
LARRY OBRIEN, VICE PRESIDENT

ARC Advisory Group
Identify challenges in alarm management

ARC Advisory Group recently conducted a survey on practices and trends in alarm management in the process industries.
The objective was to learn how end users, suppliers, consultants
and system integrators are approaching the often challenging issue of migrating existing alarm management applications.
Alarm management, in general, continues to be a significant
issue in process plants, driven largely by the need to conform to
current standards and best practices, such as ISA 18.2, EEMUA
191 and IEC 62682. The primary goal of these standards and
practices is to develop a continuous improvement approach to
alarm management, and to ease the alarm burden on operators.
As older alarm management systems become obsolete, end
users must migrate to new applications. In many cases, users
are taking advantage of this opportunity to improve their alarm
management philosophy and implement some of the newer aspects of these solutions, such as dynamic alarms that can change
in lock-step with the dynamically changing state of the plant.
graphics, as this standard is very popular in North America.

However, it is clear that many users outside of North America
also follow the standard. Close to 20% of respondents indicated that they follow the IEC 62682 standard, which closely
mirrors ISA 18.2.
ARC asked respondents to briefly describe the three primary challenges they faced regarding alarm management project
implementation. These challenges are outlined below.
Survey data. ARC received more than 170 responses to the

survey. Close to half of the total respondents were end users,
while consultants represented over 19% of respondents. Suppliers represented a relatively small portion of total respondents
(17.5%). Other respondents included original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and skid-mounted equipment manufacturers, and system integrators. While not all respondents answered
all survey questions, a general alignment in the responses
whether from end users, suppliers or third partieswas noted.
On an industry basis, the bulk of responses came from the oil
and gas sector (> 24%), while petrochemicals and bulk chemicals accounted for 19% of responses. Regionally, most respondents were from North America and Western Europe, which
collectively have the largest installed base of advanced alarm
management applications.
Most survey respondents recently implemented a new alarm
management and rationalization project at their company or facility, many on a company-wide basis. Clearly, strong activity in
alarm management and rationalization exists. ARC believes that
this effort will only escalate in the next few years as many end users face the need to migrate from older alarm management platforms, while other users that have yet to implement advanced
alarm management solutions will embark on new projects.
More than 35% of respondents disclosed that they were applying minor upgrades to existing applications. The remainder
were fairly evenly distributed among those that are implementing brand new projects, those that are migrating to a new solution from a new supplier, and those that are migrating to a new
solution from the same supplier.
Most respondents (72%) indicated that they adhere to the
ISA 18.2 standard. This is consistent with the survey demo-
Challenge #2: Lack of subject matter experts. Secondary challenges can also include human issues such as buy-in,
ease of use and basic trials such as time and resource allocation.
However, we are beginning to see more specific technical and
implementation challenges as secondary issues, including alarm
philosophy development challenges, configuration issues, developing or redefining key performance indicators (KPIs), ease
of use and database issues. Personnel issues also begin to become more specific and clearly defined, such as finding sufficient subject matter experts (SMEs), developing common work
processes and procedures across the enterprise, and overcoming resistance to change by operators and other personnel.
Challenge #1: Securing management buy-in and

resource allocation. Many of the primary challenges listed
deal with human issues, such as obtaining buy-in from operators and management, and finding the appropriate amount of
time, resources and training to effectively complete the project.
Cost and funding issues are also prevalent throughout the responses. Actually performing the alarm rationalization aspect of
the project was listed as a primary challenge.
Challenge #3: Alarm rationalization and consistency.

ARC still observes cost and resource concerns repeated as
tertiary challenges, but more specific personnel-oriented and
technology issues, such as keeping alarm rationalization up to
date, the management of change, and the implementation of
dynamic alarming, remain relevant. Achieving consistency in
alarm management while dealing with disparate sources of data
was also pinpointed as a key challenge.
LARRY OBRIEN is the vice president of process
automation at ARC Advisory Group, and has more than
20 years of experience working in the automation and
consulting business. Mr. OBrien has co-authored
numerous reports at ARC, including the Collaborative
Process Automation System 2.0, the Distributed
Control System Market Size and Forecast, the Control
System Migration Survival Manual, and the
Automation Supplier Provided Services Market Size
and Forecast. He also served three years as global
marketing manager at the Fieldbus Foundation.
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Project
Management
DOUG HUTTON AND JUAN GMEZ-PRADO

KBC Advanced Technologies, Manchester, UK
Global trends in energy savings:

Are emerging technologies the solution?
Despite low energy prices, energy conservation continues to
be an important component of business strategy in the oil refining and chemical industries. Driven globally by the need to
increase operating margins or meet government mandates (e.g.,
natural resources in Saudi Arabia, or European emissions standards), operating companies are seeking new solutions to improve energy performance.
Energy efficiency is a mature area of operational optimization in refineries and petrochemical complexes. Many of the
tools, techniques and technologies are familiar to the industry.
A consequence of this familiarity may be the perception that all
of the usual avenues for improvement have been exhausted. This
perception is leading to a common question in many energy efficiency discussions about what new technologies are available for
reducing energy use.1 While this appears to contradict the drive
for no-/low-cost improvements, it does recognize that saving
energy is still important.
The reality is that the bulk of new technologies have
been known for many years and have yet to achieve the breakthroughs expected of them. At the same time, experience
shows that, across the refining and petrochemical industries,
significant energy reduction (and, therefore, margin improvement) can still be achieved. This article discusses two trends in
energy management:
1. The drive for no-/low-cost improvements
2. The upsurge in interest in new technologies.
Energy management systems. Analyzing the results of more
than 30 years of energy studies highlights a number of trends:

The best energy performance in the refining sector has not
improved in absolute terms in the last 20 years. However,
overall average performance has improved, even if the

best performance has not.
New refinery units are generally not optimized for energy
performance on a standalone basis.
New units are seldom optimally integrated from a
site-wide perspective.
General reluctance exists to implement new technologies
for energy improvement in refining; in contrast, acceptance
of new technology has been stronger in petrochemicals.
These trends have been consistent even through the preceding period of high energy prices and low investment costs, so
they are not driven by the present low energy prices. In a sense,
low energy prices are not changing the industrys fundamental
approach to energy performance. The industry is, however,
putting off investment and focusing instead on sustaining the
resulting benefits of no-/low-cost improvements. Specific areas
receiving significant attention include:
Operational savings
0 Benchmarking against industry best practices
to set performance targets
0 Software tools to attain and sustain top performance
(e.g., metric tracking, utility optimization, advanced
process control, real-time optimization)
An energy management system (EMS)2 to implement
the processes and organization to manage and
continually improve energy performance.
A combination of constrained capital budgets and increased
drive to improve operating margins means that there is a good
business case for developing an EMS. The successful implementation of energy management results in the capture of low-cost
opportunities and sustained benefits.
TABLE 1. Elements of an effective EMS

Personnel
Methodologies
Technology
Senior managers
Energy team
Corporate
Onsite
Plant team
Plant manager
Plant engineers
Supervisors
Operators
Technical support team
Utilities support team
Operations
Online performance monitoring
Online utility system optimization
Technical support
Opportunity identification and investment planning
Operational scenario planning
Production planning support
Design
Maintenance practices
Knowledge management
Capability development
Technology awareness
Documentation
Innovation
Energy metric tools

Tracking applications
Unit monitoring
Equipment monitoring
Opportunity identification
Simulation
Pinch analysis
Utility modeling
Scenario planning
Steam system simulation
Steam system optimization
Subject matter expertise
Best practices
Leading technologies
Project Management
TABLE 2. Examples of standard, leading and emerging technologies
Process levelUtility level
Standard technologies
Leading technologies
Emerging technologies
Gas turbines for cogeneration

Hot water loops
Absorption refrigeration
Online utility optimization

Integrated fuel management
Proprietary fluid and/or vapor cycles
for improving thermal efficiency
Renewables (wind, solar)
Fuel cells
Distributed control systems (DCS)

Simulation
Pinch analysis on all new designs
Monitoring and targeting

Predictive modeling
Pinch analysis for retrofit
Advanced process control
Site-wide integration
Trigeneration
Variable-speed drives
Liquid expanders
Advanced heat exchangers
Thermocompressors
Heat exchanger fouling monitoring

Heat pumps
Dividing-wall distillation
Dual-effect distillation
High-efficiency distillation column internals
Condensate returned to boiler plant

Steam trap and leak repair programs
Optimal insulation thicknesses
Minimize pump redundancy
Optimized furnace stack O2 and temperature
75%80% efficient backpressure turbines
Turbine/motor auto-start facilities
Distillation feed conditioning

Distillation reflux optimization
Equipment-level optimization
Heat-integrated design
amount of effort put into energy management and overall energy performance. Results from recent energy studies indicate
that a properly implemented EMS could lead to an energy performance improvement of up to 15%.
100
Effective efficiency, %
80
Process heating
Condensing steam turbine
Absorption chilling
Organic proprietary water/vapor cycle
60
40
20
0
70
90
110
Approximate temperature range, C
130
150
FIG. 1. Relative efficiency of low-grade heat recovery methods.

TABLE 1 illustrates a number of elements of a refining/petrochemical industry best-practice EMS, grouped into three
categories: personnel, technologies and methodologies. To be
effective, an EMS must consider these three aspects together.
The development of such a system is not to be approached
casually. A best-practice EMS can be thought of as an iceberg,
with most of the mass beneath the surface. The reporting system (dashboards, reports) is the visible tip of the iceberg, while
other elements work beneath the surface:
Skills development
Organizational development and alignment with
corporate strategy
Work processes
Data reconciliation/validation
Smart target setting
Optimizing assets
Targeting against technology standards.
A common hurdle to implementing a well-planned and wellimplemented EMS is that it is difficult to estimate the benefits
in advance. However, a strong correlation exists between the
Return on investment. Many operating companies have restricted capital budgets and are focusing performance improvement on asset optimization. Analysis of results from studies has
shown that, on average, energy consumption can be reduced
by 4% through operational improvements alone. These energy
savings double to 8% if investment projects with a simple payback of less than 1 yr are considered, and may increase further,
to 13%, if investments with a simple payback of less than 3 yr
are included. A good case for investing in energy performance
improvement can be made.
A common question in energy reviews concerns new technologies that are available for improving energy performance.
In discussions of the topic, the following broad definitions have
been used:
Standard technologies are widely implemented across
the industry
Leading technologies are being implemented by leaders
in energy performance
Emerging technologies have been limited, but are
increasingly reaching new applications.
These definitions are illustrated in TABLE 2. Note: The examples shown in TABLE 2 are by no means exhaustive.
Globally, efforts have been focused primarily on standard
technologies. Relying on mature technologies provides a high
degree of confidence that a solution will work, and it usually
means that the implementation is relatively inexpensive. Projects with a low cost and high return have always taken precedence. Additionally:
Real technological game-changers have been scarce
in recent years, with most advances being evolutionary
changes to standard pieces of equipment.
Many operating companies are reluctant to embrace new
technologies until they have seen it elsewhere.
Project Management
60
50
Split of financial benefits, %
New technologies must be accepted first by licensors

before they will see widespread application within
process designs.
Margin improvement through yield improvement
is still seen as more attractive than energy savings;
unfamiliar energy technologies will lose in competition
for financial resources.
The implications are that emerging technologies in industry
practice are actually years or decades old. For example, lowgrade heat recovery has long been an area of research and development because the great majority of refineries and chemical
plants have a large excess of heat between 30C and 150C that
is rejected to air or cooling water. Finding a way to recover this
energy would, therefore, be very lucrative.
Potential technologies to convert heat into a more useful
form of energy are absorption refrigeration and proprietary
cycles using fluid and/or vapor to improve thermal power plant
efficiency. In principle, these technologies could be utilized, but
obstacles exist:
Distributed sources. In most chemical plants and
refineries, heat sources that could be captured by
these technologies are numerous and at a range of
temperatures and heat contents. As a consequence,
it is not always possible to exploit economies of
scale that would justify investment.
Limited users. Absorption refrigeration is only worth
considering if a suitable use for chilling exists. This
may include replacing mechanical chillers or capturing
additional light products. Whatever the case, the amount
that can be utilized is limited.
Relative efficiency. As shown in FIG. 1, the most efficient
use of low-grade heat is through process heat recovery
i.e., a standard technology. Assuming that an appropriate
use can be identified, 100% of the waste heat can be
recovered, making it the preferred option and one that
will be maximized. The more heat that is recovered, the
lower the temperature of the remaining low-grade heat
and, consequently, the lower the efficiency of alternative
means of capture. Ultimately, the low efficiency of the
organic fluid/vapor cycle for energy recovery makes
it unattractive, in most cases.
Emerging technologies that manage to gain acceptance are
generally a result of the combination of a number of factors.
For example:
A particular industry sector discovers a unique application
Separate developments in other areas provide synergy
Evaluation techniques improve
Market economics become supportive (changing fuel
and power prices).
While a perception that new technologies are an untapped
means of radically improving energy performance exists, the reality is that this is not the case. In fact, the authors experience
shows that the greatest financial benefits are realized by applying standard technologies.
Typically, energy performance improvement programs yield
savings of 10%15% of base energy costs. Of these savings, approximately 80% of benefits are realized through operational
changes and standard technologies, as shown in FIG. 2. Emerging technologies do play a part, with approximately 10% of the
40
30
20
10
0
Zero cost
Standard
Leading
Emerging
FIG. 2. Split of financial benefits for energy performance improvement

programs.
total benefit. It is worth noting that individual applications typically offer larger-than-average savings.
Takeaway. The global trend of operating companies seeking
new solutions to improve energy performance continues to

develop. However, in general, the better energy performers are
those that are getting the basics right and looking to new solutions to gain an extra competitive edge. The trends observed in
recent energy studies include:
Focus on no-/low-cost solutions
o Despite increased industry familiarity with the tools
and techniques of energy conservation, recent studies
have revealed that financial benefits are mainly realized
by applying standard technologies
Development of EMSs
o Many companies are focusing on EMSs to capture
no-/low-cost opportunities and sustain the benefits
o A strong correlation exists between well-planned and
well-implemented EMSs and energy performance
Increasing consideration of emerging technologies,
particularly for low-grade heat recovery
o Technological game-changers have been few
in recent years
o Low-grade heat recovery is of consistent interest,
but application of emerging technologies is low.
LITERATURE CITED
KBC, Innovative energy saving technology for the reduction of carbon dioxide
emission from energy-intensive industry, International trends of energy conservation in heavy chemical industry, 2014.
2
KBC, Energy Management System, KBC handbook.
1
DOUG HUTTON is a principal consultant at KBC Process

Technology in the UK. He holds a first-class honors degree and
a PhD in chemical engineering from the University of Edinburgh
in the UK. Dr. Hutton has 20 years of industry experience,
including leading projects to develop corporate energy
strategies and energy management systems for refining
and petrochemicals companies.
JUAN GMEZ-PRADO is a senior consultant at KBC Process
Technology in the UK. He holds a chemical engineering
degree from Universidad Simn Bolvar in Venezuela, and
an MS degree and PhD from the University of Manchester
in the UK.
Codes and
Standards
GOPAL MURTI, SENIOR CONSULTANT

The Augustus Group, Montgomery, Texas
Overcome technical difficulties in field pumps

ordered to API 610/ISO 13709
The continued objective of this column
series is to increase awareness of code requirements, interpretations and limitations as they stand today, and the options
available to engineers for alternative engineering. Another intention is to forewarn end users of the pitfalls of adhering
to codes and standards indiscriminately,
particularly those that have recently undergone major changes. The information
provided here is based on actual field implementations and the resulting satisfactory experiences. If engineering or other
professional services are required, then the
assistance of a competent professional authority should be sought.
The American Petroleum Institutes
API Standard 610, Centrifugal pumps for
petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas
industries, was first published in 1954, and
it continued as an exclusive US standard
until 2003. Beginning with the 9th edition
issued that year, API considered amalgamation with the International Standards
Organization (ISO), and this edition was
declared as technically equivalent to
the ISO final draft international standard
13709. Beginning with the 10th edition
in 2004, both documents were affirmed
as identical. The connection continued
with the release of the 11th edition (2011),
but the proposed 12th edition may indicate a looming divorce with ISO 13709.
The technical difficulties faced in the
field for pumps ordered to API 610/ISO
13709 are discussed here. The problem
arises on pump sets originating mainly
from European suppliers. Does the 12th
edition and its proposed delinking to ISO
solve the problems, or will pump users
continue to face compliance challenges?
One of the visible differences with the
proposed delinking would be that imperial units will take precedence over metric
units, a reversal from past editions. Governing metric units in past editions would be
placed into brackets, and the bracketed in-
formation would then become the governing information. This is a cosmetic change
and is not considered a significant issue.
However, it is feared that the proposed
12th edition may be more complicated
than past editions. Pump application engineers must pay particular attention to
these areas, and a careful approach during
pump selection stages should help avoid
potential problems and save operations
and maintenance engineers the burden of
carrying out expensive field modifications.
In addition to specifying API 610, remedial measures could include a supplementary
project specification with sketches.
DISCREPENCIES AND
AREAS OF CONCERN
Dimensional incompatibility. Per the
draft of the 12th edition issued in May
2014, section 6.4.2.2 would continue to

state, All steel flanges shall, as a minimum
requirement, conform to the dimensional
requirements of ISO 7005-1 PN50. A
footnote would clarify, For the purpose
of these provisions, ISO 7005-1 PN50
and European standard (EN) 1759-1
Class 300 are equivalent to American
National Standards Institute/American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ANSI/
ASME) B16.5 Class 300 and ANSI/
ASME B16.47 Class 300.
The statement that ISO 7005-1 is
equivalent to ANSI/ASME B16.5 is factually incorrect, and is identified as a source
of problems in the field. These two standards are not dimensionally identical. The
intent of the footnote, For the purpose
of these provisions, may be that the
pressure-temperature ratings of ASME
and ISO flanges are similar. This state-
TABLE 1. History of ISO-7005-1 and ASME-B16.5

Standard
Edition/Yr Pages Remarks
ISO 7005-1
1st /1991
88
Includes pressure-temperature ratings and dimensional details.

Includes PN50, referred as base rating by API-610.
ISO 7005-1
2nd /2011
22
Pressure-temperature ratings and dimensional tables removed,

and EN-1092 referred.
EN 1092-1
2007
126
Includes pressure-temperature ratings and dimensional tables.

PN50 not listed. Pressure rating designations substantially
changed. Disassociation with ASME B16.5.
ASME B16.5
Issued in 1998, 2003, 2009 and 2013; older history not available.
FIG. 1. Bolt-hole drilling encroaching on the pressure-containing body.

Codes and Standards

ment may be sufficient for pump application engineers and manufacturers. Per an
inference of the API footnote, engineers
and manufacturers may proceed with
pump flanges that meet either standard,
but what happens when the pump reaches
the field for installation?
ASME B16.5 and ISO 7005-1 standards differ in flange-mating dimensions.
The flange thicknesses, bolt-hole diameters and bolt diameters also vary in cerPiping side
Permitted by
ISO 7005
Required by
ASME B16.5
Pump side
FIG. 2. The difference in the ISO flange

standard and the ASME flange standard.
tain sizes. The issue comes to light when a

pump set manufactured to API 610/ISO
13709 reaches a facility that is essentially
built to US standards. The pump casting
that conforms to ISO standards arrives
from foundries with the flanges undrilled.
The pump machine shop reads the order
data sheet, and an ASME drilling template is used. This invariably results in
bolt-holes encroaching on the pump pressure-containing body, as shown in FIG. 1.
This is deemed unacceptable and unsafe,
and is clearly visible to safety engineers
and visiting insurance teams, which will
mandate the replacement of the pump set,
a difficult task at site.
Bolting incompatibility. ISO standards
allow threaded bolt-holes in the pump
body, while the US flange standard ASME
B16.5 requires the use of a stud with two
nuts. The schematic is illustrated in FIG. 2.
Due to incompatibility issues, field
engineers must undertake various modifications, such as enlarging bolt-holes to
shave off threading (which, in turn, eats
away metal from the pressure-containing
body), searching for longer bolts, and so

on. While focusing on an expedited commissioning of the equipment, little attention is paid to the integrity and reliability
of the planned machinery modifications.
Additional nozzle sizes in ISO. ISO
standards allow six additional sizes for the
pump inlet and outlet: 1 in. (32 mm),
2 in. (65 mm), 3 in. (90 mm), 5 in.
(125 mm), 7 in. (175 mm) and 9 in. (225
mm) nominal pipe size (NPS). These sizes are explicitly not permitted per section
6.4.1.1 in API 610. A pumps hydraulic efficiency is affected by fluid velocities at the
pump inlet and outlet. A wider choice in
ISO means that pumps with higher efficiencies may be offered for certain combinations of flow and head. Many customers
are, therefore, inclined to buy high-efficiency ISO/EN pump sets, despite the
fact that API 610 prohibits these sizes.
Which ISOs to follow? API 610 section
2, Normative references, affirms several
ISO/EN standards as indispensable. It
further states that for dated references,
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Codes and Standards

only the edition cited applies; for undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document applies. Out of 34 listed
ISO/EN standards, only three are listed
with a dated reference. ISO 7005-1 is not
dated, which implies that the latest edition is to be followed. This is the source
of confusion and dimensional incompatibilities. Upon review of the draft of the
12th edition, it appears likely that the
confusion will remain.
An awareness of the brief history of ISO
7005-1 is prudent (TABLE 1). The standard
was first issued in 1991, listing pressuretemperature ratings and dimensional details for flanges. ISO endeavored to make
this document similar to the prevailing
ASME B16.5 in terms of coverage. ISO
7005-1 included the following pressure
classes: pressure nominal (PN) 2.5, PN6,
PN10, PN16, PN20, PN25, PN40, PN50,
PN110, PN150, PN260 and PN420. It
included pressure class PN50, which API
650 picked up as the base pressure rating.
In 2011, ISO 7005-1 was trimmed
from 88 pages to 22 pages. Pressure-temperature ratings and dimensional tables
were removed, and readers were advised
to refer to EN 1092-1:2007. EN 10921:2007 comprises the following pressure classes: PN2.5, PN6, PN10, PN16,
PN25, PN40, PN63, PN100, PN160,
PN250, PN320 and PN400. A large variation and reclassification is seen. Only
pressure classes PN 2.5, PN6, PN10,
PN16, PN20, PN25 and PN40 remain,
and those remaining classes have been redesignated or changed. A more detailed
discussion is beyond the scope of this
article. It is also seen that pressure class
PN50 (equivalent to ASME 300) is not
included in the latest EN 1092-1:2007,
which is the backbone of API 610.
Realizing that PN classes are no longer equivalent to ASME B16.5, ISO
7005-1 (2011 Ed.) section 4.1.2 declares
that a flange series shall be specified as
PN or class:
If a PN series is specified, flanges
shall be in accordance with
EN 1092-1
If a class series is specified, flanges
shall be in accordance with ANSI/
ASME B16.5 or ANSI/ASME
B16.47, as applicable.
This assertion requires that the purchaser be specific in ordering either
ISO/EN PN series or ASME-class series.
However, adhering to the footnote of API
610, it appears that API is still referring to

the 1st edition of ISO 7005-1.
Between revisions, ISO maintains a
significant time interval that coincides
with major change implementations. This
time interval is understood and expected,
as ISO standards have a wider global audience and require host-country approval, as opposed to ASME, which is able
to issue comparatively minor updates at
frequent intervals. For instance, the 2nd
edition of ISO 7005-1 was issued after a

gap of 20 years. During this same period,
ASME-B16.5 underwent a minimum of
four editions. So, complete disassociation
between API and ISO is desirable, as the
standards simply do not keep pace with
each other and have different audiences.
For example, ISO 15649, Petroleum and
natural gas industriesPiping, remains
the same as when it was first issued in
2001. During the same period, ASME
29
Codes and Standards

B31.3 has seen seven revisionsone
every two years.
Flange outside diameter mismatch.
A new section, 6.4.2.2.1, has been proposed to be added to the 12th edition.
Unless otherwise specified, the outside
diameter of ANSI/ASME B16.5 flanges
shall comply with the negative tolerances
stated on EN 1092-1 Table 22. ASME
B16.5 flanges do not have any tolerances
on the flange outside diameter. The B16.5
If reducer is installed on pump suction-side,
it would be an eccentric type with flat side up.
Plant
piping
side
Pump side
ISO dimensions
Any mismatch in
wall thickness to
be tapered per API
ASME
RP 14 E, Fig. B1.1 Dimensions
FIG. 3. The vendors scope of supply for a

companion flange set.
Interpretation 2-10 ( July 1990) confirms

this understanding. This new requirement would introduce a visible difference
in flange outer diameter for plant piping
flanges (having no negative tolerance)
and pump flanges. Although it may seem
inconsequential, this raises another concern for noncompliance with plant piping.
Discrepancy in large-size flanges.
An additional section, 6.4.2.2.2, is being

proposed for the 12th edition. ANSI/
ASME B16.47 flanges with nominal outside diameter (OD) > 0.125 in. (3.2 mm)
shall be approved by the purchaser. A
discrepancy appears to exist here. ANSI/
ASME B16.47 covers large-diameter steel
flanges (26 in.60 in.), an unlikely size
range for API 610 pumps.
Suggested remedial measures. Com-
panion flange sets are a simple and effective measure to connect an ISO pump to
ASME field piping in lieu of drilling holes,
which penetrate the pump casing. It is recommended to request that the pump supplier provide a pair of companion flanges
with stud-bolts and gaskets, as shown

in FIG. 3. A comparison chart of ASME
B16.5 and ISO flange-drilling templates
should be prepared by a pump application engineer, with assistance from piping
engineers, to ensure if companion flange
sets are required. Companion flanges
would be necessary if a supplier chose to
supply a pump set with API-prohibited
sizes. Since they are familiar with site issues, most ISO pump suppliers readily
supply companion flange sets.
Adherence to ASME standards. It is
suggested that API 610 adheres to ASME
B16.5 for sizes up to 24 in., and B16.47
for sizes that range from 26 in.60 in., if
needed. Any reference to ISO/EN standards may be eliminated; in the field,
piping codes would exclusively be either
ISO/EN or ASME. Equipment and piping contractors are never given the choice
of either standard. ASME standards are
commonly used in the Americas, most
of Asia and in the Commonwealth of Nations countries, while European standards
prevail in Europe, CIS and North Africa.
Separate requirements for heavyduty pumps. Until the 11th edition, API
NEW VERSION
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CONTROL VALVES FLOW ELEMENTS RELIEF DEVICES PROCESS DATA
InstruCalc 9.0 calculates the size of control valves, flow elements and relief devices and
calculates fluid properties, pipe pressure loss and liquid waterhammer flow. Easy to use
and accurate, it is the only sizing program you need, enabling you to: Size more than 50
different instruments; Calculate process data at flow conditions for 54 fluids in either
mixtures or single components and 66 gases, and; Calculate the orifice size, flowrate or
differential range, which enables the user to select the flow rate with optimum accuracy.
Updates and Whats New in InstruCalc Version 9.0

ENGINEERING STANDARD UPGRADES
Control Valve Revisions:
Updated to ANSII/ISA 75.011.01-2012
Calculation accuracy changed for
critical flows
Viscosity correction factor changed
Pressure drop calculation revised to
agree with Crane Technical paper No 410.
Option of Cv Units (English) or Kv units
(Metric) added.
Option of either aerodynamic noise
calculation by ISA 75.17 method or
InstruCalc method
Calculation accuracy added

(input data within acceptable limits)
Relief Devices:
Pressure Relief Devices Program follows
API 520 Pt 1, 9th edition dated 7/14
OPERATIONAL IMPROVEMENTS
The ability to have more than one
calculation open at a time has been added.
Each instance of the program is framed
in a different color. The user can have
multiple what if scenarios displayed
for making engineering decisions.
Order Direct from the Publisher.

GulfPub.com/InstruCalc or call +1 (713) 520-4426.
610 referred to ISO 9905 for heavy-duty

pump applications in industries other
than petroleum, petrochemical and gas
processing. ISO 9905 provides absolutely
no reference to any ASME or API documents. As API intends to break away from
ISO, the 12th edition of API 610 will have
a dedicated section to cover special-purpose, heavy-duty centrifugal pumps and
delete reference to ISO 9905. Therefore,
it is logical to dispose of ISO piping and
flange standards, as well.
D. GOPALKRISHNA
MURTI is a senior
consultant affiliated
to The Augustus Group
in Texas. He has more
than 40 years of
experience in design
and project engineering.
He works within the
onshore and offshore,
LNG/NGL processing,
refining, petrochemical
and power industries, and has over 30 revisions/
additions/new standards to API, ASTM, ASME, NFPA,
BSI, etc., to his credit, all based on field experience.
He has authored several articles on design issues
concerning the industry that have been published
in industry publications. Mr. Murti obtained his
BS degree in mechanical engineering from Jiwaji
University in India. He is a registered engineer in
Canada and India, with licensing in Texas in process.
Viewpoint
REBECCA LIEBERT, PRESIDENT AND CEO

Honeywell UOP
New challenges demand innovative solutions
REBECCA LIEBERT is president and chief

executive officer of Honeywell UOP, a strategic
business unit of Honeywells Performance
Materials and Technologies division. UOP is
a leading international supplier of process
technology, catalysts, engineered systems
and technical and engineering services to
the petroleum refining, petrochemical and
gas processing industries. Ms. Liebert holds
a BS degree in chemical engineering from
the University of Kentucky, a PhD in chemical
engineering from Carnegie Mellon University
and an MBA from the Kellogg School of
Management at Northwestern University.
As the industry works through the

most volatile conditions in more than
a generation, refiners are facing several
challenges that will define the industry in
the next decade. The future will belong to
a new kind of entrepreneurone driven
by world-class research and development,
innovative cost elimination, commercial
excellence, and modern control and automation systems.
Many state-owned companies are
now emulating entrepreneurial upstart
companies in other industries. Oil companies are crossing national boundaries,
with Middle Eastern companies investing in Indonesia, and Chinese companies moving into Africa.
This trend is re-invigorating and

changing trade flows. Evidence is seen in
the thousands of miles of new pipelines,
massive new ports, import facilities being
re-engineered for exports and export facilities being reworked for imports.
Every year, demand for refined productsi.e., fuels and petrochemicals
will continue to rise by approximately
1 MMbpd1.5 MMbpd. We can predict
this increase because demand is being
driven by growth in the world population, which increases by around 75 MM
people each year (FIG. 1).
Even faster and equally unabated
growth is seen in global standards of
living, which are increasingly driven by
emerging economies in Asia. Over the
next 35 years, the number of vehicles
will double to 2 B worldwide. Even with
the growth of electric vehicles and renewable energy sources, demand for
refined products will continue to rise
in the foreseeable future. By the middle
of the century, hydrocarbons will still
provide three-quarters of the worlds energy. An increasingly prosperous population will consume more plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, fabrics and other
products. All of this added demand will
need to be met.
However, as capacity growspowered by exploration, production and
more efficient conversion technology
what energy providers produce will
change. Until two years ago, most of the
world was consumed by the race to make
more diesel. Fundamental changes in the
speed and nature of economic growth, as
well as government economic policies to
stimulate consumption, have effectively
ended that race for the moment.
As lower crude oil prices stimulate
consumption, especially among the
growing middle class in emerging economies, the race now is about making gasoline. In China alone, a record 25 MM automobiles were sold last year, despite an
economic slowdown.
Refiners participating in the gasoline

race will reconfigure their plants, while
others will simply add capacity. Either
way, fuel producers will pursue the twin
goals of adding production to meet demand growth and gaining the flexibility
to capitalize on products that will generate the greatest profit.
Beyond fuels, we are on the cusp of an
age where more and more refineries will
exist only to produce petrochemicals.
Population and GDP growth will drive
annual demand growth of more than 5%
for olefins and aromatics. As a result, regions of the world that generate these
molecules will show more urgent interest
in moving downstream, and many refineries that are not yet integrated with petrochemical production will soon be.
Another phenomenon fully under development is the tightening of clean fuels
regulations. Whether Euro 6, China-5
or BS-6, these standards are becoming
stricter as they converge toward a common set of specifications. Removing sulfur
and volatile compounds, while enhancing
gasoline pool octane, will be a challenge.
With all the additional constraints, shifting
refinery stream cut points is becoming less
of an option. The new standards create opportunities, particularly as new trading patterns for these fuels emerge. In addition to
meeting domestic demand, a world-scale
refiner might plan to supply a dozen other
countries bound to the same clean fuels
standardsand do so quite profitably.
Finally, while margins will change on
every product over time, an ongoing imperative remains to constantly improve
efficiencyi.e., the unending campaign
to get more out of every drop of oil. A
historical constant in our industry is that
new challenges inevitably are met by
new solutions.
The industry is entering another revolutionary period where data can be collected more cost-effectively than ever before.
Dramatic declines in the cost of sophisticated sensing devices are possible. We now
Viewpoint
can measure everything, and what we do
with that data is changing how we operate
refineries and petrochemical plants.
By leveraging the Industrial Internet
of Things, refiners can unlock additional
value by integrating smart-edge devices,

secure cloud-based infrastructure and
operational process knowledge. We can
then run refineries with software-based
systems that employ big data analytics.
The world population will grow by more than

2 billion peopleto almost 10 B.
About $40 T will be spent on the energy

infrastructure between now and 2050.
The middle class will grow

from 2 B people to 5 B
World GDP will double to about $120 T
2050
World energy consumption will increase

by 40%, and 70% of this
energy will be provided by fossil fuels
The number of vehicles in the world

will double to 2 B.
Fuels will burn more cleanly, and new engine

designs will double the fuel efficiency of vehicles.
FIG. 1. With the growth in global population, the world will need a substantial amount of
new energy by 2050.
These systems yield smarter plants that

are capable of deep self-diagnosis and selflearning. We can sense operating anomalies days, weeks and even months before
they become problems.
The refinery of the future will solve
another looming problem for the industrythe imminent retirement of skilled operators. In the phenomenon known as the
great crew change, half of the industrys
skilled plant operators will retire in the
next seven years. Here, software-based systems can help cover that knowledge gap.
Until now, operators could only leverage experience at their own plants,
supplemented by their general training.
In a smart plant, every operator can benefit from the knowledge gained by every
operational challenge experienced by
anyone, anywhere, that uses the same or
similar processes.
The new, more entrepreneurial operator of the future will be diversified into
petrochemicals; seize the opportunities
provided by clean fuels standards; and
count on technology to deliver smarter,
higher-performing plants.
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PROCESS CONTROL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Advanced process control solutions provide hydrocarbon processing companies
with inventive ways to manage difficult and complex operational and reporting
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Special Focus
Process Control and Information Systems

J. BIRD, D. SEILLIER and E. PIAZZA, Valero Energy Corp.,
San Antonio, Texas
Optimize a CDU using process simulation

and statistical modeling methods
A methodology was implemented to optimize the operation of a refinery crude distillation unit (CDU) using a combination of process simulation and statistical modeling methods. The primary objective was to estimate a set of operating
targets for column pumparound and bottoms stripping steam
flows. These targets were established to maximize the unit
profitability over a typical range of crude rate and crude quality operating conditions.
The crude unit has an advanced process control (APC)
application that maximizes product draw rates, but does not
optimize the variables above. Process simulation was used to
evaluate the CDU performance over a feasible range of pumparound and bottoms stripping flows, as existing operating data
did not provide sufficient data. Crude quality and crude feed
rate were sampled randomly from actual operating data to account for their inherent process variability.
To develop a robust set of operating targets that would perform well under varying market conditions, alternate market
scenarios were consideredwhere gasoline margins exceeded diesel margins, and vice versawhen calculating the unit
profit function. Several statistical modeling methods were
used to build 3D profit response surfaces as a function of the
operating targets to determine the economic optimum. The

estimated optimum operating targets for pumparound and
bottoms stripping steam flows are being implemented.
Study goals and parameters. A crude distillation unit
takes a crude stream and separates it into boiling point fractions, which include naphtha, kerosine, diesel and tower
resid bottoms. A process diagram for a typical crude distillation unit, which has four tower pumparounds, is shown in
FIG. 1. Pumparounds remove heat from the column to preheat
the incoming crude prior to the crude entering the crude
heaters, and to generate internal reflux for distillation.1 The
optimum targets for pumparounds and bottoms stripping
steam flows depend on the impact of these variables on both
product yields and energy use. As the amount of heat removed
from the column via pumparounds increases, the heater duty
requirements are reduced at the expense of column fractionation efficiency.
Offgas
Naphtha
Top P/A
Kerosine P/A
Steam
Kerosine
LGO P/A
Steam
HGO P/A
LGO
Crude from heater

Steam
HGO
Steam
Residue
FIG. 1. A crude distillation unit process flow schematic.
FIG. 2. The strong impact of the diesel pumparound ratio on product

yields and on heater duty requirements can be seen in this scatter
plot matrix.

This study is based on the use of process simulation to evaluate the performance of the unit over a range of pumparounds
and tower bottoms stripping steam flows. Process simulation
was selected, as unit operating data did not provide a sufficiently
wide range to allow the determination of the optimum targets.2
Pumparound flows were represented as the ratio of the pumparound to the crude flowrate. The bottoms stripping steam
flow was represented as the ratio of the pounds of steam per
gallon of tower resid bottoms. The process simulation results
were used to construct response surfaces using multiple regression methods for product yields and heater duty requirements
to validate the simulation results prior to building the profit
response surfaces. Profit response surfaces were then built using the predicted product yields, heater duty requirements and
product prices for different market scenarios with multiple regression methods. The profit response surface mapped out the
crude distillation unit profit as a function of the pumparound

ratios and the tower bottoms stripping steam ratio.
The following methodology was used in the study:
Develop a set of simulation cases that covers the range
of pumparounds and stripping steam ratios considered
Randomly draw the crude feed composition, as well as
the crude feed rate, for each simulation case
Run process simulations for the cases defined above
Use simulation results to build multiple regression
models of product yields and crude heater duty
requirements as a function of pumparound and
stripping steam ratios
Produce 3D response surfaces based on the regression
models to map out the product yields and the heater
duty requirements as a function of pumparound and
stripping steam ratios
Generate profit response surfaces for market conditions
where gasoline margins exceed diesel margins, and
vice versa
Validate results obtained with multiple linear regression
models with those obtained with other statistical
modeling methods that model non-linear behavior,
including multivariate adaptive regressive splines
(MARS) and classification and regression trees (CART).
Detailed descriptions of the process simulation and statistical modeling of product yields and heater duty requirements are
provided here, followed by the economic optimization analysis
and key findings.
TABLE 1. Model specifications common to all simulation cases
Model specification
Value
Condenser temperature
140F
Top tray temperature
261F
Kerosine TBP, 90%
488F
Diesel TBP, 90%
663F
FIG. 3. Naphtha product yield contour map.
Heater outlet temperature
630F
FIG. 4. Kerosine product yield contour map.
FIG. 5. Diesel product yield contour map.
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FIG. 8. Product margins and natural gas prices, diesel and gasoline mode.
FIG. 6. Resid bottoms product yield contour map.
FIG. 7. Heater duty requirements contour map.
Process simulation. To conduct simulations, proprietary

software was selected for a user-friendly spreadsheet interface that provides the capability to run multiple cases.a TABLE 1
summarizes the model specifications common to all of the simulation cases.
The process variables that were modified for each simulation include crude feed composition, crude feed rate, pumparound flowrates and bottoms stripping steam mass rate. A
total of 60 simulation cases were initially configured to define
the range of operations with respect to pumparound flowrates
and bottoms stripping steam mass rates. The 60 cases covered
pumparound flowrates ranging from 20 Mbpd50 Mbpd for
kerosine, and diesel and bottoms stripping steam mass rates
ranging from 6,500 lb/hr12,500 lb/hr.
To model the variability in crude feed composition, three
different crude assays were used, corresponding with the re38OCTOBER 2016|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
finerys three most typically run crudes. The percentages of

two of the crudes were varied randomly, and the percentage
of the third crude was calculated by difference so that the total crude volume percentage added to 100%. Crude feed rates
were modeled using a normal distribution, with the mean and
standard deviation estimated from operating data.
A second set of 60 simulation cases was defined after preliminary analysis indicated that the direction of the optimum
was at high diesel pumparound flowrates and high bottoms
stripping steam mass rates. The impact of kerosine pumparound was not found to be as significant, so the second set of
cases kept the same range of kerosine pumparound flowrates as
the initial configuration. The second set of runs covered diesel
pumparound flowrates of 40 Mbpd50 Mbpd, and stripping
steam mass rates of 10,500 lb/hr12,500 lb/hr.
Modeling of product yields, heater duty requirements.
The impact of tower pumparound and bottoms stripping
stream ratios on product yields and heater duty requirements was first assessed to validate the process simulation results prior to building the profit response surfaces.
FIG. 2 is a scatter plot matrix illustrating the relationships between product yields and heater duty requirements against
tower pumparound ratios, reflux ratio and bottoms stripping
steam ratio. The strong impact of the diesel pumparound ratio
on product yields and on heater duty requirements can be seen.
The impact of the kerosine pumparound ratio was not found to
be as significant. A strong correlation between product yields
and duty requirements with reflux ratio can also be observed.
Tower pumparounds were expressed as a ratio of pumparound flow to crude flow (P/A ratio). Heater duty requirements were expressed as MBtu/bbl of crude. Note that the
diesel product yield was positively correlated, and the kerosine
product yield negatively correlated with the diesel P/A ratio,
as expected. The diesel P/A ratio was also found to be highly
correlated with reflux ratio, as the top tray temperature was assumed to be constant and the simulator adjusted the reflux ratio to maintain this temperature.
Since the reflux ratio was found to be highly correlated with
the diesel P/A ratio, the reflux ratio was excluded as a regressor
FIG. 9. Gasoline mode profit/bbl vs. diesel P/A ratio and steam ratio
contour map.
to minimize the effects of multi-collinearity on the multiple linear regression models. The tower bottoms stripping steam ratio
was found to be highly correlated with the resid bottoms yield,
diesel yield and naphtha yield. As expected, the diesel P/A ratio
and the heater duty requirements were found to be negatively
correlated, as high P/A ratios translate to lower heating requirements. The scatter plot matrix illustrating these relationships
was generated using a statistical graphics procedure.b
To examine the relationships between product yields and
heater duty requirements against the key factors, second-order
linear regression models were constructed with both quadratic
and interaction terms.3,4 These models were then used to build
response surfaces to examine the unit performance over the operating range prior to proceeding with the economic optimization analysis. FIGS. 3, 4, 5 and 6 provide 3D surface contour maps
of product yields as a function of bottoms stripping steam ratio
and diesel P/A ratio. Note that naphtha yield is maximized at
maximum diesel P/A ratio, kerosine yield at minimum diesel
P/A ratio, diesel yield at maximum diesel P/A ratio, and resid
bottoms yield at minimum diesel P/A ratio. In terms of the bottoms stripping steam ratio, diesel yields were maximized at maximum stripping steam ratio, and resid bottoms yield at minimum
steam ratio. FIG. 7 shows that maximum heater duty requirements
occur when the diesel P/A ratio is at a minimum, as expected.
Economic optimization analysis. Once the process simulation results were validated based on the second-order linear
regression model results, profit response surfaces were built to
determine optimum targets. Profit response surfaces were constructed for scenarios where gasoline margins exceeded diesel
margins, and vice versa, to develop a set of robust targets that
would perform well under varying market conditions and minimize the need to adjust these targets. FIG. 8 illustrates the average product margins used to estimate product revenues, as well
as the natural gas prices used to estimate the crude heaters fuel
costs and stripping steam costs. This data was based on actual
pricing data from November 2014 to October 2015. The resid
FIG. 10. Diesel mode profit/bbl vs. diesel P/A ratio and steam ratio
contour map.
FIG. 11. MARS gasoline mode profit/bbl vs. diesel P/A ratio and steam
ratio contour map.
bottoms product margin was estimated as 70% of the gasoline

margin and 30% of the diesel margin.
Profit response surfaces were first constructed based on second-order linear regression models. FIGS. 9 and 10 provide the
profit per barrel of crude for both market scenarios considered.
Note the higher density of points at the higher values of diesel
P/A ratio and stripping steam ratio, which represent the second
set of simulation runs configured.
When gasoline margins exceeded diesel margins, the
profit function was maximized at maximum diesel P/A ratio
(FIG. 9). The profit response surface was found to be relatively

Yes
Steam P/A ratio < 0.1111
Steam ratio < 0.08714

8.594
n = 14
8.617
n = 12
No
Kerosine P/A ratio < 0.2889

8.624
n = 12

8.63
n = 13
8.642
n = 16

8.63
n=7
Diesel P/A ratio < 0.3145

8.632
n=7

8.64
n = 13
8.649
n = 11
8.646
n = 15
FIG. 14. CART regression tree diesel mode profit/bbl.
FIG. 12. MARS diesel mode profit/bbl vs. diesel P/A ratio and steam
ratio contour map.
Yes
No
12.94
n=9
12.97
n=9
12.98
n = 21
12.99
n = 24
13.02
n = 19
13.01
n = 31
13.01
n=7
FIG. 13. CART regression tree gasoline mode profit/bbl.
flat as a function of bottoms stripping steam ratio for this scenario. When diesel margins exceeded gasoline margins, the
profit function was maximized at the highest diesel P/A ratio
and at the highest bottoms stripping steam ratio (FIG. 10).
To validate the results obtained with the multiple linear regression models, a model based on the MARS method, which
uses piecewise linear basis functions to allow for the modeling
of non-linear behavior, was also constructed. FIGS. 11 and 12 show
profit response surfaces based on the MARS method for both
market scenarios. Note that the behavior of both profit response
surfaces was consistent with the results obtained with the multiple linear regression models. A proprietary procedurec was used
to build the model, and two proceduresd were used to generate
the profit response surfaces.
As an additional verification of the analysis results discussed
here, the CART methode was used to map out the unit profitabil40OCTOBER 2016|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
ity as a function of the key drivers. The CART method is based

on binary recursive partitioning, which also models non-linear
behavior. FIGS. 13 and 14 are regression trees predicting unit profitability for both market scenarios considered. Note that profit is
maximized in either case at higher diesel P/A ratios. The CART
regression tree results show that the range between the maximum and minimum terminal node values was $0.08/bbl when
gasoline margins exceed diesel margins, and $0.06/bbl when
diesel margins exceeded gasoline margins.
Key findings. This work has determined optimum operating
targets for crude distillation unit pumparound flowrates and bottoms stripping steam mass rates using process simulation combined with statistical modeling. Diesel P/A ratio and the bottoms
stripping steam ratio were found to be the key drivers impacting
unit profitability. The analysis estimated maximum diesel P/A ratio and maximum bottoms stripping steam ratio as the optimum
operating targets for the range of market scenarios considered.
NOTES
KBCs Petro-SIM 4.1 process simulation software.
b
SAS PROC SGSCATTER procedure.
c
SAS PROC ADAPTIVEREG procedure.
d
SAS PROC TEMPLATE and PROC SGRENDER procedures.
e
R rpard
a
REFERENCES
Gary, J. H., G. E. Handwerk and M. J. Kaiser, Petroleum Refining: Technology and
Economics, 5th Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2007.
2
Montgomery, D. C., E. A. Peck and G. G. Vining, Introduction to Linear Regression
Analysis, 5th Ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2012.
3
Montgomery, D. C. and R. H. Myers, Response Surface Methodology: Process and
Product in Optimization Using Designed Experiments, 1st Ed., John Wiley & Sons
Inc., New York, 1995.
4
Del Castillo, E., Process OptimizationA Statistical Approach, Springer, 2007.
1
JOSE BIRD is director of advanced analytics at Valero Energy Corp. He is responsible

for implementing statistical solutions in the areas of process optimization, energy
efficiency, process monitoring and ethanol manufacturing operations.
DARRYL SEILLIER is a technology advisor at Valero Energy Corp., and is responsible
for leading strategic projects and company-wide process improvement in the areas
of energy efficiency and hydrogen systems.
ERIC PIAZZA is a senior staff refinery models engineer at Valero Energy Corp.
He is a subject matter expert in refinery process modeling.
Special Focus

A. KERN, Lin & Associates, Phoenix, Arizona
The history, and possible future,

of model-less multivariable control
Model-less multivariable control. The slow pace of progress has stemmed from industrys steadfast commitment to
the original promise of multivariable control (to solve process
control completely), coupled with at least two unanticipated
structural limitations:1
The process disturbances under control often alter
the very models used to control them.
Operational precaution normally takes priority over
error-minimization performance criteria.
These two observations help illuminate the persistent challenges and present a path toward achievement. Where models
change and error-minimization is not the main performance
priority, detailed models become untenable and unnecessary.
Developments such as robustness algorithms and move
suppression techniques essentially serve to ignore model
detail in favor of more reliable performance. Model details
(precise steady-state gains) are also unnecessary to arrive
at the correct optimization solution, which is usually wellknown by the operating team in the first place. Often, model
gains are tuned to get the desired optimizer resultnot the

other way around.
Industry is aware of these limitations, but perhaps not of
their deeper structural significance and the impact on aspects
of multivariable control practice, performance and progress.
The idea of model-less multivariable control can be unexpected, as industry is accustomed to the terms model-based and
multivariable going together. This article will show that multivariable control can be, and in many ways has always been,
model-less.
Model-less multivariable control mimics (automates) prior proven manual operation methods, capturing the normal
automation benefits of greater consistency and timeliness,
as well as the traditional multivariable control benefits of increased capacity, efficiency and quality (FIG. 1). These benefits
derive from reliably closing the constraint control and optimization loops, and not necessarily from using models to do so.
Small-matrix design. Small-matrix design is another important methodology in which the multivariable controller matrix design primarily includes the variables and interactions
(models) that are already being utilized in existing operation
to manage process constraints and optimize operation. The
purpose of a multivariable controller application is to automate the way the operating team manually manages and optimizes the process (in the absence of, or prior to the deployment of, an automated multivariable controller).
Automatic (closed-loop) multivariable control
Capacity, reliability
Terms such as model-less, small-matrix and operational do not, as yet, evoke the same excitement that accompanied the historic arrival of model-based predictive multivariable control three decades ago. That excitement is now long
gone, and an overhaul of industrys multivariable control paradigm is long overdue. When the overhaul comes, as it must, in
response to lessons learned and to meet the needs of modern
process plant operation, these terms may well emerge at the
heart of the new lexicon.
In those heady days when multivariable control was young,
it seemed as though it might solve process control altogether, much like GPS technology, which emerged in the same
era, would go on to solve navigation. All that remained was
to improve the tools, which, in the case of GPS, has certainly
happened. However, multivariable process control (MPC)
has been slow to improve in the face of decades of relentless
experience. The primary area of emphasisbetter tools for
step-testing, model identification and model-performance
monitoringhas been unable to substantially alter the counter-intuitive experience of multivariable control: expected
performance often remains elusive, rather than reliable.
This historical interpretation will reveal why progress has
always been slow, where the path forward now leads, and how
it all fits together with many lessons from historical process
control experience (both single-loop and multivariable).
Manual (open-loop)
multivariable control
Process
constrain
t limits
Efficiency, quality
FIG. 1. Model-less multivariable control mimics (automates) priorproven manual operation methods, capturing dual benefits of greater
consistency and timeliness, and increased capacity, efficiency and quality.

Small-matrix design results in a handful of variables and
models vs. the hundreds that typically result from traditional
big-matrix design (TABLE 1). It is assumed that the extra models netted by big-matrix practice contribute to a more complete
solution. However, these models often lead to well-known (but
still poorly understood) degraded MPC performance, and
can also make the finished controller much larger and more
difficult to own and operate.
MPC engineers often instinctively prune matrices to increase controller operability, manageability and reliability. Few
engineers have realized that the sensible conclusion to this
trend is small-matrix design practice, which utilizes existing
proven operation as the matrix design basis in the first place.
History repeats itself, and necessity fosters invention.
Observing the parallel experience of modern multivariable
control modeling and historical single-loop tuning is compelling. The two activities (tuning and modeling) are fundamentally the samemeasuring process response to derive controlTABLE 1. Summary of traditional big-matrix practice vs.
small-matrix design practice
Big-matrix design practice
Small-matrix design practice
Double-digit matrix dimensions,

(e.g., 20 50)
Typically single-digit matrix

dimensions (e.g., 6 8)
Hundreds of potential variable

and models
One or two dozen potential models
Large and complex to own

and operate
Intuitive to own and operate
Based on identifying all process

interactions; in operation, many
prove unwanted for a variety
of reasons
Based on the variables and

interactions used in existing
operation to manage constraints
and optimize the process
Directional
move-solver
Preselected
move rates
RBC rate-based
control
DCS execution period ca. 5 sec.
ler settings. While both activities should be reliable one-time

tasks, in practice they remain characterized by under-performance and chronic rework.
An examination of common root causes points to MPCs
structural limitations and the realization that they would have
(in hindsight, plainly have had) the same effect on single-loop
practice. This makes the path forward clear: If industry is to
achieve more reliable multivariable and single-loop control
performance, it will need a control method that addresses
these root causes, is more robust with regard to changing process gains, and delivers operational performance.
This line of thought is only pursued reluctantly, as it appears
to abandon the hope of solving process control altogether, and
further complicates a technology that already suffers from unwieldiness. However, promising initial discoveries have been
made, revealing a solution with the potential to overcome past
structural limitations and simplify practice.
The model-less multivariable control method. These
experiences compelled the development of a model-less multivariable control method (XMC), shown in FIG. 2, which conceptually comprises three parts:
A logic-based directional move solver. Since it
determines only move direction, the solver requires
only gain direction and not detailed models.
Pre-engineered move rates. Like traveling by
automobile, speed is based on reaching the destination
safely (operational performance), rather than on
the remaining distance or minimizing travel time
(error-minimization).
Rate-based control (RBC). This technique tapers,
reduces and halts moves predictively, so that when the
controlled variable prediction equals the target, the direct
control variable (DCV) moves are halted. This results
in the indirect control variable (ICV) ultimately settling
on the constraint limit or optimization target without
overshoot or oscillation (operational performance), based
on first-order process response mathematics and dynamics.
FIG. 3 shows that RBC is inherently adaptive to changes in
process gain. For example, if process gain increases, then actual
FIG. 2. The three components of a conceptualized model-less

multivariable control method.
50
45
Target change
Change, %
RBC
40
35
30
25
-10
Target
DCV, MV
ICV, CV
Prediction
Pre-selected move
0
10
20
Time, min.
30
40
FIG. 3. The RBC methodology tapers moves predictively.
50
60
FIG. 4. A hydrotreater XMC application at a US refinery has been

online for more than a year. Benefits include better sulfur control
and increased product value from optimized hydrogen uptake.
process response will increase, and RBC will correspondingly

taper the moves sooner. The same capability applies to changes
in the predefined move rate, meaning that move rates can be
adjusted to achieve desired operational performance without
impacting control performance. This key component of the
model-less method also provides industry with an inherently
adaptive control algorithm. Interestingly, the self-tuning controller era came and went without discovering this inherently
adaptive method. A prime strength of XMC is not its mathematical ingenuity, but is instead the creative combination of its
three novel components and key historical learnings.
Historys full circle. Successful operating teams have always
relied upon a robust working knowledge of process interactions and an appreciation for the dynamic nature of process
behavior. They rely on proven variables to manage constraints,
optimize economics and avoid variables that have proven to
be unreliable, unwanted or risky. Teams operate in safe steps to
avoid overshoot or oscillation, which can cause or mask process instabilities.
The XMC model-less multivariable control method mimics these traditional methods to capture the usual automation
benefits of greater consistency, timeliness and reliability, as well
as the traditional multivariable control benefits of increased capacity, efficiency and quality.
Future prospects. A successful model-less multivariable con-
trol method has far-reaching implications by simplifying ownership at nearly every lifecycle stage and eliminating several stages
and costs completely.
For example, a prototype XMC controller has been developed
and deployed natively on a standard distributed control system
(DCS) platform. In place of a design project, the controller was
fully designed in a single meeting. Deployment was guided by
a routine management of change (MoC) checklist (FIG. 4), and
ongoing support is provided by in-house DCS engineers.
The model-less multivariable control technology is now in
use at multiple industrial sites, and has operated continuously
and successfully (in some cases) for more than 1 yr. Operator acceptance and uptime have been high. Benefits for a hydrocracker
application include improved sulfur control, increased product
value (through optimized hydrogen uptake), smoother crude
switches, and the elimination of 90% of manual operator moves,
freeing up time for other tasks and priorities.
The prospect of automated multivariable control becoming a
core competency for the process industries is real, as multivariable constraint control and optimization is an inherent aspect of
essentially every process operation.
1
The Quiet Work-Horse!
Process Control
LITERATURE CITED
Kern, A., Take the path to model-less multivariable control, Control Magazine,
December, 2015.
ALLAN KERN is a control engineering consultant with Lin &

Associates Inc., where he is responsible for advanced process
control, including XMC. He has 35 years of industrial process
control experience and has authored numerous papers on a wide
range of practical process automation solutions. He earned a
BS degree in chemical engineering from the University of
Wyoming, and holds professional engineering licenses in
chemical engineering and control systems engineering.
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Special Focus

S. HALL, Process Systems Enterprise, UK;
and P. MAHONEY, Ambition Partner, UK
Use process knowledge management systems

to accelerate innovation
The amount of stored digital data is
doubling every two years, and the rate of
data acquisition is close to exceeding our
ability to process it and sort out what is
valuable. In this scramble for information control, organizations are turning to
knowledge management (KM) systems to
retain their know-how and capture knowledge capital that has commercial value.
Companies hope to promote and accelerate the further innovation that is required
to maintain their market positions.
KM is adopted by organizations to
identify, capture, evaluate, retrieve and
share knowledge assets, which can be
documents, policies, procedures, databases and working software, among others.
KM also includes capturing and harnessing personnel expertise, knowledge and
experience. In the process engineering
community, this encompasses engineering work processes, design procedures,
standards, guides and the knowledge of
individual engineers, who represent valuable knowledge capital, often proprietary
in nature, that may have been acquired
over a working lifetime.
To understand the subject and define
the needs, we can consider knowledge in
a number of different forms:
Explicit: Information or knowledge
that is set out in tangible form
Implicit: Information or knowledge
that is not set out in tangible form,
but could be made explicit
Tacit: Information or knowledge
that is extremely difficult
operationally to set out in tangible
form, such as experience and
personal context.
From these definitions, it can be seen
that the challenge of a KM system is not
just storage and easy retrieval of information. It also involves tangible knowledge
definition. This article discusses the role of

KM systems within process engineering,
design and development environments.
Challenges of a dynamic industry.
The process engineering sector is facing a number of critical challenges. The
first is the large volumes of design and
operating data being collected. Industry
thrives on this data, and work practices
have been adapted to manage and present the large volumes to users through
analysis and visualization technologies.
But how do we break through the mass
of stored information to get at the actual
knowledge within?
Another challenge is the dynamic nature of our industry. The rapidly changing commercial environment has been
demonstrated over recent years with the
rapid growth in shale gas production and
the fall in crude oil prices. To address
the changing market focus, we see a significant movement of people between
organizations, more outsourcing and
frequent corporate restructuring, none
of which promote the retention of expertise or the preservation of a companys
intellectual property and consequential
market advantage. An organizations
knowledge capital, which resides within
the workforce itself, may ebb and flow
with staff changes. A senior engineer
leaving or retiring from a company will
likely take with them a lifetime of proprietary knowledge. It is vital to capture this
knowledge before they leave, and equally
important to secure internal knowledge
as it is created.
Information storage is another KM
challenge. Knowledge embedded in
tools, documents, working practices and
databases becomes ineffective unless it
can be easily accessedeither passively,
through enhanced search capabilities; or

actively, by pushing the information to
the right stakeholders. This informationpush capability is discussed here.
Home, remote and virtual workplaces are becoming more common and
efficient, but how do we replicate the
transfer of knowledge that goes on, for
example, around the morning coffee pot?
How do we discern exactly who can most
effectively answer our questions?
KM systems have made significant inroads in addressing many of these issues,
but the process engineering community
continually places more requirements on
such systems. Unlocking, harnessing and
proactively delivering the knowledge that
resides within an organizations processes, systems and people is the new focus.
These activities enable an organization
to maximize its productivity and retain
its competitive advantage.
Selecting the correct approach. KM
delivers value through data capture and
sharing across the business, requiring the
organization to work from top to bottom,
as well as horizontally, in a structured
way. This discipline is a factor in determining the rate at which KM can effectively be deployed.
The steps for KM implementation are
the same as for any business project, with
particular attention paid to organizational readiness. Internal inconsistencies in
how data is collected and described often
exist. These differences will need to be
resolved to achieve the full investment
value with a plan for the ongoing development, management and support of the
KM. As knowledge sharing and system
management are achieved, opportunities
to derive added value through enhanced
collaboration will develop.

System architecture. KM systems have
become fully embedded into work processes in other industries, such as research data
management (RDM).1 Here, KM captures
and extracts knowledge from laboratory
data, harnessing individual insights and
conclusions, proactively sharing the results
and promoting a working collaboration.
This model lends itself very well to the process engineering field. Essential features of
a fit-for-purpose system (FIG. 1) include:
An enterprise database management
system in which information is
stored, not only as text or values,
but with attributes so that the
system knows whether a value is,
for example, a temperature or
pressure. This adds context and
boosts the power of any search.
A user interface that reflects the
needs of the user community
for example, the ability to upload
engineering information, either
from process simulation tools

or from computer-aided design
packages, and succinctly present the
information to the viewer. Much
can be learned here from social
media, and a good interface will
provide the user with the feel-good
experience necessary to keep their
attention and continued use.
A search capability that understands
both content and context. A typical
enterprise search engine delivers
the functionality found in popular
web browsers, where underlying
algorithms evaluate why particular
fields are searched and report
preferred results accordingly. Search
results presented as simulation files
and flow diagrams are possible.
An information-sharing platform,
typically via an intranet, avoids the
installation of software locally and
allows direct integration to the web.
FIG. 1. Essential features of a process knowledge management system.
FIG. 2. A KM system showing a flow diagram and process simulation input summary.
KM SYSTEMS FOR PROCESS

ENGINEERS
Common
language. From a global

chemical and process engineering viewpoint, a common and consistent language
is a primary KM system requirement. Expecting everyone within an organization
to speak one language is unrealistic, so the
system should have translation capabilities.
Information security. Preserving confidentiality and ensuring that information

is accessible only to authorized personnel is crucial. Multi-layered authorization
and access privileges are possible, not
only to work areas and/or specific subjects, but also access levels for different
file types. KM systems are good repositories for design standards, operating
data from the field and details of licensed
processes, as the information within such
documentation can be enhanced with
knowledge elements.
Information integrity, where the accuracy and completeness of information
and processing methods are preserved, is
a key part of security. Some documents,
such as process flow diagrams with heat
and material balances, may need to be
linked. Typically, each information item
has a unique reference ID (beyond its
saved title) that identifies it and its revision status, assigns a discrete position
within the enterprise database, binds information items together and tracks what
has been approved and what has not.
The ability to recover inadvertently
deleted or reassigned information is another aspect of any KM system. This
recovery from earlier revisions is a typical role of administrator users. Information availability ensures that authorized
users have access to information when
required. Standard access will likely be
granted from desktop computers, but if
engineers are working in the field, access
may need to be extended to mobile devices. This presents additional protection
challenges from malicious cyber attacks
that can cause widespread, irreparable financial loss and reputation damage.
A structured information security risk
assessment from which specific controls
can be implemented is mandatory. International standard ISO/IEC 27002:2013
defines the range of controls in various
areas and provides best-practice recommendations for initiating, implementing

or maintaining information security management systems (ISMS).2
Information storage. Storage of key
information applies not only to standard

document typesPDF, Microsoft Word,
Excel, picture and video filesbut also to
engineering files, drawings, process simulation and other design files. KM systems
have drag-and-drop capabilities, and most
store information in a database system, either in the cloud or on an internal server. Interrogator apps based on existing industry
platforms have been developed that glean
the information contained within process
simulation input or results files and store
the information within the KM system as
structured data, allowing it to be searched.
Process simulation tools are migrating
to run on cloud servers, and KM systems
must adapt so that users can retrieve their
input files from the KM system and then
run these files in the cloud, with results visible to all, as shown in FIG. 2.
Avoiding duplication of data storage is
important. A KM system should be a repository of knowledge that does not dupli-
cate data storage. Data historians are one

example: a KM system should link to such
data wherever possible, but not store such
data itself.
Workflows. Documents can be checked
and approved by authorized users, and their
sign-off statuses with date/time stamps are
clearly seen (FIG. 3), accelerating how information is used. Approved documents
appear immediately, and bulletins can be
automatically issued to specific stakeholders. On fast-track projects, preliminary
data that has been checked but is awaiting
approval may alert engineers and allow
follow-up work to start, expediting project development. Information supplied by
third parties can also be uploaded, quickly
reviewed and viewed by all approved users.
User views. KM systems offer intuitive
and informative document view capabilities so that users can dictate what viewers see. This could be a file icon or, more
often, the title page or important content,
allowing a user to scan the page for required information.
Search capabilities. Given that a KM
system will store hundreds of thousands

of data items, search options are critical.
Text searching is standard, but contextsensitive search is required for KM systems
to achieve their potential. For example, the
system should define what values are temperatures, pressures, etc., but it should also
be able to search based on non-absolute
information, such as find all designs with
a feed flow greater than 125 Mkg/h and
a reactor temperature > 120C, (FIG. 4).
Searches must interrogate engineering files,
simulation files, process flow diagrams, and
piping and instrumentation diagrams.
Comments and tags. Applied to data
items to provide additional context, comments and tags may be trended to highlight
popular topics to the user community and
encourage involvement and debate.
Information push. Information and

knowledge should be proactively distributed to key personnel. The system should
watch for specific words or phrases as documents are uploaded, either in the main
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Perspective on the Current and Future
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With the volatility of oil prices and much trepidation, many industrial process
manufacturers are unwilling to invest in new capital intensive projects and
facilities. The pendulum has swung toward optimization of existing facilities
and sweating the current assets. New approaches, tools, expectations, and
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document or in tags and comments, and
specific individuals should be notified,
either by email or though the KM portal.
This ensures that subject experts and approved users are aware of all internal activity in their area of responsibility.
Working offline. KM systems are cloudbased, so any break in connection can
render the system useless for field operatives. Working offline may be required,
particularly for engineers in the field or remote locations, and it presents additional
security and compliance issues. Working
offline should be applied selectively to
small segments of the information base.
The objective is to enable a user to synchronize part of the knowledge base with
their own computer or tablet prior to the
connection being severed. The user then
accesses the site and continues to develop
their own work within their offline version
of the KM system. Once a connection is
restored, the users computer automatically synchronizes, following typical rules
of synchronization and checking each information item for changes.
Extending the KM system. To take advantage of a single information environment and simplify the user experience,
many KM systems have been extended
FIG. 3. Visualization of file content and sign-offs.
FIG. 4. The structured search capability recognizes context, and must interrogate engineering
files, simulation files, process flow diagrams, and piping and instrumentation diagrams.
to include a range of additional capabilities previously provided by other tools.

Scientific papers and reference materials
may be stored as a documents library. An
expert locator allowing individual subject
experts or regular staff to upload a simple
resume can be included. This information
becomes searchable by other staff, helping to bring together the right expertise
for problem-solving and innovation.
Discussion groups and communities of practice can be created where
questions are asked and collaboration is
encouraged. This is especially relevant
as the increase in working from home
reduces natural knowledge sharing. The
intent is to virtually replicate the social
spaces usually found at work. Lessons can
be learned here from social media, where
information-sharing and communication
practices are becoming more advanced
and integrated within our virtual lives.
Externalization, outsourcing and collaboration are core business and development models for growing companies.
A natural barrier to sharing information
with third parties will always exist, and
this can have a significant effect on the
quality of information, the speed of a project and how information is shared. The
standard vehicle for information sharing
of PDF, Microsoft Word and Excel files is
often SharePoint or Dropbox. However,
such documents will contain results, not
content or context. One way around this
is to set up collaborative cloud environments.3 Tools provided by KM companies to map data and create a virtual process development environment recognize
scientific content, workflows and the ability to publish information in the existing
KM system.
Application examples. A KM system
adds real value for the process engineering community in process development,
where projects require high degrees of innovation and may comprise teams based
in different geographic locations, often
with third-party suppliers involved, all
working to tight deadlines. The amount
of parallel work is significant, with a
strong dependency of tasks between the
various stakeholders.
In this situation, using a KM system
provides a number of advantages:
The ability to define a common
work area to store all documents.
User access should be defined so
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FIG. 5. Embedding simulation tools within a KM system.
that confidentiality is preserved

where needed.
Sub-contractor areas can be set up
to allow external access to all or just
selected parts of the system. Any
new information or documents
can immediately be seen by all
stakeholders, including the latest
version of key files. This avoids
the problem of multiple versions
of the same file being distributed,
and ensures that only one master
version exists. The information
should be stored with context
added and should be tagged and
commented, as needed, to provide
a rich information landscape that
can be searched and made available
to other members of the process
development team.
On fast-track projects, a document
that has been checked but not
approved could be used to begin
conceptualizing the next stage of
development, thereby saving time.
If details have been entered into the
KM system, then subject experts
can easily be located and informed
of progress as the development
project proceeds.
Project managers can see individual
activities and what is trending.
All reports, designs, etc., are saved
and can then be searched and
referenced not only during
the current project, but also in
the future.
Another application is the use of a KM

system to manage simulation and optimization models for oil refinery steam and
power systems. The working model is a
steam/power system running in a simulation environment (FIG. 5). A site runs the
optimization model daily to determine
optimal operating conditions. However,
other onsite staff needed access to the
results of the model, both to approve the
outcomes for plant implementation and
to view the associated key performance
indicators (KPIs). Central engineering,
located in another part of the country,
also needed to review the KPIs to ensure
that the refinery was operating at optimal
conditions. The model is stored and run
from within the KM system itself, allowing all parties to view the same model and
output via a web interface. The ongoing
performance of the refinery is tracked
over an extended period.
Remaining challenges. Addressing
company culture is one of the biggest KM
system implementation requirements.
The entire company must implement KM
as a core activity in its mission statement
and work practices. To realize the true potential of a KM system, key activities must
focus on applying KM principles. Support
to staff can be through training, ongoing
workshops and competency management.
Any deviations from the plan during
implementation must be documented.
Too often, project teams are disbanded
and the team members reassigned before
any post-project debriefing. Organizations

should counter this and develop a postproject action procedure that provides a
forum to learn and improve, as necessary.
Another challenge is converting tacit
knowledge into internal knowledgeHow
can knowledge be extracted from a 40-year
veteran who is about to retire? This necessitates proactive planning, and the approach will likely depend on both the level
of documentation and the personalities
involved. A structured approach to manage
such knowledge transfers is required.
Finally, KM must be fully integrated
into the companys everyday activities and
culture. The value of knowledge sharing
should be appreciated, recognizing that it
does have sustainable bottom-line value
for the future. The information target is
constantly developing, as are business objectives, but a dynamic KM culture will ensure that the company and its people adapt
quickly, while protecting their information
and intellectual assets.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This article was written while the authors worked
at Nova Process Ltd., which has subsequently been
absorbed into Process Systems Enterprise. The authors
would like to thank ID Business Solutions for its support in the development of the KM system.
LITERATURE CITED
Complete literature cited available at
HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
STEVE HALL is the director
of engineering solutions at
Process Systems Enterprise (PSE).
Previously, he served as CEO
of Nova Process. He has 25 years
of experience in process design,
innovation and improvement
across the oil and gas, petrochemicals and chemicals
industries. Dr. Hall is involved in matching PSE
technologies to industry needs and managing specific
technology development initiatives. He holds a
PhD from the University of Manchester Institute of
Science and Technology, and is a chartered engineer
and a fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers.
Dr. Hall has presented papers in heat integration
and utility system optimization, and coauthored
patents in dehydrogenation and hydrocracking.
PHIL MAHONEY is chairman of
Ambition Partner Ltd. and Nova
Process. He has 30 years of
experience in the chemical and life
sciences industries, and has been
involved with process simulation,
optimization and R&D data
management. He began his career as a process and
control engineer at ExxonMobils Fawley refinery in the
UK, and later became managing director of Aspen
Technology. Mr. Mahoney then joined ID Business
Solutions in the area of life sciences. He earned a BS
degree in chemical engineering from Loughborough
University, and is a chartered engineer and a member
of the Institution of Chemical Engineers.
Special Focus

D. WILLIAMS, VEGA Americas Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio
Measure naturally occurring radioactive material

in polypropylene plants
In the petrochemical industry, process plants often rely on radiation-based
level and density detectors. Various vessels within polypropylene plantsreactors, product chambers, flash drums,
and purge binsutilize radiation-based
detectors. However, naturally occurring
radioactive material (NORM) compromises the accuracy of the level measurement in these vessels.
NORM exists in oil and gas in the form
of radon and its decay daughters. NORM
amount varies depending on where the hydrocarbons are extracted and the length of
time since the extraction. Some locations
have a higher concentration of NORM in
petrochemicals than others. During petrochemical processing, NORM can travel to
different portions of the plant with various
products, including propane. Feedstock
for polypropylene comes from various locations, including fluid catalytic cracking
units, ethane crackers and propane dehydrogenation plants (PDH). PDH units
account for most NORM problems faced
by plant operators. If a polypropylene
plant obtains feedstock from PDH units,
difficulties with NORM should be anticipated. As more PDH plants are built to
supply on-demand propylene to polypropylene plants, the number of issues with
NORM affecting nuclear measurement
will increase.
The effects of NORM. As propylene
enters a polypropylene plant, the NORM

that follows can have a detrimental effect
on radiation-based control systems. Level
detectors will give low-level readings, potentially causing vessels to overfill. The
drop-off in level output can be severe,
dramatic and dangerous. See FIG. 1, a representation of a reading a customer shared
with us, for an example of how quickly
NORM can change a level reading.
FIG. 1. The primary level, represented by a red line, drops as the NORM level, represented by a
black line, skyrockets.
Once NORM enters a polypropylene

plant, it can accumulate in different vessels, especially in vessels with a gas-phase
recirculation system. As fresh feed comes
into the vessel and the gas is recycled back
through the process, the concentration of
NORM builds up inside the vessel. The
amount of NORM can vary greatly from
the bottom to the top of a vessel. This difference is caused by many factors, such
as the amount of gas present and the size
and shape of the catalyst or product.
To understand the effects of NORM
on radiation-based level, a basic understanding of how nuclear level measurement works is needed. Three main items
are required to have a nuclear level measurement system (FIG. 2):
1. Vessel
2. Radioactive source
3. Nuclear detector.
The nuclear level system works by
measuring the amount of radiation reach-
FIG. 2. If NORM is present inside a vessel

with a nuclear measurement system, the total
amount of radiation to the detector increases.
ing the detector from the source.

Gamma radiation is converted into a
pulse of light using a scintillating crystal.
FIG. 3. The three main items required for a

nuclear level measurement system are a vessel,
a radioactive source and a nuclear detector.
The photomultiplier records the number

of pulses of light as counts per second,
commonly known as count rate. The lower the level, the more radiation reaches
the detector, resulting in a higher count
rate. The higher the level, the less radiation reaches the detector, resulting in a
lower count rate. As the level in a vessel
changes, so does the detected amount
of radiation. The detector converts this
change in radiation into a level signal.
When NORM is present inside a vessel with a nuclear measurement system,
the total amount of radiation to the detector increases (FIG. 3). As the product level
increases, the amount of radiation from
FIG. 4. As NORM increases, detection of level decreases. In this representation, multiple level
and NORM detectors are in use. The NORM detectors were not mounted on the vessel.
FIG. 5. NORM level can change rapidly, causing problems with level detection.
the source decreases and the count rate

drops. However, as the amount of NORM
increases, the count rate does as well, and
the detector infers a lower level than actually exists in the vessel.
Limiting NORM effects. NORM is a
serious problem for plant operators, but

ways exist to limit its influence on level
measurement. Common ways to address
the issue of NORM in a petrochemical plant include implementing an early
warning system; increasing the size of the
radioactive source; and measuring the
NORM, either directly or indirectly, and
subtracting it from the level measurement.
A nuclear density meter can be mounted on a feed pipe to create an early warning system to alert operators to the existence of NORM. With no accompanying
radioactive source, the density meter does
not measure the propylene density, but
monitors the concentration of NORM
within the propylene. If placed in the
proper position on the feed line, the unit
will give operators time to switch the radiation-based levels to manual control to
prevent an overfill. Early warning systems
help operators compensate for NORM
before it reaches vessels, but they must act
quickly. FIG. 4 illustrates how level drops
as NORM increases in an application, and
FIG. 5 shows how quickly NORM level
can change. In FIGS. 4 and 5, multiple level
and NORM detectors are present.
Increasing measurement source activity decreases the signal-to-noise ratio, so
the detector treats the NORM as noise.
This approach is effective in applications
where the amount of NORM is low and
tends to stay low. Most nuclear measurement applications are sized for a radiation
field between 1.0Sv/hr and 0.3Sv/hr
(0.1mR/hr and 0.03mR/hr) to give a reliable level output with 1% noise. If the level systems read a NORM level of 0.3Sv/
hr (0.03mR/hr) and the application was
sized for 1.0Sv/hr, then the NORM will
cause the level measurement to read 30%
lower than the actual level. A frightening
scenario occurs if an application is sized
for 0.3Sv/hr. The system could read 0%
when the vessel is actually 100% full.
To minimize the effect of NORM on
level measurement, operators must increase the size of the source so that the
amount of NORM present has a minimal
effect on the level output. Eduardo Scarnichia describes a case1 in which a poly-
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30
25
Error, %
20
0.3 Sv/hr NORM
15
10
5
0
8
Factor of increase
10
12
14
16
FIG. 6. Operators must increase the source size to minimize the NORM effect on level output.
FIG. 8. Mounting a detector (of equal length

to the level measurement detector) 90
around the vessel from the level detector
allows the operator to measure NORM directly.
having a means of effectively chopping the

radiation beam (by using revolving rods,
for example) to alter the radiation measured by the detector. Electronics inside
the detector are set to run an algorithm
that can effectively ignore the radiation
from NORM. In applications with multiple sources, plants are required to install
multiple modulators and an electronic
synchronizer to keep the mechanical devices moving at the same time, and they
must increase the size of the source due to
some signal attenuation from the rotating
rods. This adds a layer of complexity and
effort to the installation of a NORM compensation system and forces plants to use
resources to power the modulators.
FIG. 7. The primary level, represented by a red line, remains relatively constant even as the
NORM level, represented by a black line, experiences dramatic shifts.
propylene plant was forced to increase its

source size by a factor of 16 to compensate for NORM. In general, the size of the
source must be increased by a factor of 10
to reduce the error to 3%, and by a factor
of 15 to reduce the error to 2%, in an application sized for 1.0Sv/hr (FIG. 6).
Another way of addressing the issue
of NORM when using nuclear level is to
measure it directly. Since the presence
and concentration of NORM is not constant and varies greatly, depending on
the propylene origins and concentration
of NORM inside the vessel, the nuclear
level has to compensate for this change of
radiation. By placing a detector of equal
length to the level measurement detector
and mounting it 90 around the vessel,
operators can measure NORM directly

(FIG. 8). The NORM-compensation detector measures the amount of NORM
inside the vessel and sends a signal to the
primary level detector. The primary detector runs an algorithm to subtract the
effect of the materials NORM radiation
from the source holders radiation. Operators must use a detector of equal length to
measure NORM, since the NORM level
in the vessel can vary from top to bottom
due to product distribution, shape and
size of product or catalyst. FIG. 7 is a representation illustrating how direct NORM
compensation stabilizes a level reading.
Plants can also use an indirect method
to address NORM, such as installing a mechanical device in front of the source and
Takeaway. Petrochemical plant operators
must have a plan for NORM compensation in their process vessels. To protect
employees and the bottom line, plant operators should adopt a NORM compensation system that best fits their process.
1
LITERATURE CITED
Scarnichia, E., A. Etchepareborda and M. Arribere,
Radon in propylene: Unexpected influence of
NORM in a chemical plant, Proceedings from
IRPA 12: International Congress of the International
Radiation Protection Association, Buenos Aires,
Argentina, October 2008.
DAVID WILLIAMS is a senior

applications engineer for VEGA
Americas and has been with VEGA
for 14 years. In the business
development group, he works with
process technology providers to
improve level and density
measurements in challenging applications, such as resid
hydrocrackers, delayed cokers, solvent deasphalting
and LDPE high-pressure separators. He holds a BS
degree in nuclear engineering technology.
ADVANCES IN SULFUR
MANAGEMENT
2016
Special Supplement to
Stricter standards
in sulfur treating
S56
Low-sulfur projects
dominate the
downstream
construction
landscape
S64
CORPORATE PROFILES
CB&I S61
Enersul S63 OHL Gutermuth S67
Paqell S69
COVER PHOTO
A conveyor moves Enersul GX premium formed sulfur
granules at the Kaybob sulfur processing and handling facility in
Alberta, Canada. Photo courtesy of Enersul.
ADVANCES IN SULFUR MANAGEMENT
STRICTER STANDARDS IN SULFUR TREATING

BOB ANDREW, Technical Editor
A number of technical innovations

have advanced sulfur removal technology in refineries. Stringent vehicle fuel
sulfur specifications are moving beyond
North America and Europe and into other developed economies (TABLES 1 and 2,
FIGS. 1 and 2). The displayed data shows
national regulations only: several countries around the world, including Brazil,
China and India, also have sub-national
regulations requiring higher-quality fuels
in key cities and regions.1
Around the world, legislation mandating decreased emissions and lower levels
of airborne pollutants is coming into effect. In response, refiners are implementing operational and processing changes to
reduce sulfur levels in transportation fuels.
New technologies are moving the downstream hydrocarbon industry toward
cleaner, lower-sulfur transportation fuels.
A low-sulfur world does not come
cheap, however. Refiners are investing
billions of dollars in new units, upgrades/
retrofits and expansions to meet new sulfur and emissions regulations. These investments will help produce high-quality
fuels that meet Euro 4, Euro 5 and Euro
6 specifications. These standards promote the reduction of carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxide (NOx ), hydrocarbons
and particulate matter in both diesel and

gasoline passenger vehicles. Many nations
around the world already produce transportation fuels that meet Euro 4 specifications. Other regions, such as the Middle
East, are investing heavily to increase the
production of Euro 4 and Euro 5 standard
fuels. Major clean fuel initiatives include:
US/Canada. Both countries governments will begin to enforce the new Tier
3 program starting in 2017. This program
will set new vehicle emissions standards
and lower the sulfur content in gasoline to
10 ppm. The program maintains the existing refinery gate per-gallon content of
80 ppm and the 95-ppm downstream distribution cap. The US EPA forecasts that
the new rule will reduce NOx emissions
by about 260 Mt in 2018 alone. Large US
refineries (those producing more than
75 Mbpd) must comply with Tier 3 standards by 2017. Smaller refiners must meet
Tier 3 standards by 2020.
China. The country is implementing its National V fuel quality standard,
which equates to Euro 5 standard transportation fuels. Euro 5 standard fuels will
be required for the automotive industry
by 2017. These new regulations are being
implemented 1 yr ahead of schedule. Upgrading the nations fuel quality could cost
FIG. 1. Map of global national diesel sulfur limits, 2014. Source: International Council
on Clean Transportation.
S56
ADVANCES IN SULFUR MANAGEMENT|OCTOBER 2016|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Chinese refiners more than $7 B. China is

also writing new regulations for National
VI. No time table has been announced for
the implementation of National VI, but
if adopted, it would take effect no earlier
than 2020.
India. The country will implement
its Bharat Stage 6 (BS-6) standards by
2Q 2020, four years ahead of schedule.
BS-6 fuels are equivalent to Euro 6 fuel
specifications. These new regulations call
for a 68% reduction in NOx emissions.
Indias new regulations will bypass the
BS-5 stage and move directly to BS-6.
Middle East. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
are leading the charge in new clean fuels
projects in the region. Saudi Arabia is investing billions of dollars to reduce sulfur
content in diesel and gasoline to 10 ppm,
and to lower benzene content in gasoline
to 1%. Kuwait is investing more than $30
B on ambitious plans to overhaul its refining sector and become the regions cleans
fuels leader. This plan focuses on integrating the Mina Abdullah and Mina Al-Ahmadi refineries, as well as the construction
of the 615-Mbpd Al-Zour refinery.
Russia. The country has lacked the
advanced facilities to produce highergrade transportation fuels. In response,
Russia launched a $55-B program in 2011
to modernize its existing plants and encourage exports of high-quality products.
The plan called for the installation of
130 new units by 2020. The modernization program will continue to focus on
increasing its light products yields, with a
key goal of meeting demand for gasoline
and jet fuel, increasing fuel standards to
Euro 5 specifications, and replacing old
units to decrease residual product yields
and maximize utilization.
Adding to the international regulatory pressure to remove sulfur from fuels,
the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) has announced new regulations2 to
reduce sulfur in shipping fuels from 3.5%
to 0.5% by 2020. Commenting on the
IMOs new sulfur regulations, Adrian Tolson, senior partner at 20|20 Energy, said,
The transition to distillates is going to be
messyin 2020, or possibly 2025, IMO

catalytic packing to concurrently carry out
the reaction and fractionate the reaction
mixture. The principal application is in
conjunction with fluid catalytic cracking,
where it has been applied to the production of low-sulfur gasoline4 and low-sulfur
diesel,5 with minimal olefin loss.
regulations will sideline intermediate fuel

oil (IFO) as a bunker fuel, destroying a
major outlet for refiners residual product.
A switch by the world fleet to 0.5% distillate fuel would see global fuel oil demand
collapse. Instead, ships will be expected to
burn bunker with a sulfur content of no
more than 0.5%. Only vessels equipped
with emissions abatement technology will
be able to use high-sulfur fuel oil.3
Projects and technologies chosen for
this supplement were often a first-of-their
kind. The Hydrocarbon Processing editorial
team chose these examples to showcase
increased performance, versatility and
reliability. These selections feature technologies that can handle sulfur from a wide
variety of in-plant refinery process streams,
or have selectivity to meet targets for key
markets. The choice of a sulfur treating system is also dictated by the ultimate disposition of the sulfur. Production of bulk sulfur
is dominated by product extracted from
sour gas, but other options to create value
include converting sulfur into sulfuric acid.
Research & Licensing Co., this process

was described as ... a method for conducting chemical reactions and fractionation
of the reaction mixture comprising feeding reactants to a distillation column reactor into a feed zone, and concurrently
contracting the reactants with a fixed-bed
Catalytic distillation. Patented in 1980

by Lawrence A. Smith of Chemical
FIG. 2. Map of global national gasoline sulfur limits, 2014. Source: International Council
on Clean Transportation.
TABLE 1. Timeline of global diesel sulfur limits, ppm, 2014

Country
2005
Brazil
3,500 2,000
2006
China
2,000
EU-27
50
India
500
Japan
50
Russia
500
Thailand
150
US
500
South Africa
3,000 500
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
1,800500 transition
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2019
2020
500
350
50
10
10
350
50
10
350
50
10
10
50
15
10
Source: International Council on Clean Transportation
TABLE. 2 Timeline of global gasoline sulfur limits, ppm, 2014

Country
2005
Brazil
1,000
China
500
EU-27
50
India
500
Japan
50
Russia
500
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
50
150
50
10
10
150
10
150
50
10
Thailand
150
US
30/90/300 30 (avg)/80 (cap)
50
10
South Africa
1,000
10
500
Source: International Council on Clean Transportation

HYDROCARBON PROCESSING|OCTOBER 2016|ADVANCES IN SULFUR MANAGEMENT
S57

Liquid-phase processing. This is a ma-
ture set of sulfur removal technologies,

including those by Merichem, which in
1974 pioneered fiber-film contactor6 for
caustic, amine and acid treating. Featured
here is Merichems iron-based reductionoxidation7 (redox), which scales well and
is capable of full turndown.
Sulfur recovery via iron-based, liquid
redox processing is a commercially proven
approach to refinery sulfur management.
The inherent characteristics of liquid redox processing, such as 100% turndown
in respect to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) concentration, flowrate and sulfur loading, as
well as single-stage removal efficiencies
in excess of 99.9%, make the process attractive as a standalone device for applications of less than 15 tpd of sulfur, or in
conjunction with a Claus unit at higher
capacities, resulting in a system with an
overall removal efficiency of 99.9+% and
100% turndown capability.
Another attractive feature of iron-based
liquid redox processing is its ability to process any type of gas stream, such as fuel
gas, amine acid gas and sour water stripper gas. Consequently, for refineries with
Claus plants, the liquid redox process can
be employed as a tail gas treatment unit,
with or without a hydrogenation/hydrolysis unit, while also directly processing the
sour water stripper gas, relieving the Claus
unit of this burden. All of this can be accomplished without recycling gas back to
the Claus unit, thereby increasing the capacity of the Claus unit.
Options in Claus technology. Interestingly, a Wikipedia entry does not exist for
sulfur treating. When searching for sulfur
recovery, the site redirects the user to the
Claus8 process, which recovers elemental
sulfur. Increasingly stringent sulfur and air
quality specifications prompted development of tail gas treating units (TGTUs),
such as the Shell Claus Offgas Treating9
(SCOT) unit with amine scrubbing. Alternatives to SCOT include lower-capitalcost LT-SCOT,10 SUPERCLAUS11 with
wet caustic scrubbing, EUROCLAUS12
by Jacobs, and CANSOLV technology by
Shell, which published a study on a facility
after 10 years of operation.13
BAYQIK technology enables more
efficient conversion of process gas with
high sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations.
Bayer developed, piloted and commercialized this technology over the past 10
S58
years, which was acquired by Chemetics14

of Jacobs group.15 A full-scale installation
based on the technology has operated successfully for seven years.
Reliance Jamnager refinery.This export
project 16 was built in 2009, and was

chosen because it illustrates how a wellplanned major expansion project can
be executed in record time. The owner
worked with the same engineering, procurement and construction (EPC)/ technology integrator to assimilate to changing, stricter regulatory standards.17
When Reliances Jamnagar Domestic
Tariff Area refinery began commercial
operation in 1999, it was the largest refinery complex ever built from the ground
up. Black & Veatch designed the original
sulfur recovery facility with three sulfur
processing units. In 2005, Reliance initiated plans to double the refinerys capacity with the Jamnagar Export Refinery
Project. Reliance retained Black & Veatch
to build a second sulfur facility that was a
near-exact clone of the original facility.
However, changes to environmental
regulations required refineries to capture
more sulfur from acid gases than was mandated in 1999. This new regulation made
the idea of an exact copy of the original
plant impossible. The scope of the expansion work included a new 3 675-tpd
cold bed absorption (CBA) sulfur recovery unit, and a new, common, 2.025-Mtpd
TGTU. The expanded complex has a total
sulfur processing capacity of 6 675 tpd.
This type of project commonly takes 30
months to complete, but Black & Veatch
completed it in 24 months. The company
provided maximum replication of the existing facility design to provide operational
consistency between facilities. It also reduced the operations learning curve for refinery personnel, with respect to commissioning, startup and operations of the new
facilities. Environmental restrictions presented another key challenge. India had increased its recovery efficiency requirement
for new units to 99.9%. Black & Veatch
combined the benefits of the previously
installed CBA technology with the latest
tail gas treating technology to meet the requirement. The project was the first to use
this approach in a complex of this size.
1
LITERATURE CITED
Miller, J., Global Comparison: Fuels, Transport
Policy, June 12, 2014, http://transportpolicy.net/
index.php?title=Global_Comparison:_Fuels
International Maritime Organisation, Sulphur
Oxides (SOx) Regulation 14, IMO, 2016, http://
w w w.imo.org/en/OurWork/Env ironment/
PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Pages/Sulphuroxides-(SOx)--Regulation-14.aspx
3 Tolson, A., The transition to distillates is going to be
messy, Ship and Bunker, 2016, http://shipandbunker.
com/news/features/2020-vision/365052-2020vision-the-transition-to-distillates-is-going-to-be-messy
4 Korpelshoek, M., K., Rock and R. Samarth, Keeping
it clean without affecting quality, CDTech, July 2010,
http://www.cbi.com/getattachment/66f7507b-268d47c4-9496-328ecb032640/Keeping-it-Clean-withoutAffecting-Quality.aspx
5 Podrebarac, G., R. Samarth and K. Rock, Doing
wonders for diesel production, CDTech, November
2009, http://www.cbi.com/getattachment/bb32ade0c25e-4541-a1db-107dedf32d64/Doing-Wonders-ForDiesel-Production.aspx
6 FIBER-FILM technology, http://www.merichem.
com/FIBER-FILM
7 Merichem, Flexibility of Liquid Redox Processing
in Refinery Sulfur Management, 2016, http://www.
merichem.com/company/overview/technical-lit/
tech-papers/liquid-redox-flexibility
8 Wikipedia, Claus Process, September 2016, https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claus_process
9 National Energy Technology Laboratory, SCOT
Tail Gas Treating, NETL, 2016, https://www.netl.
doe.gov/research/coal/energy-systems/gasification/
gasifipedia/scot-tgtu
10 Jacobs,
Low-Temperature SCOT Process,
2016,
http://www.jacobs.com/uploadedFiles/
www jacobscom/20_Learn_About_Us/25_
Products/253_Comprimo_Sulfur_Solutions/
Technologies/Handout%20Jacobs%20CSS%20-%20
LT-SCOT%20Process.pdf
11 Jacobs,
SUPERCLAUS Scrubber Process,
2016,
SUPERCLAUS%20Scrubber%20Process.pdf
12 Jacobs,
EUROCLAUS Scrubber Process,
2016,
EUROCLAUS%20Process.pdf
13 Edkins, N. and N. Moreton, CANSOLV SO
2
Scrubbing: 10 years of reliable operation, Shell
Cansolv, October 2012, http://www.shell.com/
business-customers/global-solutions/shell-cansolv-gas-absorption-solutions/cansolv-news-andmedia-releases/shell-cansolv-papers/_jcr_content/par/textimage.stream/1446472635746/
c62a02d3534304587e817ef39a98b96023757a5f889ac315c1ea8fa64b9a8a08/paper4.pdf
14 Jacobs, Chemetics process-technology based
engineering design, 2016, http://www.jacobs.
com/workwithus/products/chemetics/index.
aspx#Overview
15 Jacobs, Jacobs acquires BAYQIK sulfuric acid
converter technology from BAYER AG, August 31,
2016, http://invest.jacobs.com/investors/PressRelease-Details/2016/Jacobs-Acquires-BAYQIKSulfuric-Acid-Converter-Technology-from-Bayer-AG/
default.aspx
16 Black & Veatch, Reliance Petroleum Jamnagar Export
Refinery featured project, 2016, http://bv.com/
Projects/reliance-petroleum-jamnagar-export-refinery
17 Black & Veatch, Innovative sulfur complex completed
at worlds largest refinery, September 22, 2009, http://
www.yourpetrochemicalnews.com/innovative+sulphu
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units (TGTUs), along with oxygen enhancement
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scope of services for sulfur complexes includes
basic engineering services, sulfur removal and
recovery technology design packages, FEED
package development, modular and turnkey
construction, proprietary equipment and technical services, including process studies and
startup assistance.
CB&Is proprietar y technologies can
be applied to both new installations and
to revamp SRUs and TGTUs:
The Claus Combustor burner is
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provides thorough mixing of air
and acid gas for high combustion
efficiency and ammonia destruction.
It is also suitable for an oxygen
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The patented SRU Waste Heat
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the tubes and tubesheet against
high temperature during both air and
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SulfSep is an entrainment
separator designed to minimize
sulfur carryover from the sulfur
condenser plenum chambers. It has
a removal efficiency of 99.9%
for sulfur droplets 10 microns
and larger.
The companys proprietary degassing
system reduces the H2S in the liquid
sulfur to less than 10 ppm.
significant capacity increases by

introducing oxygen directly into
the thermal reaction zone via the
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minimizing capital investments, CB&I offer the
following technologies for increasing the sulfur
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Oxygen Injection System. This
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S61
ENERSUL
ENERSULLEADING THROUGH
INNOVATION
Enersul, a Marmon Group/Berkshire Hathaway Company, has
thrusted the sulphur industry forward for decades by sticking to its core
guiding principal; to provide the sulphur industry with leading technical
and operational solutions catered to the changing needs of their clients.
Enersuls consistent and proven track record of continuous innovation, is supported by often developing proprietary technologies and
processes that outpace the demands of the market. This is apparent in
almost every process currently used in forming, handling, and transporting elemental sulphur.
GX M SERIES OF PREMIUM SULPHUR GRANULATORS

Enersuls industry leadership is perhaps best exemplified by proprietary sulphur granulation forming technologies, offering a wide array of
technical and operational solutions for any requirement and any climate.
The Enersul GX M Series of premium sulphur granulators was first
introduced with the GX in the late 1970s.
The GX granulation process is a size enlargement process. Small
sulphur seeds (undersized granules) are repeatedly coated with a liquid
sulphur spray and cooled. With repeated application of liquid sulphur,
the seed increases in volume and weight. As the granule is enlarged,
each coating of liquid sulphur is fully and structurally bonded to the layer
beneath. This creates a spherical granule which is entirely dry and completely free of voids.
Enersuls GXM1 (1250 tpd) was followed with the GXM2 and
more recently the GXM3, the worlds first patented Single-Pass,
modular sulphur forming unit. Delivered 90% pre-assembled, the GXM3
represents a giant leap in reducing construction, commissioning time and
costs. In late 2016, Enersul will announce a new M series modular
version of the GX unit to provide producers the same GX benefits at
higher capacities with a smaller footprint.
WETPRILLSULPHUR FORMING PROCESS

In the WetPrill process, molten sulphur is pumped onto perforated
trays that direct the sulphur in narrow streams into an agitated water
bath. Pellets form as the sulphur comes in contact with the water. The low
thermal conductivity, high specific heat, and long transformation time of
sulphur make it necessary to maintain the pellets in suspension for as long
as possible, allowing them to harden. This process produces spherical,
uniformly sized, low moisture pellets.
Enersuls WetPrill product is known for its low friability, low moisture
content, and high bulk density. This is due to the shape of the prill, which
is small, round, and uniform, with few entrained fines. Enersul offers both
a Mini WetPrill (100tpd unit) and standard WetPrill (up to 1000
tpd) of production capacity.
WETPRILL2000
New in 2016, the WetPrill2000 is the latest design from Enersul using the long established WetPrill process. This latest model
achieves output of 2000 TPD, the largest standard output of any Enersul
WetPrill technologies, with improvements to both layout and plot
space requirements.
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HYSPEC SULPHUR DEGASSER

Enersul developed the HySpecTM H2S degassing process to quickly,
effectively and economically reduce the H2S content of liquid sulphur
to low levels, to 10 ppm or less. The HySpec is a modular system
composed of a series of reactors through which the process degasses the
molten sulphur. The number of reactors determines the degassing capacity of the system, resulting in a customizable and modular system that is
adaptable to various capacity requirements.
SAFEFOAM TRANSFER SYSTEM (STS)

New in 2016, the Enersul SafeFoam Transfer SystemSTS improves
the handling of solid bulk sulphur by reducing fugitive fines at critical
transfer points throughout any sulphur handling system. The result is a
significantly safer and environmentally friendly sulphur handling system.
The STS arrives 90% preassembled resulting in significantly lower
assembly rates and commissioning times. The majority of the required system
checks are completed prior to shipment. Ongoing operating costs are also
reduced as the STS eliminates empty belt spraying and uses direct drive
motor coupling. The unit is automated through PLC for operating at optimum
levels which are set according to the specific conveying requirements.
REMELTING
Sulphur Blocks are an excellent long term storage option and eventually, these blocks will be remediated and the sulphur moved. In the 1990s
Enersul offered innovative solutions for remediating sulphur blocks quickly
with the High Efficiency Melter (HEM) series along with pit and tank
type remelt operations. In addition Enersul successfully tackled highly
contaminated lower sections of the sulphur blocks at various sites. Through
this extensive operational experience the High Contamination Sulphur
Remelter (HCSR) was developed. Both technologies were born from
onsite, real-world experience, developed specifically for the needs of
Enersul clients. New in 2016, Enersul will be introducing a innovative
modular clean/contaminated sulphur remelter that can be applied for both
block and formed sulphur remelting.
OPERATIONAL SOLUTIONS
Enersuls Operational Solutions has a depth of experience unmatched
in the field. Long-standing relationships with sulphur producers have established Enersuls reputation as a leader in reliability, safety and environmental consideration.
The experience of having taken complete operational control of the
sulphur requirements of a variety of projects enables Enersul to innovate
their offerings to meet the needs of the real world. Lessons learned by
Enersuls domestic and international project teams are applied across
every aspect of Enersuls products and services.
This is why Enersul is the industry leader For Everything Sulphur for
over half a century. Enersul is committed to continuously improve, innovate
and develop technologies for operations in the real world of sulphur handling. That is what innovation means to us, applying our decades of realworld experience to making the forming, handling, storing and transportation of sulphur cost competitive, safer and more environmentally friendly.
S63
LOW-SULFUR PROJECTS DOMINATE THE

DOWNSTREAM CONSTRUCTION LANDSCAPE
LEE NICHOLS, Editor/Associate Publisher
As the world continues to see more vehicles on the road, and as emerging economies invest in civil, industrial and energy
projects, global fuels demand is forecast
to increase through the end of the decade.
The increased number of vehicles on the
road equates to higher emissions rates
and, in turn, more airborne pollutants. To
combat these effects, legislation mandating decreased emissions and lower levels
of airborne pollutants is coming into effect. In response, refiners are implementing operational and processing changes to
reduce sulfur levels in transportation fuels.
Nations are investing heavily in the
construction of new processing units to
produce higher-value products. These investments will help produce high-quality
fuels that meet Euro 4, Euro 5 and Euro
6 specifications. Global refiners have adopted European standards for fuel quality,
as Europe has been the frontrunner on
regulations for low-sulfur, clean transportation fuels. European passenger vehicle emissions standards for Euro 4, Euro
5 and Euro 6 are detailed in TABLES 1 and
2. These standards promote the reduction
of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx ), hydrocarbons (HCs) and particulate matter (PM) in both diesel- and
gasoline-fueled passenger vehicles.
The refining industry has already
made incredible strides in reducing sulfur
in transportation fuels. As shown in FIG. 1,

sulfur levels in diesel fuel have decreased
dramatically around the globe within the
past decade. Refiners have invested, and
continue to invest, billions of dollars in
new units, upgrades/retrofits and expansions to meet new sulfur and emissions
regulations. These investments will help
produce higher-quality transportation
fuels and continue to move the industry
toward a low-sulfur world.
US and Canada. Every country is doing
its part to add the necessary processing
units to meet stricter sulfur regulations.
In the US and Canada, refiners are investing to meet new Tier 3 fuel regulations.
Scheduled to begin in January 2017, sulfur
content in gasoline will be limited to 10
parts per million (ppm). This limit is a
reduction from Tier 2 standards, which
reduced the sulfur content in gasoline to
30 ppm. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) forecasts that the new
rule will significantly reduce vehicle pollutants to the atmosphere. For example,
the EPA forecasts that NOx emissions
will be lowered by approximately 260 Mt
(thousand tons) in 2018 alone.
According to EPA documents, a number of flexibilities are being offered that
will provide nearly six years of lead time
for refineries that may need extra time to
TABLE 1. EU emissions standards for passenger vehicles (gasoline)

CO, g/km
HC, g/km
NOx, g/km
PM, g/km
Euro 4
1.0
0.10
0.08
Euro 5
1.0
0.10
0.06
Euro 6
1.0
0.10
0.06
0.005
TABLE 2. EU emissions standards for passenger vehicles (diesel)

CO, g/km
HC + NOx, g/km
NOx, g/km
PM, g/km
Euro 4
0.50
0.30
0.25
0.025
Euro 5
0.50
0.23
0.18
0.005
Euro 6
0.50
0.17
0.08
0.005
S64
comply with the new regulations. These

flexibilities are listed on the EPA website
and include:
A credit averaging, banking
and trading (ABT) program that
will allow refiners to spread out
their investments from 2014
through 2019, and provide a
seamless transition from the
Tier 2 ABT program
A delay in the start date to 2020
for approximately 30 small refiners
and small-volume refineries
A 1-yr-deficit carry-forward
provision that allows an
individual refinery that does
not meet the 10-ppm standard
in a given year to carry a deficit
forward for 1 yr, as long as
the refinery makes up the
deficit in the following year
Hardship provisions that allow
refiners to petition for compliance
assistance on the basis of extreme
hardship or extreme unforeseen
circumstances.
Large US refineries (those producing more than 75 Mbpd) must comply
with Tier 3 standards by 2017. Refiners
producing less than 75 Mbpd must meet
Tier 3 regulations by 2020. To comply with new regulations, US refiners
must invest in additional units, such as
hydrotreaters, to reduce the sulfur content of transportation fuels.
In Canada, petroleum fuels constitute 95% of Canadas transportation energy needs. The country has aligned itself
closely with US fuel standards and is making strides to continually reduce sulfur levels in transportation fuels. This includes
the introduction of Tier 3 fuel regulations
for passenger vehicles and light-duty
trucks. These fuel standards will begin in
2017, which coincides with the startup of
US Tier 3 regulations. Canadian refiners
have already invested more than $8 B over
the past decade to reduce sulfur levels in
gasoline and diesel fuels.

Asia-Pacific. In the Asia-Pacific region,
China and India are investing heavily
in capital-intensive projects to decrease
sulfur levels in transportation fuels. Both
countries have announced stringent fuel
regulations to curb air pollution, particularly in major cities. China has set aggressive fuel economy standards through
2020, and it is implementing its National
V fuel quality standard, which equates to
Euro 5-standard transportation fuels.
Recent regulations required refiners
to produce Euro 4-standard transportation fuels nationwide by the end of 2015.
Euro 5-standard transportation fuels will

be required for the automotive industry
by 2017. These new regulations are being
implemented a year ahead of schedule.
The implementation of National V fuel
quality standards for non-automotive
diesel has been pushed back a year to January 2018. This includes general diesel
used in agriculture and industry. General
diesel will need to meet Euro 5 standard
requirements within this time frame.
Upgrading the nations fuel quality
could cost Chinese refiners over $7 B.
However, the country is writing new reg-
ulations for the implementation of National VI. According to Chinas Ministry

of Environmental Protection, the plan for
National VI will be finalized by the end of
2016. At the time of publication, no timetable has been announced for the adoption of National VI, but the standard will
likely go into effect no later than 2020.
In total, Indias refiners are investing
more than $30 B in fuel quality projects
through the early 2020s. Capital expenditures are expected to be even higher due
to new regulations to curb air pollution
and produce Euro 6-standard fuels by 1Q
15 and below*
> 1550
> 50500
> 5002,000
> 2,0005,000
> 5,000 and above
Conflicting/missing data
15 and below*
> 1550
> 50500
> 5002,000
> 2,0005,000
> 5,000 and above
Conflicting/missing data
* Information in parts per million (ppm)
FIG. 1. Sulfur levels in diesel fuel: Global status 2005 (top) vs. 2015 (bottom). Source: United Nations Environment Program, PCFV Secretariat.
S65

2020. In January 2015, the Indian government announced that India will skip the
implementation of Bharat Stage 5 (BS-5)
standards and move directly to BS-6 standards. BS-6-standard fuels are equivalent
to Euro 6 specifications. At the time of
publication, BS-3 standards are mandatory across the country, with BS-4 standards mandatory in major cities such as
New Delhi and Mumbai. BS-4-standard
fuels will be mandatory nationwide by
2Q 2017, and BS-6-standard fuels will be
required by 2Q 2020. The BS-6 regulation is being imposed four years ahead of
schedule and calls for a 68% reduction in
NOx emissions.
These new standards were proposed
in response to a World Health Organization (WHO) study that found that 13
of the worlds most polluted cities were
in India. Air pollution has become such
an issue that some cities, including New
Delhi, are restricting drivers to using their
vehicles every other day. The government
is also investing in the construction of
compressed natural gas (CNG) fueling
stations in the hope that its citizens will
switch to the cheaper, more fuel-efficient
transportation option. Indias Road Transportation Minister, Nitin Gadkari, said
that the new regulations will cost Indian
refiners nearly $5 B. This spending includes the installation of secondary units
to comply with the BS-6 fuel standard.
Indonesia is the world leader in the
production of palm oil, and is promoting
its use as a biofuel. The country boosted
the mandated amount of blending in
diesel in 2014 from 7.5% to 10%, and
subsequently to 15% in 2015. Indonesia
raised the blending requirements to 20%
(referred to as B20) in 2016, and plans
to increase the requirement to 30% in
2020. According to the Indonesian Biofuel Producers Association, Indonesias
biodiesel consumption will climb from
1.1 kiloliters in 2015 to 7.9 kiloliters by
the end of 2016. The additional biofuels
usage is expected to lower vehicle emissions substantially.
Throughout 2016, however, the Indonesian government has been able to meet
only a fraction of its intended blending targets for B20. According to a Biofuels Digest
report, just 50,000 kiloliters of biodiesel
were blended with non-subsidized fossil
diesel during the first half of 2016, even
though required mandates called for more
than 650,000 kiloliters to be blended. It
S66
remains to be seen if the B20 fuel implementation will be successful.

South Korea is also mandating initiatives to improve air quality. The country
aims to match European air quality by
2025. To accomplish this goal, South Korea will take the following measures:
Institute real-world emissions
tests of diesel vehicles, beginning
in 2017
Raise the number of eco-friendly
vehicles to 30% of new car sales
(from 2.6% at present) by 2020
Increase the amount of vehicle
charging stations tenfold
By 2019, dispose of diesel
vehicles built prior to 2005
Phase out diesel-powered
buses and replace them with
CNG-fueled models
Shut down old thermal plants.
The country is Asias second-largest
diesel car market, and South Korea
hopes these steps will help improve its
air quality.
The Middle East. Some of the most capital-intensive projects to lower sulfur in
transportation fuels will take place in the
Middle East. Through grassroots facilities,
expansions and debottlenecking projects,
the Middle East plans to add nearly 1.5
MMbpd of refining capacity by 2019. In
total, the region is expected to add 1.9
MMbpd between 2015 and 2020. This
forecast represents an investment of more
than $50 B. Refining capacity will center
on domestic demand and export opportunities to markets in Asia-Pacific and
Europe, as well as the production of lowsulfur fuels that meet Euro 5 specifications.
Traditionally, Middle East refineries
have had simple configurations and high
fuel oil yields, partly due to strong power
generation requirements. This condition
is changing. A new generation of highly
complex plants, combined with upgrades
and expansions at existing plants, is radically altering the product mix. New unit
configurations include hydrocracking,
catalytic cracking and hydrotreating capacities designed to minimize fuel oil
output and maximize low-sulfur middle
distillate, diesel and gasoline production.
Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are leading
the charge in new clean fuels projects in
the region. To comply with mandatory
sulfur specifications for gasoline and diesel, Saudi Arabia is spending billions of
dollars to construct multiple clean fuels

projects. The country is seeking to reduce
sulfur content in diesel and gasoline to
10 ppm and to lower benzene content in
gasoline to 1%. This represents a dramatic
shift in sulfur levels from 2012, when Saudi Arabias maximum sulfur level for diesel
was greater than 500 ppm. The country
plans to commission its 400-Mbpd Jazan
refinery by 2018. The refinery will produce higher-grade transportation fuels,
including ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD).
Along with its JV partners, Saudi
Aramco will upgrade all of its domestic
refineries to produce lower-sulfur transportation fuels. Several projectsthe Ras
Tanura clean fuels and aromatics project
(which had been placed on hold, but was
reinstated in mid-2015), the Riyadh clean
transportation fuel project, the Saudi
Aramco Mobil Refinery Co. clean fuels project (completed in 2014) and the
PetroRabigh clean fuels projectare designed to accomplish Saudi Arabias goal
of producing near-zero-sulfur fuels.
Kuwait is investing more than $30 B
on ambitious plans to overhaul its refining sector and become the regions clean
fuels leader. The plan focuses on modernizing and integrating the countrys
Mina Abdullah and Mina Al-Ahmadi refineries, as well as building the regions
largest refinery, the Al-Zour plant. Once
completed, the reconfigured and integrated Mina Abdullah and Mina Al-Ahmadi refineries will decrease the sulfur
in gasoline production from 500 ppm to
less than 10 ppm. Benzene and aromatics
concentrations will also decrease. Bunker
fuel oil sulfur content will be reduced
from 4.5 ppm to 1 ppm, and maximum
sulfur content of full-range naphtha will
drop from 700 ppm to 500 ppm. With the
construction of the Al-Zour plant and the
upgrading and integration of its domestic refineries, Kuwait is set to become
the largest producer of clean fuels in the
Middle East by 2019.
Other countries in the region are making sizable investments to produce higher-quality transportation fuels. Efforts
include the Ruwais refinery expansion
(completed in 2015) in the UAE; the Jebel Ali and Fujairah projects in the UAE;
the Sohar refinery upgrade and Duqm
refinery projects in Oman; the Sitra refinery modernization project in Bahrain;
and the SOCAR Turkey Aegean refinery
project in Turkey.
OHL GUTERMUTH
TAILOR-MADE VALVES MADE IN GERMANY

OHL GUTERMUTH MAKES SPECIAL VALVES FOR THE WORLDS LARGEST PROJECTS
Valve manufacturer OHL Gutermuth offers a broad range of butterfly
and linear valves for both shut-off and control duties, plus special types,
custom designs and accessories. Nominal diameters are up to DN
4000, with pressure ratings of 200 bar and more, for temperatures from
196C to 1,450C. The company is producing triple offset butterfly
valves for 25 years to be used in LNG, chemical and petrochemical
applications as well as solar power and shipbuilding industries.
The enterprise traces its origins back to 1867. Providing individual
advice and consulting to our customers right from the start is at the centre
of our efforts, explains Managing Director Wolfgang Rhrig.
The Altenstadt-based company invests heavily in quality assurance,
with certification to ISO 9001:2008, ISO 14001:2009 and Module
H of the EUs Pressure Equipment Directive. All products are also certified
under the Russian GOST and RTN standards and licensed for use by
Gazprom and most of the other players in the Oil & Gas industry. Since
2007, the company has operated a sales office in Beijing, and opened
a company in Moscow in 2013.
In the past 40 years we have supplied customized valves for more
than 150 gas purification plants, among them the largest in the world,
in Europe, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, India, China, the Middle
East and America, says Rhrig.
Recent projects include a list of LNG terminals also valves for FLNG
plants have been supplied. OHL Gutermuth supplies valves for the
worlds largest thermosolar power plants, Methanol and coal gasification
plants. We also supplied valves for the German and French navies, and
for a 170 m-long mega-yacht belonging to a Russian oil billionaire, this
shows our broad range of products and customers.
A control and shut off technique you can rely on.
OHL Gutermuth
Others simply sell you a product

we offer a solution.
OHL Gutermuth
Industrial Valves GmbH
BEST VALVES
MADE IN
GERMAN
SINCE 1867
Customized Valve Design
Helmershuser Str. 9+12

63674 Altenstadt/Germany
Phone +49 6047.8006-0
Fax +49 6047.8006-29
www.ohl-gutermuth.de
og@ohl-gutermuth.de
WE PROVIDE CUSTOMIZED SYSTEM SOLUTIONS FOR GAS DESULPHURIZATION,

WITH THE EXPERTISE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LEADER IN INNOVATION.
RESULT: BETTER RELIABILITY, BETTER ECONOMY.
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S67
THIOPAQ O&G
stable by nature
The proven gas

desulphurisation technology.
How to reach highest value when treating natural gas streams for sulphur?
THIOPAQ O&G puts you in control of sulphur removal and sulphur recovery.
Perform well on safety, sustainability, reliability, cost and operability. Oil & Gas
companies worldwide rely on THIOPAQ O&G. See why on paqell.com/thiopaq.
Paqells THIOPAQ O&G - exceptional achievements in H2S removal.
paqell.com
PAQELL
PAQELL IS A JOINT VENTURE

OF SHELL AND PAQUES
AT PAQELL WE BELIEVE IN THE POWER OF NATURE.
Since 2011 the joint venture of Paques and Shell Global Solutions
sells a safe, stable and environmentally friendly desulphurisation process for removing H2S from sour gas streams. The unique aspect of the
main product, THIOPAQ O&G, is that it utilises naturally occurring
bacteria to oxidise H2S to recover elemental sulphur.
Our solution offers the Oil & Gas Industry a new, sustainable solution
to choose from. In an environment where health and safety are of the
utmost importance, Paqell can provide you with the competitive advantage your company is looking for. Especially since the THIOPAQ O&G
unit is a relative low investment and can be operable within weeks.
The process was originally marketed by Paques BV for the treatment
of biogas, which is produced by the anaerobic digestion of waste water.
Co-operation with Shell Global Solutions led to further development of the
process for application at high pressure in oil and gas environments. It can
be economically applied to projects recovering up to 100 t/d of sulphur.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The process integrates gas purification with sulphur recovery in one
unit. The feed gas is first scrubbed with a mildly alkaline sodium hydroxide
solution. This solution absorbs the H2S to form sodium bi-sulphide, and
sweet gas exits the contactor. Depending on the sour gas pressure, the
bi-sulphide-rich solution is routed to a flash vessel or directly to the bioreactor, which operates at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature,
where a controlled amount of air is introduced.
Naturally occurring bacteria consume the bi-sulphide ions and excrete
elemental sulphur, which is separated from the circulating solution. The
process produces hydroxide ions that effectively regenerate the caustic
solution used in the absorption step, which reduces the consumption of
chemicals. The process can replace a complete train of H2S removal and
sulphur recovery installations, see FIG. 1. Another option is to retain the
amine unit (for example, when carbon dioxide removal is also required)
and replace only the sulphur recovery unit, the tail-gas treating unit, the
degasser and, possibly, the incinerator by a single THIOPAQ O&G unit.
Simplicity translates in lower cost. In excess of 99.9% of the H2S
can be removed, treating gas to meet pipeline specification. Very low
maintenance requirements results in >99% availability.
ADDED VALUE FOR YOUR BUSINESS

THIOPAQ O&G technology offers a series of benefits:
reduced operating costs. The expensive chemicals required
for liquid redox processes are not necessary; only sodium
hydroxide and nutrients are required.
reduced capital expenditure. The process operates at ambient
temperature and does not require fired equipment such as
burners and reboilers. The regeneration and sulphur recovery
sections operate at ambient pressure and -temperature.
ease of operation. The biologically produced sulphur is
hydrophilic. This feature eliminates plugging problems.
THIOPAQ O&G requires minimal operator attendance.
SPONSORED CONTENT
FIG. 1. THIOPAQ O&G process
safety. An additional feature of the process is that there is no free

H2S (no acid gas) after the bio-reactor. No fired equipment or
high pressure is required.
REFERENCES
Over 200 THIOPAQ plants haven been installed since 1993 in a variety of industries and clients all around the world have chosen THIOPAQ
O&G as their preferred solution for sulphur removal and recovery. In the
Oil and Gas industry units have been installed in e.g. USA, Canada,
Mexico, China, The Netherlands, and Indonesia. Currently plants are
under design and construction in Indonesia, Germany, Australia and
Belgium. It is clear that the technology has been accepted by the international oil & gas community as a welcome alternative to Claus/SCOT
and redox processes.
WEBSITE
Our website Paqell.com offers more detailed process information as
well as a handy online quick scan to assess suitability to your project.
An animated movie of the THIOPAQ O&G process helps to get a quick
understanding of the technology.
Please contact us via our website if you are interested in the THIOPAQ
O&G technology. We are happy to discuss with you the possibilities for
your application. More information can also be obtained through our
authorised licensors Cameron (based in USA), Frames (based in The
Netherlands) and Paques Environmental Technology Shanghai (based
in China).
At Paqell we are convinced that the power of nature can provide
a simple, safe & cost effective solution to traditional (chemical) sulphur
removal at lower total cost of ownership.
S69
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Process Engineering
and Optimization
G. G. PIPENGER, Amalgamated Inc.,
Fort Wayne, Indiana
Build a diesel fuel performance additive,

the right wayPart 1
Many diesel fuel additive companies
in North America supply different additive products formulated for diesel-powered equipment. Each of these vendors
claim that their specific products are the
best available to upgrade diesel fuel for
the fuel producer, fuel supplier and final
fuel consumer.
However, actual testing has often
proved to the contrary. Nearly all diesel fuel additive suppliers make generic
product claims that their additives will
Yield better fuel economy, Increase
engine power, Reduce smoke, Increase fuel lubricity, Reduce system
deposits, Lower maintenance costs,
Save money, etc. Unfortunately for the
additive purchaser, there is no global
watchdog group or oversight mechanism to monitor and verify diesel fuel additive product claims.
The burden of proof for any diesel fuel
additives performance has become the
sole responsibility of the additive product purchaser. While some fuel additive
claims can be verified with laboratory
testing, proving other claims can only be
conducted in the field by treating the diesel fuel and then actually running the additized fuel in the buyers daily fleet operations. Unless diligent steps are taken
to laboratory test the prospective product before the purchase is made, there
is no guarantee that the chosen product
will achieve the benefits claimed.
Diesel fuel additive testing begins with
choosing a reputable American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) qualified laboratory with established experience in testing diesel fuel additives. This
can be challenging for the diesel fuel ad-
ditive buyer, but a good laboratory can be

found if the right questions are asked.
The laboratory search should begin
with a review of ASTM D-975, Standard specification for diesel fuel oils.1
This document lists the various physical
parameters that must be met for all diesel
fuels, whether in an on-highway or offroad application. Unfortunately, ASTM
D-975 provides only the basic recommended physical fuel property boundaries, and does not specifically address performance upgrades achievable with diesel
fuel additives.
However, many of the same laboratory tests described in ASTM D-975 are
appropriate to precisely determine the
enhancements achievable with a prospective diesel fuel additive.
This work is Part 1 of a series, and it
will review the details of the diesel fuel
physical properties (and additive enhancements) required to optimize summer diesel fuel performance in todays
common-rail, fuel-injection diesel engines. Part 2, to appear in the November
issue, will address relevant information
regarding diesel fuel additives for modern
common-rail, fuel-injection engines during cold-weather operations.
Cetane improver additive. This additive, which is predominantly 2-ethylhexyl
nitrate, is the main chemical additive
component used to decrease the ignition delay time (raising the fuels engine
cetane number [ECN]) and improve the
combustibility of a diesel fuel. Improving combustibility by raising the ECN is
important, as there is a finite amount of
time (microseconds) between fuel injec-
tion and exhaust during the combustion

cycle in each cylinder.
A diesel fuel ignited at the optimum
time, before piston top-dead-center
(TDC) of the compression stroke, will
burn correctly and release the maximum
Btu from each fuel droplet during the power stroke. The fuels heat energy is converted into usable power that pushes the piston
down, resulting in the production of maximum horsepower (hp). This directly correlates into lower unburned hydrocarbon
emissions and improved fuel economy.
Enhanced fuel combustion manifests as less-visible smoke emissions, decreased combustion chamber fuel-related
deposits, fewer post-combustion exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR) valve and diesel
particulate filter (DPF) deposit cleanings,
reduced driver low-power complaints and
less vehicle downtime.
In North America, ASTM D-975 requires a minimum ECN of only 40. While
some diesel fuel refiners produce diesel
fuels well above this minimum, others
supply diesel fuels only two or three numbers above 40. The average ECN ranges
from 44 to 46, despite the fact that diesel
equipment operators know that engines
run more efficiently on fuels with a much
higher ECN. Enhancing diesel fuels with
a cetane improver additive treatment is
often left to the purchaser.
In theory, any increase in a diesel fuels
ECN should provide some improvement
in engine operation. However, only an increase of 4 to 5 ECNs will actually be noticed by the driver. This is especially relevant with the increase of European diesel
vehicles entering North American markets. These diesel engines are designed to
Process Engineering and Optimization

operate best on the European-mandated
51-plus ECN diesel fuels, and indications
are that the European mandate will increase to 55-plus in 2019 or 2020.
It is important to note that an ECN increase of 4 to 5 numbers is needed to effectively measure and document a significant fuel economy improvement. It is vital
to test a prospective diesel fuel additive
with the buyers diesel fuel in an engine
test cell under ASTM D-613 test2 procedures, Standard test method for cetane
number of diesel fuel oil, to verify the additives potential ECN increase (FIG. 1).
Detergent additive. This predominantly amine-based chemistry is the major additive component used to clean existing
fuel-related deposits and prevent them
from reoccurring in the fuel delivery system. Detergent additives also play an important role in diesel fuel combustion and
power production, as any deposits in fuel
pumps or fuel injectors will negatively affect the spray pattern produced in the engine cylinders during each injection cycle.
If the fuel spray pattern droplets are not
uniform, or the amount of injected fuel is
impeded or limited due to internal or external deposits on even one fuel injector,
then optimum combustion and maximum
power production are impossible (FIG. 2).
This condition will produce increased
smoke, more unburned hydrocarbon emis-
FIG. 1. ASTM D-613 engine cetane test cell.
FIG. 2. Peugeot XUD9 fuel injector test

apparatus and test injector tip photos.
sions and reduced engine hp for all throttle

settings, leading to increased downtime.
Unburned diesel fuel related to poor
fuel detergency will increase deposits in
the engine combustion chamber, escalate deposits in post-combustion areas
(exhaust valves, EGR valves, DPF, etc.),
increase fuel dilution in the crankcase oil
and shorten the normal engine maintenance overhaul period. These situations
increase costs and decrease the useful life
of diesel-powered equipment.
An ASTM test procedure or easy rating
method to determine the detergent content in diesel fuel or diesel fuel additive
does not exist, nor does an easy methodology to determine a detergents effectiveness in keeping fuel injectors free of deposits and operating properly.
The only recognized means of testing
diesel fuel detergency is the costly and
time-consuming Coordinating European
Council (CEC) F-98-08 (S), Direct injection, common-rail diesel engine nozzle
coking test.3 Diesel fuel additive suppliers
should be required to certify that their
particular additive product treated at the
recommended treat rate will achieve a
DW-10 pass rating.
This diesel engine injector test is conducted over a 72-hour cycle period, alternating high-speed/load and low-speed/
load to determine the power loss resulting
from fuel injector deposits. The test uses
a European Peugeot 4-cylinder, 2.0 liter,
direct-injection turbocharged light-duty,
common-rail engine with a maximum injector pressure of 1,600 bars.
The CEC F-98-08 test runs for a specified time using a base diesel fuel treated
with 1 ppm of zinc (to increase injector
deposits). As the fuel injector deposits increase, fuel flow through the injector and
power production decrease. The same
diesel fuel treated with detergent additive
is tested under the same conditions and
compared with the non-additized fuel. A
power loss of less than 2% during the test
with detergent-treated fuel is considered a
DW-10 pass.
Lubricity additive. This diesel fuel additive component (non-acid synthetic type)
is important, as the diesel engine fuel delivery system is lubricated by the diesel
fuel itself. If the diesel fuels lubrication
value is inadequate, then the fuel pumps
and injectors will not operate properly,
leading to increased wear.
Diesel engine fuel injectors are designed to operate with extremely high
injection pressures (35,000 psi and more)
to better atomize each fuel droplet. Fuel is
injected multiple times through extremely
fine injector tip holes during each injection cycle in the excessively high temperature environment of each engine cylinder.
If the fuel does not provide proper lubrication to the system, then the fuel injectors will stick, causing a chatter-like
noise, and the required fuel will not be
injected. The net effect will be incomplete
combustion, poor power production at all
engine power levels and reduced fuel efficiency. Ultimately, without adequate fuel
lubrication, the engine will seize.
Diesel fuel additive buyers should undertake their own laboratory testing for
diesel fuel lubricity value enhancement
using ASTM D-6079-11, Standard test
method for evaluating lubricity of diesel
fuels by the high-frequency reciprocating
rig (HFRR).4 This procedure requires
only 90 minutes of laboratory time, and
can be accomplished with a small amount
of diesel fuel and additive to verify the lubricity enhancement claim.
The HFRR test method (FIG. 3) measures the wear scar produced on a small
metal ball reciprocated against a polished
disc, which is immersed in the subject
diesel fuel. The simulation provides the
expected internal wear in fuel injectors and
pumps in the diesel fuel delivery system
related to the fuel lubrication value. Improved fuel lubricity results in a decreased
HFRR wear-scar measurement, and a correlation to the improved lubrication of the
fuel delivery system.
While ASTM D-975 shows a maximum
HFRR wear scar of 520 m, the EU Engine
Manufacturers Association recommends
a 460 m maximum rating for fuel lubricity. European engine manufacturers have
lowered their recommended HFRR fuel lubricity for initial engine break-in to less than
400 m of wear scar. The US is experiencing a significant influx of European dieselpowered equipment, all manufactured with
common-rail fuel injection systems, and
new diesel engines being built in the US are
incorporating common-rail fuel injection.
Stability additive. This chemical com-
ponent protects diesel fuel and ensures

optimum engine performance. As an organic product, diesel fuel degrades, oxidizes and breaks down from the time it is

refined until it is consumed. Determining
diesel fuels rate of oxidation (instability)
through laboratory testing defines the extent of degradation that will occur between
its manufacture and its use. This rating is
important because, as a diesel fuel oxidizes
(degrades), it generates fine, free carbon
particulates that are abrasive and often collect internally in fuel injectors.
Unstable fuels also manifest in the fuel
system as varnishes that coat and cause
scoring of the moving parts. Varnishes
cause sticking of the injectors, preventing
the delivery of the proper amount of fuel
to the engine and potentially stopping it
entirely. Unstable diesel fuels will also create sludge materials that collect and build
up in low areas of the fuel storage and delivery system (i.e., tanks and lines). The
longer an unstable fuel is used, the more
degradation byproducts will be formed.
A measurement of diesel fuel thermal
stability was determined in a petroleum
laboratory using the ASTM D-6468-08
test, Standard test method for high-temperature stability of middle distillate fuels.5
FIG. 4 shows that test pads can be visually rated to define the free carbon created
during the test, or analyzed using a laboratory light reflectometer. The more carbon
that is created, the less light will be reflected (lower reflectometer result). Diesel fuels treated with a good stability additive
will have test pad ratings of 2 or less, and a
light reflectometer result greater than 90%.
A quality stabilizing additive can be
used to dramatically slow diesel fuel degradation, but it cannot completely stop
the natural degradation process. Diesel
fuel users must have the base (incoming)
diesel fuel tested for stability to determine
FIG. 4. Dupont F-21 stability chart, pad readings.
the state of degradation before treating

with a stabilizing additive product.
The prospective stability additive
should be tested at the same time and in
the same base (incoming) diesel fuel to
determine whether the stability additive
will, in fact, stabilize the diesel fuel. It
should be noted that other performance
additive products can negatively affect the
fuels oxidation rate (stability). Therefore,
the purchaser should have fuel treated
with any other additives and then stability
tested. If necessary, extra stability additive
should be added to counteract the negative effects of the other additives.
Corrosion inhibitor additive. This
compound should be added to diesel
fuels because:
All diesel fuels naturally contain
water, which is corrosive
All water contains dissolved salt,

which will create deposit buildup
in fuel injectors.
While the diesel fuel water content
may be small (typically 40 ppm100
ppm), that amount of moisture is more
than enough to cause rust and corrosion
in the fuel delivery system. Although the
salt content in the water may seem extremely small (typically a few ppb), the
dissolved salt particles continually circulate throughout the fuel delivery system
during operation.
Since most diesel engines return 75%
80% of the fuel to the vehicle fuel tank as
return fuel, the same salt particles can
flow through the injector more than 500
times during the consumption of one
tank of diesel fuel. This provides ample
opportunity for the salt particles to form
a deposit buildup inside the fuel injector.
FIG. 3. Two-place HFRR lubricity test apparatus.
FIG. 5. Diesel fuel storage tank pump/meter assembly and island filter
with fuel corrosion.

TABLE 1. Component list for performance diesel fuel additives
Additive component
"Incorrect" additive formulation
Beneficial effect
in performance
"Correct" additive formulation
Beneficial effect
in performance
Cetane improver
Up to 1 ECN increase
None
4 to 5 ECN increase
Much improved
Up to 2 ECN increase
Little to none
> 6 ECN increase
Optimum
2 to 3 ECN increase
Slight to some
Detergent
Maintains clean injectors
Inconclusive
DW-10 certified
Optimum
Lubricity
Lubricates injectors
Inconclusive
400m HFRR
Optimum
Stabilizer
Stabilizes fuel
Inconclusive
Pad rating of 6 and > 90 reflectance
Optimum
Corrosion inhibitor
Prevents corrosion
Inconclusive
Provides NACE 1-A
Optimum
Deposit modifier
Prevents deposits
Inconclusive
Certified
Optimum
age rate. FIG. 6A shows a diesel engine fuel

injector pintle after operation without a
corrosion inhibitor. A similar pintle without corrosion resulting from fuel treated
with an effective corrosion inhibitor additive is shown in FIG. 6B.
There can be no doubt that the first
pintle will not operate properly in the injector, nor supply the correct amount of
diesel fuel into the cylinder.
Deposit modifier additive. The final
FIG. 6. A diesel engine fuel injector pintle

after operation without a corrosion inhibitor
(A, left); and a similar pintle (B) without
corrosion resulting from fuel treated with
an effective corrosion inhibitor additive.
illustrates the corrosive effects on

the fuel delivery system in a diesel fueling
facility (after six months of continual use).
Similar corrosive effects can occur in fuel
injectors and pumps.
A NACE spindle corrosion test
(ASTM D-655)6 should be conducted to
determine the effectiveness of the corrosion inhibitor additive. A NACE 1-A or
better result will indicate the prevention
of fuel-related corrosion and rust when
the additive is treated at the correct dosFIG. 5
chemical component is particularly appropriate for diesel fuels in engines with

high-performance, common-rail fuel injection systems. The proper amount of
deposit modifier additive treatment will:
Maintain cleaner intake valves,
exhaust valves and piston tops to
reduce hot spots
Keep the EGR valves free of
excessive carbonaceous buildup and
reduce the need for replacements
Reduce regeneration frequency
through a better-maintained diesel
particulate filter unit
Extend the useful life of the entire
exhaust system before replacement.
Although nearly all diesel fuel additive
suppliers claim to reduce fuel-related deposits, no laboratory test method exists
to determine the amount of deposit modifier additive included in a diesel fuel additive product. The only means of verifying
the benefits claimed is to actually run the
additive-treated diesel fuel in an engine
for an extended period of time (TABLE 1).
Prospective fuel additive buyers
should request a written certified statement from the supplier that the product
includes adequate deposit modifier additive to reduce or minimize fuel-related
deposits. This certification may eliminate
exaggerations from unscrupulous sup-
pliers and help ensure that the additive

buyer receives a valuable product.
Takeaways. No organization oversees
the performance claims and marketing of

diesel fuel additives. This article (and the
subsequent Part 2) will assist the additive
buyer in sourcing the best performance
additives for diesel-powered equipment.
Next month. Part 2 of this article will

appear in November.
LITERATURE CITED
ASTM International, ASTM D-975-15c, Standard
specification for diesel fuel oils, Vol. 05.01.
2
ASTM International, ASTM D-613, Standard
test method for cetane number of diesel fuel oil,
Vol. 05.05.
3
Coordinating European Council, CEC F-98-08 (S),
Direct injection, common rail diesel engine nozzle
coking test, Iss. 8, August 2015.
4
ASTM International, ASTM D6079-11, Standard
test method for evaluating lubricity of diesel fuels
by the high-frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR),
Vol. 05.02, 2016.
5
ASTM International, ASTM D-6468-08, Standard
test method for high temperature stability of middle
distillate fuels, Vol. 05.03, 2013.
6
National Association of Corrosion Engineers
International, NACE TM0172 (ASTM D665/
D7548), Diesel fuel spindle corrosion test method, 2013.
1
GARY G. PIPENGER has worked

in the additive manufacturing,
chemical formulating, and
marketing of fuel additives
industries since 1973. He also
has expertise in international
sales and products marketing
in the petroleum industry. Mr. Pipenger engineered
and owns a chemical blending plant, and previously
owned a petroleum testing laboratory. He developed
a proprietary testing method to evaluate and
quantify microbiological growth in distillate fuels,
and assisted in the US militarys development of
MIL-SPEC-S53021 for microbiological growth and
storage stability prevention in distillate fuels.
He is also a certified aircraft and engine mechanic.
Mr. Pipenger earned a BS degree in industrial
engineering and technology from Purdue University.
Process Engineering
and Optimization
K. E. LITZ, K. EDISON and J. RANKIN,
Auterra Inc., Schenectady, New York
Remove sulfur and nitrogen from liquid

hydrocarbons with absorption process
Adsorption is a well-known and simple separation technique
finding application in water treatment, specialty chemicals production, gas separation and removal of trace impurities.14 Although adsorbents have yet to be broadly adopted in the treatment of refinery liquid hydrocarbon streams, a cursory review of
literature reveals that the field is very active. Engineers and scientists have gained remarkable levels of control of the properties
of surfaces and interfaces leading to the molecular-level design
of new materials. As capacity, adsorption kinetics and selectivity
continue to improve, widespread adoption may soon be realized.
In the case where a refiner wants to preserve the aromatic
or olefin character of a stream, one promising application of
adsorption is the removal or concentration of organo-sulfur or
organo-nitrogen compounds. Traditional hydrotreating would
saturate olefins and perhaps some aromatic compounds. In the
case of zeolites, activated carbons and microporous coordination polymers, these aromatic compounds and olefins tend to
compete for adsorption sites, typically leading to a decrease in
sulfur (S) compound adsorption capacity. Little information exists on the efficacy of these aromatics and olefins with nitrogen
(N2) compounds.5
One company has been working to exploit a molecular feature of its proprietary catalysta that has shown promising results for S and N2 compound separation in a way that does not
saturate aromatics and olefins. The catalyst removes S and N2
compounds without the need for hydrogen (H2). Furthermore,
with the growing importance of biofuels to the global oil supply,
the need for S and N2 removal processes that accommodate a
variety of functional groups in oil is clear. Here, the early results
of an effort to develop a new separation processb are discussed.
Separation process overview. The proprietary separation
process uses two columns for the continuous adsorption processing of contaminated feeds. One column runs in adsorption
mode, which removes heteroatom compounds from the liquid
hydrocarbon stream. The other operates in regeneration mode,
removing the adsorbed heteroatom compounds and regenerating the bed (FIG. 1).
While in adsorption mode, the feed oil flows into the
column over the catalyst adsorbent. Heteroatom compounds
bind to the adsorbent, and the contaminant-free oil flows out
as purified product.
In regeneration mode, oil feed is switched to the fresh column. The spent column is flushed with a solvent to remove
residue treated oil, the solvent is recovered and recycled, and
the residue oil is recycled back to the operating column. The
adsorbed heteroatom compounds are then removed from the
spent column by flushing it with a small amount of an inexpensive organic hydroperoxide. The heteroatom-rich stream
flushed from the column is then vacuum distilled, and the concentrate is removed from the bottom of the recovery column.
The byproducts of the process are an organic alcohol collected
overhead and the heteroatom concentrate as column bottoms.
Depending on the feed heteroatom content, the enriched concentrate may be burned as fuel, sent to a coker or sent to a fluid
catalytic cracking unit (FCCU). As an alternative, the hydrocarbons can be reclaimed using a proprietary desulfurization and
upgrading process.c
Desulfurization and upgrading performance. To demonstrate the utility of the proprietary process to remove S from oils
without the use of H2 , a variety of petroleum oils and intermediates were tested in a plug-flow column. Breakthrough curves
(FIG. 2) for four different feeds demonstrate the S-removal capaOxidant/sulfones
Solvent/oil
FlexULS
product
Adsorption
column
(online)
Oil feed pump
Solvent/oil
recovery step
blue
Sulfone removal
stepred
Alcohol
byproduct
Adsorption
column
(regeneration)
Recovered
oil
Sulfonerich stream
Solvent pump
Oxidant
Makeup
Regeneration pump
FIG. 1. Separation process flow scheme.


bility of the process. TABLE 1 shows the results for the tested feeds.
As shown, S compounds can be adsorbed from many different
stream types, and the extent of S removal is feed-dependent.
Analysis of the N2 content before and after treatment is
shown in TABLE 2. The level of N2 removal in these feeds is unimpressive, with the only exception being the nearly 40% reduction of N2 from dicyclopentadiene (DCPD).
The lack of significant N2 removal results in these feeds was
surprising because experience with whole crudes and bitumen
using the proprietary process produced 40%70% N2 removal.
1.0
Cv/Co
0.8
0.6
Heavy white oil
High-sulfur diesel
Kerosine
DCPD
0.4
0.2
0.0
10
20
30
40
Bed volumes
50
60
70
80
FIG. 2. Breakthrough curves for sulfur adsorption of various feeds

using the proprietary desulfurization and upgrading process.
0.08
0.07
OPEX, $/gal
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0
100
200
300
400
500 600 700

Sulfur removal, ppm
800
900
1,000
1,100
FIG. 3. OPEX vs. sulfur removal for various feeds (different sorbent
capacities).
DCPD
High-sulfur diesel
Kerosine
Heavy white oil
CAPEX, $MM
Petroleum feed
Feed S,
ppm
Product S,
ppm
Bed
volumes
Capacity,
mg S/g sorbent
Heavy white oil
1,050
62
High-sulfur diesel
504
146
10
3.8
Kerosine
104
55
5.5
Dicyclopentadiene
(DCPD)
95
22
1.8
TABLE 2. Performance for N2 removal with proprietary process
12
10
Separation process economics. Process economic estimates were generated for an 18-Mbpd process treating a
100-ppm feed down to ultra-low-sulfur standards with 40 bed
volumes, prior to the required regeneration step. The process
equipment includes:
Two adsorption columns
Standard fractionation column equipment with
a feed heat exchanger
Pumps.
Capital expenditure (CAPEX) is estimated at $3,000,000
(inside battery limits, installed cost), and operational expenditure (OPEX) is estimated at $0.0058/gal (cost of makeups
and utilities).
The type of feed being treated influences the economics of
the process. Lower S removal and higher sorbent capacity reduce costs, while the opposite conditions raise them. OPEX
TABLE 1. Proprietary desulfurization and upgrading performance with different feeds
DCPD
High-sulfur diesel
Kerosine
Heavy white oil
0.06
To further investigate this apparent discrepancy, model

feeds containing indole, acridine and quinoline were prepared
in hexadecane and similarly tested in a plug-flow column at ambient temperature. The model compounds were measured by
high-performance liquid chromatography, so detection limits
on the basis of elemental N2 were less than 1 ppm. Results are
shown in TABLE 3. All of the N2 compounds were completely
removed from the model feed through greater than 58 bed volumes. The efficacy for aromatic cyclic N2 compound adsorption appears to be high. Future work will focus on clarifying
the generality of N2 compound adsorption by the proprietary
separation process.
6
4
Petroleum feed
Feed N2, ppm
Product N2, ppm
Heavy white oil
36
33
High-sulfur diesel
29
26
Kerosine
36
33
DCPD
41
26
TABLE 3. Adsorption of aromatic heterocyclic N2 compounds
2
0
0
100
200
300
400
500 600 700

Sulfur removal, ppm
800
900
1,000
FIG. 4. Relationship between CAPEX and sulfur removal for various

feeds.
1,100
Initial N2,
ppm
Product N2,
ppm
Bed
volumes
Capacity,
mg N/g sorbent
Indole
25
<1
58
2.3
Acridine
22
<1
85
2.1
Quinoline
21
<1
> 92
>2
Compound

is more sensitive to S removal than CAPEX and scales almost
linearly with it. It is difficult to discern significant differences
in OPEX for feeds tested, mainly due to the cost of makeup
materials needed to regenerate the sorbent bed.
Conversely, CAPEX shows more sensitivity to changes in
sorbent capacity. The sorbent capacity directly influences the
size of the fractionation equipment, which is the largest factor
for CAPEX. FIGS. 3 and 4 highlight the influence of S removal
and sorbent capacity on process economics.
Takeaway. The proprietary separation process provides an
alternative for heteroatom removal to meet market needs for

feeds where preservation of olefin or aromatic character may
be important, or where H2 constraints exist. As the technology continues to mature and additional feeds are treated, improved clarity on which feeds offer the best economic advantages will emerge.
NOTE
The proprietary catalyst is Auterras FlexOX.
b
The proprietary separation process is Auterras FlexULS.
c
The proprietary desulfurization and upgrading process Auterras FlexUP.
a
LITERATURE CITED
Worch, E., Adsorption Technology in Water Treatment, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin,
Germany, 2012.
2
Yang, R. T., Adsorbents: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons,
Hoboken, New Jersey, 2003.
1
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Wu, L., J. Xiao, Y. Wu, S. Xian, G. Miao, H. Wang and Z. Li, Langmuir, pp. 1080
1088, 2014.
4
Jia, S. Y., Y. F. Zhang, Y. Liu, F. X. Qin, H. T. Ren and S. H. Wu, Journal of
Hazardous Materials, Vol. 262, pp. 589597, 2013.
5
Cychosz, K. A., A. G. Wong-Foy and A. J. Matzger, Journal of American Chemical
Society, Vol. 131, Iss. 40, 2009.
3
KYLE LITZ is the chief technology officer of Auterra Inc.

He has over 22 years of experience in process chemistry
and new materials development. Dr. Litz is the lead co-inventor
of the FlexOX catalyst and the FlexUP process, and is
responsible for Auterras technology development toward
commercial introduction. He has more than 30 issued US
patents co-filed in more than 30 countries, and he has been
published in 12 peer-reviewed publications. He earned his BS degree
in chemistry from the University of Texas at Dallas and his PhD in chemistry
at the University of Michigan. In 2016, he was admitted as a fellow of the
Royal Society of Chemistry.
KEITH EDISON is the lead process engineer at Auterra Inc.
He has been with Auterra for five years and is responsible
for the evaluation, scale-up and optimization of various process
designs surrounding Auterras proprietary technology. He has
also designed, built and operated bench and pilot units needed
for process development work. He earned a BS degree in
chemical engineering from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
JONATHAN RANKIN is the research and development team
leader at Auterra Inc., and has been with the company for seven
years. He oversees day-to-day research and development
activities at Auterra. To date, he has nine granted US patents
in the areas of catalyst development and petroleum upgrading.
Mr. Rankin obtained a BS degree in chemistry from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 2009.
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Process Engineering
and Optimization
N. KASIRI and P. JOUYBANPOUR, Iran University
of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran; and
M. REZA EHSANI, Isfahan University of
Technology, Isfahan, Iran
The effect of various parameters

on tray point efficiency
Distillation as a volatilities-based process is used to separate
components of a mixture to a liquid phase richer in less volatile
components, and a vapor phase richer in more volatile components. Component separation is achieved through differences
in boiling points between the species. In the chemical and petroleum industries, distillation is an important process for separating fluid mixtures, so a considerable amount of attention has
been given to understanding and improving the performance of
tray distillation columns.1
Tray efficiency is the most important parameter in the design and analysis of tray-type columns. Although tray efficiency
has been studied extensively, little progress has been made in
predicting it since the publication of the American Institute of
Chemicals Engineers (AIChE) Bubble Tray Design Manual.2
Most existing tray efficiency models were developed based on
experimental data of systems in which mass-transfer resistance
is confined entirely to either the liquid phase or the gas phase.
These models tend to predict a large value for the number of
liquid-phase transfer units for distillation systems and, therefore,
give a small value to the fraction of liquid-phase resistance over
the total mass-transfer resistance.
According to the AIChE model, researchers have assumed
that distillation is a gas-phase-controlled operation. However,
experimental data indicates that the liquid-phase resistance in
distillation is also significant.1,2
The newly developed and presented model takes into account important parameters in tray point efficiency by using a
genetic programming technique. Genetic programming is one of
the computer algorithms in the family of evolutionary-computational methods that have provided reliable solutions to complex
optimization problems. Genetic programming is a biologically
inspired, domain-independent method that automatically creates a computer program from a high-level statement of a problems requirements.3,4
Study background. Many parameters influence distillation
column and tray point efficiency. To develop a correlation that

included all influential and effective parameters, a comprehensive review of published works was conducted. The effective pa-
rameters on tray point efficiency were identified and combined

into meaningful dimensionless groups, such as Reynolds number
(R e ), the ratio of molar densities and molecular diffusivities in
both phases, the ratio of the liquid inventory (hL ) to the sieve tray
perforation diameter (DH ), and the effective froth density e.3,5,6
Therefore, the slope of the equilibrium curve (m), Reynolds number (Re = VVHhfe/ V), the ratio of vapor mole
density to liquid mole density (MV/ML), the ratio of vapor molecular diffusivity to liquid molecular diffusivity
(DV/DL), the ratio of the liquid inventory to the sieve tray perforation diameter (hL/DH), and (1-e ) are chosen as independent
and dimensionless variables, with tray point efficiency (EOG) as
the dependent variable. Genetic process automatically eliminates the superfluous independent variables from the model.
The correlation is based on a generalized model of mass transfer in a five-sieve tray distillation column developed to account
experimental measurements on a 0.6-m-diameter sieve tray with
0.0185-m-diameter perforations, indicating the presence of vapor entrainment into the downcomer for the three systems.
The database consists of experimentation results under total reflux conditions for two wide-boiling systems (methanol/
water and isopropanol/water) and one close-boiling system
(methylcyclohexane/toluene), all of binary nature. The entire
database consisted of 52 data sets. On the basis of measured and
calculated data, an attempt was made to determine an equation
for the point efficiency of distillation columns using genetic
TABLE 1. Dimensionless grouping validity ranges
Parameters
Slope of equilibrium
line, m
Minimum
Maximum
Max./Min.
0.224
2.8
12.5
MV /ML
0.0007
0.0047
6.714
DV /DL
1.9407
1.0e + 004
5.1902
1.0e + 004
2.674
hL /DH
3.6305
6.0872
1.677
1-e
0.4533
0.6977
1.539
5.3755
1.0e + 004
2.2822
1.0e + 005
4.245
Re = VVHhfe /V

programming. In this work, 47 out of the total 52 data sets were
randomly used to develop the desired correlation, and the remainder were used for error evaluations. The experiments were
carried out under atmospheric pressure.7
Results and discussions. To develop the new correlation,
part of the available experimental data sets of three binary mixtures were used for the development phase, while the remainder
were used for the validation and evaluation phases.7 The new
developed correlation8 is shown in Eq. 1:
MV
+R e
ML
Eog =1exp0.867789
(1)
(1e )(exp(m)+10.6125)
DV
(1e )
2
DL
The superfluous independent variable (hL/DH) was automatically eliminated during the genetic process and did not appear in
the model. The average relative error associated with the model
for predicting tray point efficiency was evaluated using Eq. 2:
0.70
1-Qe = 0.4533
1-Qe = 0.5133
1-Qe = 0.5733
1-Qe = 0.6333
1-Qe = 0.6977
0.69
0.68
Tray point efficiency
0.67
0.66
Error =
0.65
0.6448132
0.64
0.644813195
0.63
0.64481319
0.64098737
0.61
0.640987365
0.60
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
m
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.80
m = 0.224
m = 0.824
m = 1.424
m = 2.124
m = 2.68
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.64098736
0.635578266
FIG. 1. The influence of the slope of the equilibrium curve (m)

on tray point efficiency.
0.6635578264
0.6635578262
0.62848862
0.628488616
0.628488612
0.620065792
0.72
0.662006579
0.70
0.620065788
0.68
0.609822602
0.66
0.6098226
0.64
0.609822598
0.000
0.62
0.60
0.4
(2)
According to this equation, a relative error of 1.85% was

measured when the output model was checked against the five
data sets not used in the optimization procedure, and an error
of 1.75% was measured when the output model was checked
against the complete set of available data. TABLE 1 shows the
coverage range of the dimensionless groups, according to the
composite database. In this work, the Peng-Robinson equation
of state was used to evaluate the densities of gases and liquids
for methanol/water and isopropanol/water systems; Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories (NRTL) was used solely
for the methylcyclohexane/toluene system; and the Brokaw
model for gases and the Hayduk-Laudie model for liquids were
used to evaluate viscosity.9 The influences of the dimensionless
groups on tray point efficiency were studied within the valid
range of the model, varying one as variable and one as parameter, while the rest of the variables were constant.
FIG. 1 shows the influence of the slope of the equilibrium
curve (m) on tray point efficiency, with (1-e ) as parameter
(at DV /DL = 1.9407 1.0e + 004, MV/ML = 0.0007,
Re = 5.3755 1.0e + 004).
When the slope of the equilibrium curve is increased, the
mass-transfer resistance increases, but the molar rate of diffusion decreases, causing tray point efficiency to decrease. Also,
by increasing (1-e ), efficiency is decreased. When the effective froth density is decreased, it decreases the mass transfer and
causes the separation to be more difficult. As observed in FIG. 1
at smaller values of m, (1-e ) has a larger influence.
0.62
1
E(OG , calculated)i E(OG , experimental)i
n i=1
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Re
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
105
FIG. 2. The influence of Re on tray point efficiency, with m as parameter.
0.001
m = 0.224
m = 0.724
0.002
0.003
m = 1.224
m = 1.724
0.004
0.005
m = 2.224
m = 2.8
FIG. 3. The influence of the ratio of vapor mole density to liquid mole
density on tray point efficiency, with m as parameter.

fusivities, the mass-transfer resistance is increased and efficiency
is decreased. Also, the increase in Reynolds number causes a decrease in the mass-transfer resistance, so efficiency is increased.
FIG. 5 details the influence of (1-e ) on tray point efficiency
with Re as parameter (at m = 0.224, DV/Dl = 1.9407 1.0e +
004, MV/ML = 0.0007).
As shown here, increasing the (1-e ) factor decreases the
efficiency. When the effective froth density is decreased, it decreases the mass transfer, meaning that distillation will be more
0.80
Re = 5.3755* 1.0e + 004
Re = 7.2755* 1.0e + 004
Re = 9.1755* 1.0e + 004
Re = 1.0755* 1.0e + 005
Re = 2.2822* 1.0e + 005
0.78
0.76
0.74
The influence of Re on tray point efficiency with m as parameter (at DV/DL = 1.9407 1.0e + 004, MV/ML = 0.0007, (1-e )
= 0.6977) is illustrated in FIG. 2.
The Reynolds number has the most influence on tray point
efficiency, as its variations make larger changes on it. Increasing the Reynolds number causes a decrease in the mass-transfer
resistance, thereby increasing tray point efficiency. Increasing
the slope of the equilibrium curve increases the mass-transfer
resistance, but the molar rate of diffusion is decreased, causing
efficiency to decrease. It can also be concluded from FIG. 2 that
at higher Re, m has a great influence on tray point efficiency.
FIG 3. shows the influence of the ratio of vapor mole density
to liquid mole density on tray point efficiency with m as parameter (at DV/DL = 1.9407 1.0e + 004, (1-e ) = 0.6977, Re =
5.3755 1.0e + 004). As a consequence of increasing the ratio
of the molar densities of the phases, the mass-transfer resistance
is decreased, while the molar rate of diffusion and efficiency are
increased. As observed in FIG. 3, this influence is infinitesimal
and, therefore, negligible.
The influence of the ratio of vapor molecular diffusivity to
liquid molecular diffusivity on tray point efficiency with Re as
parameter (at MV/ML = 0.0007, m = 0.224, (1-e ) = 0.6977) is
shown in FIG. 4.
The ratio of the diffusivities has an inverse influence on efficiency. These systems are limited by the liquid phase since the
mass transfer is more efficiently accomplished there, so the liquid
diffusivity has more influence. By increasing the ratio of the dif-
0.72
0.70
0.68
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.60
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
DV DL
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
104
FIG. 4. The influence of the ratio of vapor molecular diffusivity to liquid

molecular diffusivity on tray point efficiency, with Re as parameter.
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difficult. Also, increasing the Reynolds number causes a decrease in the mass transfer resistance, so efficiency is increased.
Key findings. In this study, a genetic programming-based
model was used to study the influence of different parameters on point efficiency in a distillation column. The model
demonstrated 1.85% relative error within its validity range,
which is adequate accuracy for distillation column analysis. To
study the effect of any of the parameters, one was changed in
0.90
D
DH
EOG
hf
hfe
hL
m
Re
VH
VS
Re = 5.3755* 1.0e + 004

Re = 7.2755* 1.0e + 004
Re = 9.1755* 1.0e + 004
Re = 1.0755* 1.0e + 005
Re = 2.2822* 1.0e + 005
0.85
turn while the rest were kept constant. At the modeling stage,
(hL /DH ) had minimal influence on point efficiency, which was
eliminated automatically by the genetic process. The parameters that had high effect were (DV/DL ), (m), (1-e ), Re and
(MV/ML ). As expected, the first three parameters had an inverse effect on point efficiency, while the last two had direct
influence. Among these parameters, R e has the most influence
on efficiency, while (MV/ML ) has the least effect.
0.80
0.75
Subscripts
e Effective
f Froth
V Vapor
H Hole
L Liquid
M Molar.
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.40
0.45
0.05
0.55
1-e
0.60
0.65
0.70
NOMENCLATURE
Molecular diffusivity, m2/s
Sieve tray perforation diameter, m
Froth height, m
Effective froth height, m
Liquid inventory on tray, expressed in height of clear liquid, m
The slope of the equilibrium curve
Reynolds number
Vapor velocity through perforation, m/s
Vapor velocity over bubbling surface of the tray, m/s.
0.75
Greek symbols:
Density, kg/m3
Viscosity, N.s/m2
e Effective froth density.
FIG. 5. The influence of 1-e on tray point efficiency with Re

as parameter.
LITERATURE CITED
Bjorn, I. N., U. Gren and F. Svensson, Simulation and experimental study of intermediate heat exchange in a sieve tray distillation column, Computers and Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 26, 2002.
2
Chen, G. X. and K. T. Chuang, Determining the number of gas-phase and liquidphase transfer units from point efficiencies in distillation, Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry Research, Vol. 33, 1994.
3
Koza, J. R., Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of
Natural Selection, MIT Press (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1992.
4
Koza, J. R., F. H. Bennett, D. Andre and M. A. Keane, Synthesis of topology and
sizing of analog electrical circuits by means of genetic programming, Computer
Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 186, 2000.
5
Bennett, D. L., D. Watson and M. A. Wiescinski, New correlation for sieve-tray
point efficiency, entrainment and section efficiency, AIChE Journal, Vol. 43, 1997.
6
Bennett, D. L. and K. W. Kovak, Optimize distillation column, Chemical
Engineering and Processing, May 2000.
Complete literature cited available at HydrocarbonProcessing.com
1
DR. NOROLLAH KASIRI graduated with his BSc degree from Glamorgan University
before pursuing an MSc degree and PhD at Swansea University in Wales, UK.
Dr. Kasiri joined the School of Chemical Engineering at Iran University of Science and
Technology (IUST) as an assistant professor, where he established the CAPE center.
Over the past 20 years of CAPE activity, he has managed professional chemical,
process and reservoir engineers, resulting in the presentation and publication of
over 200 papers, the conclusion of 70 research projects and the development of
14 software packages. He works with IUST as an associate professor.
PARVIN JOUYBANPOUR began her career in chemical engineering at the Science
& Research Campus of Islamic Azad University, where she graduated with a BSc
degree, followed by post-graduate studies at the CAPE center at Iran University of
Science and Technology (IUST), where she earned her MSc degree. She earned a
second MS degree in industrial management in Sweden.
DR. MOHAMMAD REZA EHSANI serves as a professor in the chemical engineering
department at Isfahan University of Technology (IUT). He began his career in
chemical engineering at Sharif University of Technology, where he graduated
with a BSc degree. Dr. Ehsani earned his MSc degree and PhD at UMIST University,
Manchester, UK.
82
Maintenance
and Reliability
J. MURRAY, Emerson Process Management,
Boston, Massachusetts
Monitor medium-voltage switchgear in refineries

When medium-voltage switchgear (MVS) in a refinery
fails, it can force a process unit or even an entire refinery to
shut down. Costs can climb into the millions of dollars as a
result of lost production, environmental issues and litigation
arising from injuries or fatalities, and the cost of repairing and/
or replacing the damaged equipment.
Fortunately, modern sensing technology makes it possible
for a refinery to continuously monitor the health of MVS
(FIG. 1) and related equipment, and inform the maintenance
department when, or even before, problems arise. This article
describes the potential causes and problems of MVS failures, as
well as the various types of sensing systems that can be used to
detect and predict problems.
Continuous monitoring of temperature, partial discharge
and humidity in switchgear can uncover small problems before
they become large issues that can shut down an entire refinery.
Scope of the problem. Refinery power outages have been in
the news over the last few years. In January, a sitewide power
outage at ExxonMobils refinery in Beaumont, Texas required
operators to empty systems by burning product, wasting 365
Mbpd of crude oil. The burning created large flames and plumes
of black smoke that drifted over nearby neighborhoods.1
According to the Billings Gazette, the city of Billings, Montana has been pulled into an ongoing lawsuit between ExxonMobil and NorthWestern Energy that was filed by the oil
corporation after two power outages disrupted its Billings refinery.2 In January, ExxonMobil sued NorthWestern for refinery outages in 2014 and 2016 that led to excess flaring. ExxonMobil claims the outages cost the company millions of dollars,
and it is seeking undisclosed damages in the lawsuit.
In February, a California federal jury found Pacific Gas and
Electric (PG&E) negligent and partially to blame for a power
outage at Tesoros Martinez, California refinery, and ordered
PG&E to pay $3.5 MM in damages.3
Power outages at refineries are a serious problem, resulting in millions of dollars in damages, environmental lawsuits,
flaring, smoke, fires, lost production, bad public relations and
threats to employee safety. While not all of these outages are
caused by MVS failures, the impacts of these types of failures
can be similar.
Refinery power concerns. Studies by ARC Advisory Group,
Hydrocarbon Publishing Co., and Harris and Williams assert
that 82% of power outages in refineries can be attributed to

random failures. The majority of refinery power systems are
more than 25 years old, with many running beyond design life.
Electrical problems accounted for 20% of all refinery disruptions between 2009 and 2013, according to the US Department of Energy. While power failures can be caused by utility
outages, snowstorms, hurricanes and other unforeseen events,
these studies claim that nearly 20% of refinery power disruptions are the result of electrical power equipment failures. In
many cases, these failures are caused by MVS.
A typical refinery power system has generators, generator
circuit breakers, transformers, MVS, bus ducts, low-voltage
switchgear, motor control centers and other equipment needed to distribute power throughout the refinery. Power substations are located at the sources of incoming power and at various smaller distribution stations throughout the refinery.
Diagnosing and detecting all potential problems in this myriad of equipment (such as generator vibration or transformer
oil deterioration) is beyond the scope of this work. Instead, it
will examine how to monitor three of the main sources of electrical failures in MVS: overheating of conductors, insulation
breakdown and high-moisture environments. Note: While
this article concentrates on MVS, much of the discussion also
applies to the other electrical assets.
FIG. 1. Typical installation of MVS in a refinery.

Maintenance and Reliability

MVS issues. MVS is subject to overheating due to excessive
loads, normal wear and tear, and challenging environmental
conditions. Left unattended, these conditions can lead to failures that result in costly damage to switchgear and surrounding
equipment, power production loss and, in extreme cases, severe
injury or death. Common failure modes include excessive temperature, partial discharge and high humidity.
Excessive temperature. Circuit breaker, bus bar and cable
connections tend to loosen and/or corrode over time, resulting
in thermal failure of the connection and nearby cable insulation.
Partial discharge. As insulators age, weak spots and defects
evolve. Under certain load conditions, a dielectric breakdown
will initiate across the defect, causing a partial arc between conductors at different potentials. This effect is known as a partial
discharge. The breakdown causes a small but sudden rise in current accompanied by a current pulse, as well as electromagnetic
(radio or light), acoustic and ozone emissions. Left unattended,
this condition can cause the switchgear to explode (FIG. 2).
High humidity. Moisture in switchgear can create shorts or
be absorbed by the insulators, leading to insulation breakdown.
Humidity also causes metallic corrosion, which can lead to elevated heating, partial discharge, surface tracking and the potential for shorts and flashover.
Manual inspections. Switchgear monitoring has been in
practice for some time, and is often carried out through periodic manual inspections while the switchgear is powered down.
Such inspections look for obvious problems, such as physical
damage, frayed connectors, degraded insulation and evidence
of overheated components. Inspectors confirm proper alignment of primary and secondary interlocks, tightness of bolted
connections and correct phasing of bus bars.
Electrical measurements can also be conducted while the
power is off. Applying voltage with calibrated AC and DC highpotential test sets checks insulation resistance in the panel enclosure, bus bars, circuit breakers and other components. It also
assesses contact resistance to confirm bus bar joints are connected properly.
Manual inspections with infrared (IR) equipment can be conducted while the power is on. Periodic IR monitoring techniques
FIG. 2. Partial discharge and high humidity caused voltage stresses in

this switchgear, leading to an explosion.
require a glass window to be installed in the switchgear, a relatively expensive IR camera and a trained technician. One significant limitation of this type of inspection is that personnel cannot
perform monitoring procedures behind bus insulators and cable
shrouds because line-of-sight is required with IR technology.
All manual inspections require trained technicians and specialized test equipment, often provided by an outside service
company. Depending on the testing service provided (e.g.,
thermal and/or partial discharge), typical costs for an onsite visit by a service provider could total up to $30,000. Any
electrical problems occurring after the inspection can go undetected until the next inspection, which could be a year or
more. During that time, small problems can become large ones,
potentially leading to a complete failure of the asset(s) and a
power shutdown.
A better solution is to employ continuous monitoring of
switchgear, which affords refineries the ability to collect data
generated during the switchgears normal operating conditions,
thereby providing awareness to problems in real time.
Real-time trending during full load of electrical stresses, vibration, insulation breakdown and environmental influences
provides insight into the health of the switchgear. When performing continuous monitoring, it is not always critical to identify the exact location of degradation, but rather to understand
the trend of the defect over time. Monitoring and trending the
most common failure modes allows for planned and proactive
maintenance, instead of running the MVS to catastrophic failure.
Thermal monitoring. Temperature monitoring is a primary
method for detecting switchgear problems, although some

facilities employ only partial discharge monitoring. One challenge in implementing continuous temperature monitoring of
critical connection points (circuit breaker, bus bar and cable
connections) inside MVS is that the sensors must maintain the
impulse-withstand voltage, also known as basic impulse level
(BIL). Consequently, conductors at different potentials must
have a minimal distance between one another to prevent breakdown and ensure the impulse rating. Another key challenge is
powering the sensors so as to avoid the requirement for regular
maintenance of these devices.
Specific to the BIL concern, Section 5.2 of the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Associations
C37.20.3 standard, Metal-enclosed interrupter switchgear,
states that switchgear rated with a maximum voltage of 15 kV
must have an impulse voltage of 95 kV, relating to a distance (in
air) of approximately 160 mm.
This requirement eliminates the most common types of direct
contact temperature-monitoring systems, such as thermocouples and RTDs, because they are susceptible to electromagnetic
interference/radio-frequency interference in the high-voltage
environment. This leaves only non-invasive systems, such as fiber optics, continuous IR sensing and wireless direct contact sensors, as viable options for switchgear thermal monitoring.
Fiber optic systems. Fiber optic temperature sensors can
be routed directly to critical switchgear-monitoring points. The
sensors are rigidly attached to hot-spot locations, and are completely immune to electromagnetic interference and noise bursts
caused by high-voltage switching. These systems require direct
surface contact. They are considered non-invasive, but when op-

gear out of service to replace batteries is untenable from an operational perspective, and also elevates the actual cost of system
ownership to an unacceptable level.
Wireless passive direct-contact sensors. Wireless passive
sensor systems provide real-time continuous monitoring via
direct connection to critical measurement points. These systems are easy to install, require no maintenance and have a life
expectancy comparable to the switchgear itself. These sensors
employ surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology (FIG. 3).
SAW technology utilizes a piezoelectric substrate (a material
that changes electrical charges due to mechanical stresses), an
interdigitated transducer (IDT) resonator and an antenna. One
of the most common piezoelectric materials used is quartz crystal, onto which a metalized IDT is fabricated. SAW transducers, when activated by a radio frequency (RF) wave transmitted
by a system control device, reflect back a surface RF wave that
changes frequency linearly with temperature.
Compared to other sensors, SAW temperature sensors have
longer reading distances. They also do not require line-of-sight.
These characteristics maximize basic impulse levels, while using lower transmission power to minimize control system electromagnetic compatibility issues.
erating under the dusty and humid environments often found in

refineries, fiber optic cables can create a conductive ground path
and compromise the aforementioned withstand voltages.
Continuous IR sensing. IR sensors can detect hot spots
in switchgear, cables and components. Monitoring switchgear with handheld IR equipment during manual inspections
is common, but IR sensors can also be permanently installed
inside switchgear for continuous monitoring. The sensors capture a thermal image and then send data back to a control or
SCADA system, where specialized thermal mapping software is
required to detect problems.
These systems are often expensive and difficult to install, and
have several measurement limitations, such as adjacent surfaces
having different emissivity or reflections causing false readings.
These sensors also cannot measure the bus connections behind
bus insulators.
Wireless battery-powered direct-contact sensors. Wireless temperature sensors measure the temperature of strategically important points on metal or insulating surfaces of current-carrying parts. The sensors are attached to components
with a high-temperature adhesive. They measure temperatures
from 0C to 150C and send data to a receiver, which then transmits the data to a control system.
At a first glance, these systems seem to provide an adequate
solution. Unfortunately, the batteries have a limited life span
that is usually reduced in the high-temperature environments
found inside MVS. The associated cost of taking the switch-
Partial discharge monitoring. The most commonly used
partial discharge detection instruments directly measure the

current and voltage spikes in high-frequency current transformers or high-voltage capacitive couplers, as outlined in the Inter-
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national Electrotechnical Commissions IEC 60270 standard,
Partial discharge measurements.
This method has several strengths, including the ability to
analyze pulse shapes and assemble a graph of the discharge
events relative to the phase of the power line waveform. These
systems are very expensive and require trained technicians to
FIG. 3. Three SAW temperature sensors (orange sensors in middle)

mounted in MVS.
analyze the data, and do not lend themselves to permanent,

continuous monitoring installations in switchgear.
Utilities are evaluating additional partial discharge detection
methods with IEC 62478, a prospective standard for acoustic
and electromagnetic PD measurements. These methods use instruments to make indirect analytical measurements and obtain
a relative signature of partial discharge pulses that testers can
use for system trending. A number of testing methods exist, as
outlined in the following sections.
Transient earth voltage (TEV). Refinery or outside service
personnel use TEV test equipment to check switchgear externally by measuring the electromagnetic emissions conducted to
ground. Although testers can use TEVs for continuous monitoring, these voltages cannot always monitor faults between phases.
High frequency (HF) and very-high frequency (VHF).
HF/VHF systems operate between 3 MHz and 300 MHz and
use large antennas, high-frequency current transformers or coupled sensors to detect partial discharge spikes. Large antennas
are not compatible with measurements inside switchgear, and
direct-coupled sensors impair safety.
Acoustics. Testers use a microphone or similar acoustic sensor to monitor frequencies between 10 Hz and 300 kHz. Refinery personnel can use this wireless method for continuous
monitoring, but it has a limited detection range due to sound
damping within dielectric objects.
Ultra-high frequency (UHF). This broadband (300 MHz
3 GHz) detection method monitors transient electromagnetic
waves through an antenna. Traditional UHF methods are susceptible to noise from cell phones, radios and other transmitters. However, newer instruments use selective, banded UHF
monitoring to detect partial discharges while rejecting noise
sources. UHF provides the safest, most non-intrusive continuous partial discharge monitoring system (FIG. 4).
UHF partial discharge detection. Effective UHF partial
discharge detection for continuous monitoring requires the distillation of an overwhelming amount of complex data down to
a concise piece of information, all without the intervention of a
highly trained operator.
Band-pass filtered UHF partial discharge detection methods
are capable of avoiding strong interfering signals at close proximitywhile advanced digital filtering methods are capable of
26
100
22
80
18
60
14
40
10
0
FIG. 4. A monitoring device installed in a safe position (black box on

inside panel) within an MVS compartment monitors partial discharge.
RH, %
nC cumulative/cycle
30
Ongoing partial discharge

Periodic partial discharge
Humidity
FIG. 5. Continuous trending of partial discharge events captures

periodic spikes due to condensing humidity that would not have
been recognized with non-continuous detection methods.
20

detecting the presence of partial dischargeeven with residual,
unfiltered noise.
To provide an autonomous approach for PD monitoring,
advanced system algorithms must be implemented to present
data that can be easily processed for health assessment and
long-term system trending. UHF emissions signals can be broken into three major categories: noise, and asymmetric and
symmetric discharges.
Noise. Noise denotes UHF energy in the selected frequency
band(s) not in close correlation with the power line frequency.
External radio interference is a reliable classification of noise;
however, weak and erratic partial discharge, which occurs early
in the evolution of a defect, is also a noise classification.
Asymmetric discharge. Events occur primarily on the negative half cycle of the power waveform, where electrons emitted
from the metal ionize the air. Asymmetric discharge (also called
corona or surface discharge) presents significant results at both
odd and even harmonics of the power line frequency.
Symmetric discharge. Discharge events that occur in the
bulk of the material, often referred to as internal or symmetric
partial discharge, happen at the positive and negative polarity
portions of the power cycle and are often represented as even
harmonics of the power line frequency.
One of the causes of partial discharge is excessive humidity, which condenses onto cables and connectors. Continuous
UHF monitoring can detect these voltage spikes (FIG. 5).
Continuous monitoring. Complete switchgear continuousmonitoring systems are available with temperature, humidity
and partial discharge sensing capabilities. In addition to the
wireless temperature and partial discharge sensors outlined
above, wired sensors are often installed on the chassis of the
switchgear cabinet to provide ambient temperature and humidity readings. Ambient temperature readings are important
because the critical issue is temperature rise of hot spots above
ambient, as opposed to absolute temperature.
A typical continuous-monitoring system for MVS would include a monitoring unit connecting temperature, humidity and
partial discharge sensors, as shown in FIG. 6.
Each temperature and partial discharge air interface device
shown in FIG. 6 uses banded UHF technology to sense partial
discharge directly. Each air interface device can also wirelessly
link to three or more SAW temperature sensors.
Up to four air interfaces can be wired to the monitoring unit
via low-loss coaxial cables. The monitoring unit can also accept
up to eight conventional wired humidity or ambient temperature sensors, which are well suited for taking measurements of
these variables in bus ducts.
The monitoring unit can be a full-featured human-machine
interface (HMI) with monitoring capabilities, or a reader that
provides remote monitoring. The reader provides all the necessary wireless interrogation signals for the SAW sensors through
the air interface device, internally implements the partial discharge detection algorithms and communicates directly with
the humidity and ambient temperature sensors. All reader data
is accessible through industry-standard Modbus remote terminal
unit (RTU) (RS485) digital communication protocols, affording
ease of integration into a plants existing supervisory control and
data acquisition system, distributed control system or historian.
Monitoring unit
(CAM-4 or reader)
Humidity 1
Temperature and
partial discharge
air interface
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Temperature and
partial discharge
air interface
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Temperature and
partial discharge
air interface
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Temperature and
partial discharge
air interface
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Temperature
sensor
Humidity 2
Humidity 8
FIG. 6. Switchgear monitoring system with temperature, humidity and

partial discharge sensors.
The HMI unit provides the same monitoring capabilities as a

reader, but adds functionalities including a local touchscreen for
real-time display, data storage, alarming and multi-unit functionality. Multi-unit functionality provides an input device port for
connecting up to seven readers via the Modbus RTU protocol,
as well as extending the HMI display, alarm and communication
capabilities to all connected readers. This option allows for easy
integration into switchgear lineups. The HMI unit can be connected to an existing plant SCADA system or historian via Modbus transmission control protocol (TCP), distributed network
protocol 3 (DNP3) or IEC-61850 digital communications.
Takeaway. Continuous condition-based monitoring systems
provide clear, early detection of evolving issues with MVS,
thereby helping avoid unplanned downtime and outages. Data
provided by a condition-based monitoring system facilitates
historical trending capabilities, as well as the ability to detect
failures before they occur, giving refinery operators the information they need to perform proactive maintenance.
A continuous thermal and partial discharge monitoring system that focuses on main switchgear failure modes will help
lower maintenance costs, reduce downtime, provide necessary
early warning information and ensure the highest level of operational safety.
LITERATURE CITED
Kang, Y. P., Jury dings PG&E $3.5M for Tesoro refinery outage, Law360,
February 2, 2016, online: http://www.law360.com/articles/754290/jury-dingspg-e-3-5m-for-tesoro-refinery-outage/
2
Besson, E. and B. Scott, Smoke at Exxon refinery in Beaumont due to power outage, FuelFix, January 21, 2016, online: http://fuelfix.com/blog/2016/01/21/
flames-smoke-seen-at-exxon-refinery-in-beaumont/
3
Hudson, M., NorthWestern: Fault began with city employees in Exxon refinery
power outages in Billings, Billings Gazette, April 5, 2016, online: http://billingsgazette.com/news/local/northwestern-fault-began-with-city-employees-inexxon-refinery-power/article_c30dd4ca-0dc4-5ba9-b809-2f9a6fd83bd0.html
1
JONATHAN MURRAY is director of IntelliSAW products at

Emerson, focusing on new business strategies, product
development and marketing of the IntelliSAW Critical Asset
Monitoring (CAM) Platform. Prior to joining IntelliSAW, Mr.
Murray focused on automation and control systems for smart
grid, energy storage and electric vehicles, holding positions
such as business unit manager, business development manager,
project manager and senior engineer. He holds a BS degree in electrical
engineering from the University of Massachusetts.
Process Control
and Instrumentation
B. JAZAYERI, Reacxion, Orange County, California
Lessons learned in commercial scale-up

of new chemical processes
Commercializing a new chemical process can be as simple as installing one or
more homogenous batch reactor(s), or
as complex as designing a fully integrated
chemical complex requiring one or more
heterogeneous reaction steps processing
gas, liquid and/or solids, with other units
required to prepare feeds, recover products/byproducts and recycle streams.
The latter is focused on here, with further
clarification that there are always exceptions to the rules.
Typically, process scale-up evolves
from lab scale to pilot, demo and commercial (FIG. 1). The lab scale is usually limited
to studying the reactor and catalyst performance. The pilot plant should be a scaleddown version of the commercial process
configuration to the greatest extent feasible. The pilot is used to confirm/expand
reactor and catalyst performance data and
to test the balance of plant concepts. The
demo stage is usually used when large
quantities of product are needed for performance testing by end users.
Know the reaction chemistry. The
reaction chemistry must be well-advanced at the lab scale. However, having
a developed idea of the range of selectivity, yield and potential byproducts may
be sufficient to proceed to the next step,
such as piloting, where these items can
be further solidified.
Often, the right group of people with
varied backgrounds can brainstorm
and produce engineering solutions to
mitigate this risk. Every effort should be
made to obtain data under conditions anticipated for the commercial unite.g.,
pressure, temperature and gas/solid residence time.
A common mistake is to use lowpressure units to study the chemistry of a

high-pressure process. This decision may
transpire either because the reactor cost
is lower, or because the low-pressure unit
already exists. Note that tests in a lab require personnel and a host of equipment
and instruments, of which the reactor is
only one cost component. Therefore, the
lifecycle savings from using a low-pressure
reactor is a small fraction of the total cost
of the program.
What is the drawback of using a lowpressure unit? In one example, a partial
oxidation reaction converts a hydrocarbon
to an oxygenated main product containing
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, and byproducts consisting of water and carbon oxides.
Extensive tests were conducted in a readyto-use low-pressure unit. Concerns about
catalyst deactivation in the presence of high
partial pressure of the hydrocarbon feed
were addressed by raising the concentration of the hydrocarbon in the feed, effectively reducing the partial pressure of other
species. No deactivation was noticed, and
very high yields were obtained. A larger
unit was built and operated at actual conditions, with significantly lower yields and
measurable catalyst deactivation. These results were due to several factors:
Yield of this partial oxidation
reaction decreased as pressure
was raised.
Reducing the partial pressure
of the other reaction species
resulted in easier desorption
of these species in the lab unit,
making catalyst sites more readily
available for the main reaction
path. Under actual pressure,
it was more difficult for these
other species to desorb, resulting

in both reduced yield and more
rapid catalyst deactivation.
Such oversights are far more common
than published, occurring even within
R&D at major corporations.
Knowing the catalyst. By the time the
process is commercialized, the catalyst
formulation, shape, size distribution, porosity, attrition properties, deactivation
rate, and (if required) reactivation method
and rate, must be known. But what about
the mid-step involving pilot or demo
units? Does everything about the catalyst
need to be known to design these units?
The answer is: sometimes, no. Pilot and
demo plants can be designed to test catalyst formulations that are vastly different
with respect to activity and size.
For example, a new process used catalyst circulation between a reaction zone
and a regeneration zone, similar to that
practiced in refinery fluid catalytic cracking units (FCCUs). Several formulations
of catalyst were being developed with a
wide range of reactivity and attrition properties. It was estimated that the time span
needed to develop a final catalyst formulation was approximately the same as that
needed to design and build a larger unit.
Rather than waiting for the catalyst
formulation to be finalized, the project
to design a larger unit was undertaken.
The challenge was posed to design a
flexible unit to handle a range of catalyst
formulations with low to high activities,
resulting in the approximate concurrent
operating ranges:
2:1 turndown in operating pressure
3:1 turndown in reactor gas
residence
Process Control and Instrumentation

4:1 turndown in solid circulation
2:1 turndown in auxiliary vessel
solid holdup
2:1 turndown in regenerator
solid holdup.
Readers familiar with FCCU design
and operation know that these are challenging requirements; however, they were
successfully met. The solutions increased
the pilot plants cost somewhat, but they
also measurably reduced time to market.
A different pilot plant project was
designed to operate with both fine and
coarse catalysts, while research proceeded
in parallel to determine which option to
follow. Readers familiar with fluidization
know that this is not an easy design.
One of the key mistakes made in the
early stages of development is that the
rapid replacement of catalyst can mask potential long-term catalyst deactivation. Another is limited run length (i.e., not operating continuously). Run length is especially
critical when chain reactions can result in
molecular growth that causes vaporizable
products to turn into non-vaporizing highboiling-point compounds, or when material deposition can result in size growth.
Stepwise vs. scale-up/scale-down
commercialization. Two extreme ap-
proaches exist in taking a process from the

laboratory to the commercial stage. Both
are practiced, and both can lead to success.
In the stepwise process, only the
scale at hand is considered. For example,
imagine that a 1-tpd plant is built and
operated, followed by a 10-tpd unit and
finally a 100-tpd commercial unit. No effort is made to think about the next step
at each stage. Startup companies that rely
heavily on government funding often use
this model due to funding limitations imposed by these organizations.
In a simplistic way, with the scale-up/
scale-down approaches, the commercial
scale is always being examined. A concept plant for the commercial unit is designed to evaluate the kinds of challenges that scale may impose on engineering
and design. The commercial unit is then
scaled down, and the lab unit is scaled
up. This approach, when performed
by experienced personnel, will quickly
identify ways in which scale will impact
design, what elements can and cannot be
piloted in a practical manner, and what
elements must be addressed using other
methods, such as cold-model testing.
The authors experience suggests that

this approach can reduce time to market
by months or even years.
A number of actual examples of
potential drawbacks to the stepwise
approach exist:
A 12-in.-inside-diameter (ID)
moving-bed waste-conversion
reactor using oxygen or enriched
air was piloted successfully. The
same concept on a 10-ft-ID
commercial-scale (roughly 100:1
capacity scale) may pose a serious
heat removal challenge from the
central section of the reactor,
possibly requiring a completely
different design and raising
questions about the applicability
of data collected on the smaller
scale to date to the larger scale
(yield, selectivity, etc.) (TABLE 1).
The technology developer can
opt to use multiple trains to keep
reactor size small in the commercial
plant, but this carries a negative
economic impact that will not be
faced until the commercial design
stage is reached.
Gasification, combustion and
many other processes produce
solid byproducts (slag, clinkers,
spent solids, etc.) that require
gravity removal from the reaction
zone. In a small unit, a few lb are
removed daily and often dropped
into a 50-gal container that is sealed
on top and purged with nitrogen.
The container is then emptied
under safe procedures on a regular
basis. Pressure letdown and heat
dissipation of material removed
occurs in the oversized container.
On a commercial scale, the solids
removal may be thousands of lb/hr,
requiring a large train of equipment
Start
to cool, depressurize and inert the

material at a significant cost. Often,
this added equipment also raises
the elevation of the reactor, adding
more cost due to a taller structure,
increased pipe run length and other
elements. These modifications
pose a significant negative impact
on process economics that will not
be identified until the commercial
design is started, possibly putting
the project in jeopardy.
Startup and shutdown operations
make up another variable with
potentially significant negative
economic impacts, and must be
studied at the pilot scale. In the
lab, an inert gas is passed through
a temperature-controlled heater to
either heat or cool the reactor. This
once-through approach is infeasible
on commercial scale, often requiring
the addition of a dedicated recycle
compressor loop and associated
equipment, with negative economic
impacts on the process.
Sequential vs. parallel engineering.
Ideally, all of the information needed to
commit to a pilot plant, demo plant or
commercial plant is known when the decision is made. Sometimes, this is not the
case. Some part(s) of the process are not as
well defined. However, pressures caused
by the markets window of opportunity,
fund shortages or other factors make it
necessary to commit to the start of design.
The risk associated with this situation
can be mitigated when prior art can be relied upon to develop a design. More than
one solution is often feasible, and each solution must be developed, cost-estimated,
technically assessed and risk-ranked. The
most common approach is to rank all options based on a team assessment after
R&D stage
Pilot plant stage
Demo plant stage
3 to 120 months
9 to 36 months
24 to 48 months
Commercial
plant
FIG. 1. Typical step sequence in scale-up. Note: Pilot and/or demo stages are optional.
TABLE 1. Typical range of reactor parameters as a function of scale

Scale
Lab
Pilot
Demo
Commercial
Inside diameter, in.
<3
3 to 14
6 to 36
> 24
Weight rate, lb/hr
<30
10 to 1,000
400 to 2,000
> 1,500

one or more brainstorming sessions, and
then develop and cost out the first (or
best team-assessed) option.
The evaluation is ended if the first option is found to be technically and economically feasible. If it is not, then the
next option is assessed, and so on. This
process can be termed sequential engineering. The risk with the sequential
approach is extended time. In parallel
engineering, more than one option is examined concurrently, cost-estimated and
technically assessed. The risk with the
parallel approach is waste of labor if the
first option turns out to be acceptable.
It is important to remember that these
activities are being performed while a task
force of tens to hundreds of engineers and
designers are spending money developing design for other parts of the process.
The author favors the parallel approach,
as it limits the time to solution at a limited increase in engineering cost. Process
engineers with front-end engineering and
design (FEED) experience are comfortable with either approach. Unfortunately,
other engineering disciplines and project
management often favor the sequential
approach, as they are asked to focus on
one task at a time.
Backup option. Engineers are often
faced with choosing between multiple

options, none of which can be ruled out.
As an example, multiple vendors may
have equipment components that appear
to be technically suitable for a certain
step in the process. Unfortunately, very
large quantities of material are needed
to test each unit on a continuous basis
under actual conditions, which requires
commitment to a large-capacity, expensive demo plant.
This cost may not be justifiable if the
only reason is to produce the required
quantity of material for such a test. In this
situation, it is feasible to select the top
two options, design the unit based on the
first, and allow flexibility in the design to
replace the system with the second option. Obviously, this process will require a
shutdown and added costs. A team of experts and engineers are used to select the
top two options.
Total system design. New chemical
processes often involve new reactor concepts. Unfortunately, the reactor often
becomes the sole focus of research, with
little thought given to the balance of the

plant. This can be detrimental to the design. Consider the common scenario of
the startup company with limited cash
struggling to fix the back end of its inadequately designed pilot unit so that it can
operate the new reactor concept, prove
the concept and raise more funds. Meanwhile, a crew of operators are sitting idle,
burning cash.
The lesson here is that a successful chemical facility requires a robust
design across all sections. The author
recommends using the total system design approach, selecting contractor(s)/
consultant(s) with proven applicable experience to at least provide the process
design package, and not using low cost
as the sole criteria for the selection of consulting/engineering firms for design.
Cost growth. It is common to see an-
nouncements by startups on how a new

route will reduce the production cost
of an existing process, usually by a good
margin, and often from a reduction in
installed plant cost. Variable costs associated with chemical processes such as raw
materials, utilities, operations, maintenance, waste disposal and product sales
are generally easy to estimate and with a
high level of accuracy, based on process
yield and selectivity.
Capital costs are much more difficult
to assess. Most startups do not have the
funding resources to hire an engineering
firm for this purpose, and so they must
rely on either public domain information
or cost-estimating software. Public domain information issued by government
entities should be used with caution. This
information is usually acceptable if used to
rank different schemes. However, it should
not be used to estimate production and/or
plant costs, nor for comparing new process
data with non-governmental published
data for existing commercial plants run by
competitors. The result often presents an
unrealistically favorable comparison.
Cost-estimating software programs
can be useful and are generally reasonably accurate; however, they can produce
misleading data. Often, it is unclear what
pieces of information may require manual
adjustment to obtain a realistic output.
Engineering contracting firms rely heavily on these tools for initial cost estimates,
but they also invest considerable effort to
continuously benchmark their estimates
against actual purchases to identify where

manual adjustments may be needed.
These two factors can often lead to
cost growth for the commercial plant between early-stage estimates and actual estimates obtained during the design phase
by contractors, eliminating most, if not
all, of the perceived economic benefit of
the new process.
The other cost growth comes from incorrect early-stage design. Omissions may
result in missed equipment, as discussed
in some of the aforementioned examples.
Continuous engineering. Engineering
should be part of the commercialization

effort; this is the essence of the scale-up/
scale-down approach. The engineer(s)
leading this effort must have the necessary experience and skills to conceptualize the entire plant with a high level of
realism, starting from day one, with occasional reassessments to follow. Good
engineers can identify gaps in research
knowledge early on and ask R&D to
obtain the solutions before the gaps
become a critical path to pilot or commercial design efforts. If early efforts
show viable economics, then it is highly
unlikely that the final results at the commercialization stage will be different.
The converse is also true. An early negative result from engineering may not be
insurmountable if viewed as a challenge
for improvement. For example, a negative result can be turned positive with a
small increase in reactor yield, which can
then guide further research.
In another example, a major producer
invented a process to produce a certain
compound in high global demand. The
front and back ends of this new process
were fairly standard and easy to estimate.
The initial concept for the reactor made
the process economically unattractive.
The consultant started with the published
market price of the product, deducted
required margins and variable costs, and
came up with a contribution to the selling
price due to depreciation of capital. The
maximum permissible total plant cost
was estimated from these calculations.
Deducting the known cost of the balance of the plant yielded the required imputed cost for the reactor. The clients
team then worked with alternate concepts
to see if the imputed cost was achievable.
The technology is now in the advanced
stages of demonstration on a large scale,
Process Control
with a reactor concept quite different
from the initial one.
Fast-tracking new technology. A final
example shows how experience coupled

with a capable and focused team effort
can yield fantastic results with new technology development.
A large producer discovered that a
catalyst used in another application could
be used to address new global regulations on a high-demand product, with
good results. Many producers had already
committed to using alternates in meeting
these new regulations. This producer had
a short window of opportunity to demonstrate its process for use in its own facilities and for possible license to others.
A small amount of data was obtained in
the lab, providing a feasible range of operation, including pressure range and weight
hourly space velocity (WHSV), or lb/hr
of feed per lb of catalyst. The producer assembled a large research group, selected an
engineering firm and asked for a plant to
be started within what may have been considered an unrealistically short time frame.
Weekly meetings were held between
research and engineering. Research updated engineering on the new discoveries
made that required tweaks to the initial
design concepts. Engineering advised
research on how it planned to design sections of the plant lacking data, and asked
research to confirm the acceptability (but
not necessarily the optimality) of the design by testing, with target dates set for
their responses. Certain design aspects
were challenging to address in the lab, and
were resolved using cold model testing.
The plant was ultimately built within
the allocated time frame and proved
successful. It also yielded many global
licensees.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to thank R. Sandel and Steve
Fusselman for their valuable inputs.
BEHZAD JAZAYERI has more than 20 years of
experience in process engineering, with a focus on
the engineering of new chemical technologies to
commercial success. He has designed many pilot
plants and six first commercial plants, and has
performed numerous techno-economic assessments
of existing and emerging process technologies.
Mr. Jazayeri is an expert in the design of fluidized
bed and fluid-solid systems and has extensive
background in gasification, combustion,
oxycombustion, bioconversion, alternative
energy, gas-to-liquids, chemicals, petrochemicals
and solar-grade polysilicon. He has authored four
publications and coauthored one patent.
From here, you see

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In association with
Process Control
and Instrumentation
M. A. ALS, Inprocess Technology and
Consulting Group, Barcelona, Spain
Use dynamic simulation to maximize

plant operating performance
The oil and gas industry has witnessed seismic downward shifts in barrel
prices and uplifts in market competitiveness. Owner-operators are challenged
to squeeze more from their operations,
and engineering, procurement and construction companies (EPCs) are under
increased pressure to reduce project risk
and achieve better alignment with owneroperators to ensure effective management
of their clients capital.
Companies must maximize operating
performance and produce quality products
faster. The use of rigorous dynamic simulation helps achieve these objectives. Analyzing operating scenarios using dynamic
process modeling gives owner-operators
confidence that new plants will start up
safely, meet budgets and perform to plan.
Dynamic simulation is vital to successful
plant design and operation. Designs can
be improved by incorporating a systems
dynamic response to changes within the
design model. To accommodate and study
scenarios like shutdowns and emergency
situations, dynamic process simulation of
the real world delivers effective results.
to confirm a safe and efficient design. The

net result to a project is significant time
and cost savings.
The pillars of an effective use of steadystate and dynamic simulation to support
engineering design best practices are based
on good communication, efficient knowledge transfer and comprehensive support
training. Tailoring training programs to
maximize process simulation knowledge
helps impart a better understanding of the
plant lifecycle. It also maximizes project
return on investment (ROI).
Benefits of dynamic simulation. Unlike steady-state simulation, dynamic models factor time, which helps model complex
transient behavior (i.e., changes of temperature, pressure, etc.). This type of simulation reproduces real behaviors of a process
plant, providing values that correspond to
process variables at a given time. These
simulations possess an interactive interface to help the engineer understand the
demands of working inside an actual plant.
The main benefit of dynamic simulation is the deeper knowledge of the process it provides as a result of improvements in system control design, plant
operations and staff training. It enables
the verification of the appropriate size
of equipment used to determine design
constraints covering the plants normal
operation. As the plant undergoes many
modifications during its lifetime, dynamic simulation provides a means of continuous assessment of the operability of the
proposed design solution.
Better design decisions through detailed analysis enable engineers to make
necessary trade-offs and optimize the
design. Dynamic simulation makes it
possible to simulate a realistic understanding and behavior of the plant, and
helps improve decision support and
safety. In summary, adopting dynamic
simulation ensures:
Reduced project risk, with
increased cost accuracy
Improved plant operability
Gaining reputation. In both the refin-
ing and upstream oil and gas sectors, lost

production overshadows installation
costs, so it is vital for plant designs to be
robust to minimize downtime. Dynamic
simulation can show transient responses
that are not determined during traditional
steady-state design methods, providing
engineers with a deeper understanding of
plant operational behavior, which can be
crucial in safety-related equipment sizing.
Process simulation knowledge providers
can conduct dynamic simulation studies
FIG. 1. Dynamic simulation flowsheet.


Best practice. In a recent case study,
models helped the client across different

phases of the facilitys lifecycles. In phase
one, during which an advanced simulation platform1 was used, firstprinciple models (steady-state
Effective use of steady-state and dynamic simulation supports
and dynamic) provided a sigengineering design best practice, good communication, efficient
nificantly better understanding
of the process dynamics and
knowledge transfer and comprehensive support training.
interactions. These models
also enabled the process simu Troubleshooting for process upsets based in Central America. The engineers lation engineers to evaluate and fine-tune
Insight for startup and first plant
were asked to verify and perform a feasi- strategies before implementation. Using
operation before actual plant
bility study on engineering design mod- dynamic simulation early in the design
commissioning
els supplied by an international EPC. phase allowed the engineers to identify
Safer designs and identification
Verification of the EPCs design formed important operability and control issues,
of potentially undersized
the projects first phase. The second along with equipment sizing adjustments,
equipment (pumps, compressors,
phase involved verification of the multi- which led to design improvements.
In the second phase, the simulation
valves, etc.) before commissioning
phase pipeline behavior, assessing plant
and first startup
startup and support of plant operability platform integrated all relevant aspects of
plant operation into one simulation envi Assessment of existing facilities to
to reach production targets.
check if they can accommodate new
The project involved analysis of all ronment, reducing the time required for
production volumes
operating variables, including safety what-if studies (FIG. 1). During startup
Comprehensive learning resources
analysis, process dynamics and unit in- operations, a holistic simulation model
for improved workforce expertise.
teractions. The application of simulation was used that incorporated both the
pipelines and the structure of the platform (topside). The model was able to
determine the correct sequence of steps
for starting up the initial wells and reaching the early production target rate.
The design of pipeline systems requires complex considerations, such as
the pipeline flow path, terrain profiles,
expected volumes to be received and
delivered, and the physical properties
of products. The dynamic simulation
of pipelines with updated compositions
from the wells conveyed crucial information about the development of liquid
holdup profiles, as well as pressure and
temperature data. This information was
used to determine predicted hydrate formation risk and slug catcher sizes. The
FIG. 2. Process trainer for operators.
dynamic modeling results also helped
prevent interruptions to the plant and
avoided reduced profits.
Substantial savings were achieved on
the project through improved and faster
startup procedures. The over-design of
relief systems was avoided, which yielded
capital cost savings. The topside model
was tuned and calibrated by reconciling
discrepancies with plant data. This was
achieved by adjusting certain values and
parameters to ensure that the model corresponded to actual unit operation before
proceeding with further development.
The availability of the upgraded model helped the client troubleshoot operFIG. 3. Dynamic simulation lifecycle.
ability issues and reach targets earlier.
Reduced number of plant
shutdowns with an improved
control narrative
process simulation engineers provided

consultation to a large owner-operator

In addition, using a common platform
facilitated effective communication between all stakeholders, which was essential for knowledge transfer. Collaboration
and information-sharing became the lifeblood for determining accurate outcomes
and analyzing plant behavior.
The process simulation engineering
company also delivered a process trainer
for the plant (FIG. 2). This updated dynamic model contains real plant data. It
also features a user-friendly interface that
is identical to the plant human-machine
interface. The trainer facilitates the execution of preprogramed scenarios of different operational conditions to troubleshoot detected problems.
In the early field production phase,
this operational support yielded a database of operational cases that were
cumulative during the plant lifecycle.
Consequently, newly hired engineers and
operators are able to learn how the plant
operates by following the simulation cases. This support also helps minimize the
impact of personnel turnover on plant
operability and safety (FIG. 3).
Confidence in operational outcomes. An effective design and control
strategy requires a comprehensive understanding of the process to successfully avoid unplanned downtime. The
use of cutting-edge software is essential
to support engineers through key stages
of a project and assist with knowledge,
collaboration and learning.
Process simulation experts can now
quickly create robust models to validate
EPC design and increase confidence that
projects will run on time and to standard, and be easily maintained, resulting
in optimized operations. Dynamic plant
models allow companies to achieve faster
and safer plant startups while maximizing productivity.
Dynamic simulation avoids disruptions and minimizes the impacts of unnecessary costs on real plant operations.
For example, simulation models help
owner-operators ensure that production
goals are achieved according to already
signed contracts, thereby avoiding penalties for not meeting agreed production
or product quality.
Similarly, owner-operators can plan

for suboptimal plant operating points,
thereby preventing full plant shutdowns
and keeping the plant in operation. Two
examples of suboptimal operation are a
partial power failure in a remote location
and unstable power supply.
Using dynamic simulation, owneroperators and EPCs can enjoy tangible
benefits that deliver a realistic understanding of plant behavior and, ultimately, yield significant savings.
1
NOTE
AspenTechs Aspen HYSYS simulation platform.
MIQUEL ANGEL ALS is the services

manager at Inprocess. He has more
than 20 years of experience in the
modeling of oil and gas and
chemical processes, and in the
delivering of educational training
programs for process simulation.
Before joining Inprocess in 2007, Dr. Als worked at
AspenTech, where he led simulation projects for the
support and teaching of process simulation users.
Dr. Als holds a PhD in chemical engineering from
the Ramon Llull University of Barcelona. He also
lectured on reaction engineering and process
simulation courses at the university from 1997 to 2001.
INDIA
1719 April 2017, Taj Palace Hotel, New Delhi
IRPC India Call for Abstracts is Now Open

Join us for IRPC India hosted by Indian Oil and supported by Petrofed.
For eight years, IRPC has been the leading downstream technology event. In 2017, IRPC Europe and
IRPC Americas join IRPC India to provide refining and petrochemical professionals from around the
globe, events that highlight technical innovation, share regional market insights and provide exceptional opportunities to network with the industrys finest.
Gulf Publishing Company and Hydrocarbon Processing invite you to take part in this market-leading
event by submitting an abstract for consideration. Suggested topics and areas of interest for IRPC
India 2017 include:
Alternative Feed Stock Fuels
Olefin and Aromatic Developments
Clean Fuels/Renewables
Water treatment/Management
Catalyst Developments
FCC Strategies
Heavy-Oil Conversion
Best Practices
Emerging Technologies
Optimization and Profitability
Bottom of the Barrel Upgrading
Hosted by:
Supported by:
The call for abstracts closes 1 December.
For a complete list of abstract topics, please visit HPIRPC.com/India
BOB ANDREW, TECHNICAL EDITOR

Bob.Andrew@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Innovations
Condition-based
prognostics for reliability
availability, and it enables maintenance

planners to make better decisions.
Where large machines are in use

and the overall processes depend on a
smoothly functioning plant, companies
often rely on fixed maintenance schedules and diagnostic tools. However, the
field of predictive analytics is gaining
in relevance, as it sends early warning
signals and can anticipate malfunctions
before they occur. Predictive analytics
provide diagnostic information about the
condition of the plant and clues for the
root cause analysis.
However, predictive analytic approaches remain vague about the future.
Cassantec AG eliminates this vagueness
by calculating explicit forecasts and
probabilities when malfunctions will
occur. The Cassantec Prognostics algorithm (FIG. 1) helps businesses adjust
maintenance management to the needs
of the plant. It does so by reinterpreting the collected data so that the time
windows for possible malfunctions are
known well in advance. A change in the
maintenance strategy is reflected in lower maintenance costs and higher system
Refinery example. The average maintenance costs for a 200-Mbpd oil refinery
are approximately $37 MM. By using
Cassantec Prognostics, a cost reduction
of up to $2 MM is possible. The operator can save up to $1 MM more during
regular plant turnarounds. A reduction in downtime of around 30% can be
achieved, and plant availability can be
improved. In these ways, companies reduce additional operating costs.
Expectations get closer to reality.
The results show that use of the prognostic
approach makes it possible to reduce costs
by an average of up to 30%. The methodology is particularly suitable for plants
and machinery with components that are
constantly in operation and show signs of
wear and tear over time. Both increased
plant availability and better maintenance
measures provide for long-term cost savings in overall operations management.
Bundling of maintenance interventions and avoiding unnecessary maintenance work provide for further reductions
Condition data
Current and historical
Pro
his
tor
ica
l
Onsite experience
Alarm
function
Proprietary
computational
model
Total water reuse

in refining
GE announced that Federated CoOperatives Ltd.s Co-op Refinery Complex (CRC) in Regina, Saskatchewan,
Canada is installing GEs advanced water
recycling technology for a wastewater
improvement project. The project will
enable the refinery to clean 100% of its
wastewater onsite. Once fully operationally, CRC will be the only refinery in
North America to recycle all wastewater
for steam production. Steam is used for
heating, hydrogen production, equipment power and cooling towers.
Several years ago, the refinery expanded its operations to produce an additional
30 Mbpd, taking the facilitys total capacity to 130 Mbpd, which increased its water usage. CRCs water source is a blend of
well water and city water, and restrictions
on water use required CRC to find a new
source of water.
GE offered a solution combining
ZeeWeed (FIG. 2) membrane bioreactor
(MBR) technology and a high-efficiency
reverse osmosis (HERO) system to recycle and reuse 2 MMgal/d of wastewater.
In addition to the water reuse solution,
GE provides the refinery with wastewater
Prognostic reports
Generation
Aggregation
nd
ata
ta
sd
ren
ces
Cur
rm n
Ala nctio
fu
in operating costs. In addition, companies

acquire a tool that protects them from
making critical decisions based on guesswork or gut feeling.
Availability forecasts
Reference data
Ve
nd
o
r sp
ecs
Commercial
FIG. 1. Cassantec Prognostics helps businesses adjust maintenance management to plant needs.
FIG. 2. The wastewater recycling solution

combines a membrane bioreactor and a
high-efficiency reverse osmosis system.
Innovations
specialty chemicals and monitoring solutions to provide system optimization.
After commissioning, the refinery will
reduce its use of freshwater by 28% on an
annual basis, which is the equivalent of
approximately 3,100 households in Regina. By recycling 100% of its wastewater
onsite, CRC will significantly decrease
volatile organic compound emissions
from wastewater ponds and reduce associated nuisance odors. The wastewater
improvement project is expected to be
fully operational by autumn 2016.
Passively cooled
walk-in shelter
Intertec has developed an innovative
approach to housing remote instrumentation and communications equipment
in harsh environments, in the form of a
passively cooled walk-in shelter (FIG. 3).
The shelter can reduce the problems of
installing equipment in remote locations
where reliable power is unavailable, and
where dust and sand in the atmosphere
can make it difficult to cool electronics
equipment using conventional air conditioning systems.
Another major element of the shelters performance is its construction from
glass-reinforced polyester (GRP) panels employing a composite sandwich
construction to provide a high degree of
insulation, plus surface protection that
can survive the extreme challenges of the
Middle East climate and environment.
These challenges include high levels of
ultraviolet rays, dust and sand abrasion.
GRP is an inherently inert material that is
virtually immune to corrosion and atmospheric pollutants. It is also resistant to a
wide range of petrochemical media.
Intertecs shelter employs an efficient
passive cooling system that exploits the
energy storage capacity of water, which
circulates by natural convection. This passive, unpowered system can be boosted
by a small, externally mounted electrical
cooler driven by solar panels that optimize
performance on hot sunny days.
The high levels of insulation of Intertecs shelters can substantially reduce the
total cooling power required compared
with insulated steel shelters, and provide
stable operating environments for sensitive equipment, such as analyzers. Intertecs composite GRP sandwich panels
include thick polyurethane insulation layers, which are bonded inside GRP sheets.
This style of fabrication and assembly
eliminates the thermal shortcuts between the shelter interior and the exterior
that can result from the fixings that are often used with traditional insulated metal
constructions. Multi-function composite
material ensures that internal walls are
smooth and stable, making it simple to
mount equipment.
ing process. Using Stanhope-Setas latest

technology, a test typically takes less than
2 min. to perform, requiring just 2 ml of
test sample. For easy record-keeping, the
instrument has a 1-GB memory that stores
up to 100,000 test results.
The new Setaflash instruments are designed to provide users with a cost-effective and simple way to perform flash point
tests in-house, avoiding the expense and
delay of outsourcing this service.
Small-sample volume
flash point testing
Expanded hydrotreating
catalysts portfolio
Flash point is an important parameter

in fuel specifications. Testing supports
check for quality and specification compliance, safety and transport regulations,
batch consistency and contamination.
Typically, tests are made at refineries, terminals, storage and distribution facilities,
and test labs. Storage, transport and disposal charges are based on the flammability of the product; hazard classification is a
legal requirement to warn of potential risk
and to ensure that correct handling precautions are taken. Changes in flash point
can also indicate that a sample may have
been contaminated or adulterated.
The new range of Setaflash Series 3 instruments (FIG. 4) make flash point testing
possible for even those with minimum operator experience to quickly and reliably
perform. Compact and ruggedly designed,
the instruments are suitable for laboratory
or portable tests and ideal for use where
space is limited. Only a small amount of
sample is required to perform the test, reducing the cost and waste per test.
The new instrument features a simple
user interface with color digital display
and touchscreen icons that guide the
operator through a straightforward test-
Honeywell UOP has introduced an

expanded portfolio of new hydrotreating
catalysts used to remove impurities and
contaminants from petroleum and other
refining feedstocks to produce cleanerburning gasoline and diesel that meets
new global emissions regulations.
The addition of a range of hydrotreating catalysts expands Honeywell UOPs
line of catalysts, which are used to produce
transportation fuels and petrochemicals.
Hydrotreating is a critical step in the
refining process, where hydrogen and
proprietary catalysts are used to pretreat
petroleum and other products to remove
sulfur, nitrogen, metals and other contaminants before conversion into transportation fuels. Hydrotreating helps produce cleaner-burning gasoline and diesel
to meet increasingly stringent global fuel
regulations, including Euro 5, China 5,
and Bharat Stage 6all of which specify sulfur content of less than 10 ppm in
transportation fuels.
Honeywell UOPs new offerings include more than two dozen hydrotreating
FIG. 3. The passively cooled walk-in shelter

reduces the problems of installing equipment
in remote locations with harsh climates
and environments.
FIG. 4. The new instrument line makes flash

point testing quick and reliable.
Innovations
Dissolved gas analysis
for transformers
FIG. 5. Advanced dissolved gas analysis

methods are used for assessing large power
transformers.
FIG. 6. The GARO AB4000R liquid ring

compressor is designed for high pressure and
performance requirements.
catalysts for applications, including hydrocracking and fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
pretreat, diesel and kerosine hydrotreating
and coker naphtha hydrotreating.
The new catalysts will be produced at
Honeywell UOPs production facility in
Shreveport, Louisiana, which in June inaugurated new and upgraded production
facilities to produce the catalysts. With
the introduction of the new catalysts,
Honeywell UOP is ending an alliance
with Albemarle that began in 2006 when
the two companies partnered to provide
hydroprocessing technologies. While the
alliance was a success for both companies,
Honeywell UOP will now apply its expertise in catalytic chemistry to compete
across a wide range of hydroprocessing
technologies, while completing the work
started with Albemarle on projects initiated under the alliance.
Advanced dissolved gas analysis

(DGA) methods are commonly used
for assessing large power transformers
(FIG. 5) in the international power generation and transmission sector. However,
there is still room for improvement to
their reliability and cost-effectiveness.
Vaisala, a company working in environmental and industrial measurement,
has highlighted that false alarms from
onsite DGA systems and errors during
routine oil inspections still pose challenges for asset owners. Utilities can tackle
these issues with solid real-time condition monitoring, which leads to reduced
maintenance costs and improved grid reliability and financial performance.
Reducing the probability of error. The
financial severity of transformer failure is

well-known to the industry. An extensive
service costs more than $100 M, while a
replacement transformer can cost up to
$4 MM. Associated loss of production
can further increase these figures. As a
result, online DGA condition monitoring is becoming standard practice for aging transformer fleets. It enables proactive
diagnosis and mitigation of developing
faults before they lead to costly downtime. However, streamlining monitoring
procedures and reducing the probability
of errors is highly important.
False alarms from onsite DGA monitors disrupt utilities maintenance schedules and generate unforeseen costs. In
addition, the need to validate onsite data
via regular laboratory sampling increases
the complexity and duration of the testing process. Combined, these factors
highlight a growing requirement for a
dependable DGA monitor that not only
provides 24-hr, real-time, online access to
critical performance data, but also eliminates false alarms and cuts potential error. Vaisalas Optimus DGA monitor for
transformers has been designed to fulfill
this requirement.
Dependable real-time monitoring.

The robust plug-and-play Optimus DGA
monitor can be installed in less than 2 hr,
and uses partial vacuum gas extraction to
provide a fully representative sample of
all dissolved gases in the transformer oil.
Readings taken by the built-in infrared
sensor are unaffected by oil temperature,

pressure or type, and the system regularly
auto-calibrates to provide consistent and
dependable data. This data is available via
an online interface, allowing continuous,
reliable, real-time analysis of transformer
performance without false alarms.
Improved efficiency
liquid ring compressor
GARO has expanded its two-stage
compressor series with the debut of
the AB4000R liquid ring compressor,
which features a new frame. The GARO
AB4000R offers up to 7% higher efficiency over competing liquid ring compressors in this range, and delivers proven
reliability and performance.
The GARO AB4000R liquid ring
compressor operates at a pressure of up
to 12.5 bar abs (160 psig) and is specifically designed for the higher pressures
and performance requirements of oil, gas
and chemical process applications. These
applications include flare gas recovery,
vapor recovery units, corrosive gas handling (e.g., vinyl chloride monomer and
chlorine) and H2S gas sweetening.
Designed for severe service, the rugged
construction and easy-to-service design
of the GARO AB4000R liquid ring compressor is said to minimize maintenance
and reduce downtime for service and
repair. Performance and features of the
AB4000R liquid ring compressor include:
Speed: 740 rpm900 rpm
Pressure: 4.5 bar abs12.5 bar abs
(50 psig160 psig)
Capacity: 2,700 m3/hr4,000 m3/
hr (1,500 cfm to 2,300 cfm)
High-efficiency performance
Robust construction designed
for severe service
Simple design allowing
for low maintenance and
reduced downtime
Available in carbon steel,
low-temperature carbon steel,
austenitic stainless steel 316
(CF3M) and duplex stainless
steel; or, on request, alloy 825
titanium and other materials
Suitable for oil splash, pure
oil mist, purge oil mist,
oil circulation and air-oil
forced lubrication.
MARKETPLACE / Gerry.Mayer@GulfPub.com / +1 (972) 816-3534
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www.bexarenergy.comEmail: info@bexarenergy.com
The Operators Role in

Achieving Equipment
Reliability Series
Presented by Heinz Bloch
Part 1: Introduction and Overview,
and why there is no reliability
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Part 2: Common Misunderstandings
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Part 3: Avoiding Machinery Failures
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GulfPub.com / +1 713-520-4426
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+1.201.343.8983 main@masterbond.com
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Visit HydrocarbonProcessing.com for daily news,

trends and FREE e-newsletters.
ADVERTISER INDEX / HydrocarbonProcessing.com

The first number after the company name is the page on which an advertisement appears. The second number is the Reader Service Number. There are two ways readers can obtain product and service information:
go to www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS, follow the instructions on the screen, and your request will be forwarded for immediate action, or go online to the advertiser's website listed below.
Company
Page
RS#
Website
ABB Inc.............................................................. 37
(53)
(73)
www.info.hotims.com/61392-73
ARCA Regler GmbH.............................................43
(156)
Axens .............................................................. 104
(51)
Bluebeam Software Inc....................................... 14

Burckhardt Compression AG ..................................6
(97)
CB&I ..............................................................S60
(58)
Dyna-Therm .......................................................13
(153)
Emerson Process Management ..............................2

Enersul .......................................................... S62
Page
RS#
Website
Ametek Process Instruments ............................... 16
Company
HP Marketplace...............................................99
HP WebcastAspentech.................................. 81
HP WebcastShell.......................................... 32
HP WebcastSimsci........................................47
HPI Market Data 2017................................... S70
SoftwareInstrucalc.......................................30
Texas Pipelines Map ........................................85
Honeywell Process Solutions .................................5
(79)
Gastech .............................................................78
Gulf Publishing Company
Construction Boxscore Database ......................28
Circulation...................................................... 77
EventsIRPC .................................................95
Linde AG ............................................................20
Maire Tecnimont SpA ..........................................29
Petrotechnics .....................................................44
(71)
(157)
(81)
(63)
Prognost Systems GmbH..................................... 91
(158)
Prosernat ...................................................... S59
(60)
Rosen Swiss AG .................................................. 33

(62)
(61)
Shell Research Ltd ..............................................26

(155)
Silcotek ..............................................................12
(152)
(84)
Spraying Systems Co .......................................... 22
(159)
ZymeFlow Decon Technology .............................. 53
OHL ............................................................... S67
(151)
Petroleum Economist Ltd ....................................92
Merichem Company............................................ 18
(78)
Paqell ...........................................................S68
Pentair ...............................................................11
Kobelco Compressors America, Inc .....................103
RS#
KBC Advanced Technologies Inc...........................49
Page
Website
Idrojet ...............................................................82
Company
(67)
(93)
This Index and procedure for securing additional information is provided as a service to Hydrocarbon Processing advertisers and a convenience to our readers. Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.
Catherine Watkins, Publisher

Phone: +1 (713) 520-4421
E-mail: Catherine.Watkins@GulfPub.com
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com
SALES OFFICESNORTH AMERICA
IL, LA, MO, OK, TX
Josh Mayer
Phone: +1 (972) 816-6745
E-mail: Josh.Mayer@GulfPub.com
AK, AL, AR, AZ, CA, CO, FL, GA, HI, IA,
ID, IN, KS, KY, MI, MN, MS, MT, ND, NE,
NM, NV, OR, SD, TN, TX, UT, WA, WI, WY,
WESTERN CANADA
Ryan Akbar
Phone: +1 (713) 520-4449
Mobile: +1 (713) 504-9695
E-mail: Ryan.Akbar@GulfPub.com
CT, DC, DE, MA, MD, ME, NC, NH, NJ, NY, OH,
PA, RI, SC, VA, VT, WV, EASTERN CANADA
Merrie Lynch
Phone: +1 (617) 357-8190,
Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943
E-mail: Merrie.Lynch@GulfPub.com
SALES OFFICESEUROPE
FRANCE, GREECE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL,
SOUTHERN BELGIUM, LUXEMBOURG,
SWITZERLAND, GERMANY, AUSTRIA, TURKEY
Hamilton Pearman
Phone: +33 608 310 575
Hamilton.Pearman@GulfPub.com
ITALY, EASTERN EUROPE

Fabio Potest
Mediapoint & Communications SRL
Phone: +39 (010) 570-4948
E-mail: Fabio.Potesta@GulfPub.com
RUSSIA/FSU
Lilia Fedotova
Anik International & Co. Ltd.
Phone: +7 (495) 628-10-333
E-mail: Lilia.Fedotova@GulfPub.com
UNITED KINGDOM/SCANDINAVIA,
NORTHERN BELGIUM, THE NETHERLANDS
Michael Brown
Phone: +44 161 440 0854
Mobile: +44 79866 34646
E-mail: Michael.Brown@GulfPub.com
SALES OFFICESOTHER AREAS
AFRICA
Tanya Mbaluli
Twiga Media Partner
Phone: +254 722 376 972
Email: Africa@GulfPub.com
CHINAHong Kong
Iris Yuen
Phone: +86 13802701367 (China)
Phone: +852 69185500 (Hong Kong)
E-mail: Iris.Yuen@GulfPub.com
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Phone: +91-22-2837 7070/71/72
Mobile: +91-98673 67374
E-mail: India@GulfPub.com
INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, SINGAPORE,

THAILAND
Peggy Thay
Publicitas Singapore Pte Ltd
Phone: +65 6836-2272
E-mail: Singapore@GulfPub.com
JAPANTokyo
Yoshinori Ikeda
Pacific Business Inc.
Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138
E-mail: Japan@GulfPub.com
KOREA
Young-Seoh Chinn
JES Media, Inc.
Phone: +82 (2) 481-3411/3
E-mail: Korea@GulfPub.com
MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA,
SOUTH AMERICA
Marco Antonio Monteiro
Mobile: +55 21 99616-4347
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CLASSIFIED SALES
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Phone: +1 (972) 816-3534
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DATA PRODUCTS
JNette Davis-Nichols
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REPRINTS
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Phone: +1 (866) 879-9144 ext. 194
E-mail: RhondaB@FosterPrinting.com
ALISSA LEETON, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR

Alissa.Leeton@GulfPub.com
Events
OCTOBER
Yokogawa Users Conference
and Exhibition, Oct. 36,
Renaissance Orlando at
SeaWorld Hotel, Orlando, Florida
www.yokogawausers
conference.com
High Horsepower (HHP)
Summit, Oct. 1113,
McCormick Place,
Chicago, Illinois
P: 888-993-0302
events@gladstein.org
www.hhpsummit.com
NAPE, Oct. 1213,
Colorado Convention Center,
Denver, Colorado
P: +1 817-847-7700
info@napeexpo.com
www.napeexpo.com
National Safety Council (NSC),
Oct. 1521, Anaheim Convention
Center, Anaheim, California
P: +1 630-285-1121
customerservice@nsc.org
www.congress.nsc.org
ACC Annual Meeting,
Oct. 1619, Moscone Center,
San Francisco, California
P: +1 202-293-4103
www.acc.com
Canadian Society of Chemical
Engineering (CSChE), Oct. 1619,
Qubec City Convention Centre,
Qubec, Qubec City
P: 418-644-4000
www.csche2016.com
Gasification and Syngas
Technologies Conference,
Oct. 1619, The Westin
Bayshore Hotel, Vancouver,
British Columbia
P: 703-503-0738
www.gasification-syngas.org
49th GOMA Symposium,
Oct. 1921, Jure Hotel,
ibenik, Croatia
P: +385 1-48-73-549
goma@goma.hr
www.fuels.goma.hr
RIO Oil & Gas 2016 Expo
and Conference, Oct. 2427,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
P: +55 21-2112-9080
eventos@ibp.org.br
www.riooilgas.com.br/en
Emerson Global Users Exchange,

Oct. 2428, Austin Convention
Center, Austin, Texas
EmersonExchange@
Emerson.com
www.emersonexchange.org/
americas/
LARTC 5th Annual Meeting,
Oct. 2527, Mexico City, Mexico
P: +44 0-20-7384-8022
Marketing@gtforum.com
www.lartc.events.gtforum.com/
NOVEMBER
Womens Global Leadership
Conference, Gulf Publishing
Company Events, Nov. 12,
Hyatt Regency Houston,
Houston, Texas
WGLconference.com
(See box for contact information)
The Abu Dhabi International
Petroleum Exhibition &
Conference (ADIPEC),
Nov. 710, Abu Dhabi
National Exhibition Centre
P: +971 0-2-6970-500
GloriaDiaz@dmgeventsme.com
www.adipec.com
Sulphur 2016 International
Conference & Exhibition,
Nov. 710, Hilton London
Metropole, London, England
P: +44 0-20-7903-2444
conferences@crugroup.com
www.crugroup.com
International Society of
Automation (ISA) Process
Control and Safety Symposium,
Nov. 711, Houston Marriott
Westchase, Houston, Texas
P: 919-549-8411
info@isa.org
www.isa.org
API 11th Annual Cybersecurity
Conference for the Oil &
Natural Gas Industry,
Nov. 910, Westin Houston
Memorial City, Houston, Texas
AFPM International
Lubricants & Waxes Meeting,
Nov. 1011, Hilton Post Oak,
Houston, Texas
P: 202-457-0480
meetings@afpm.org
www.afpm.org
AIChE Annual Meeting, Nov. 1318,

Hilton San Francisco Union Square,
San Francisco, California
P: 800-242-4363
www.aiche.org
ERTC 21st Annual Meeting,
Nov. 1416, Epic Sana Hotel,
Lisbon, Portugal
P: +971 0-55-307-3332
kay.mitchell@clarionevents.me
www.gtforum.com
API Fall Refining and Equipment
Standards Meeting, Nov. 1417,
Hyatt Regency New Orleans,
New Orleans, Louisiana
European Autumn Gas
Conference, Nov. 1517,
The Hague, Netherlands
P: +44 0-20-3772-6080
neilhoward@dmgevents.com
www.theeagc.com
Latin American Petrochemical
and Chemical Association,
Nov. 1922, Sheraton Buenos
Aires Hotel & Convention Center,
Bueno Aires, Argentina
P: +54 11-4325-0086
info@apla.com.ar
www.apla.com.ar
CIS Downstream Summit,
Nov. 2830, The Ritz-Carlton
Hotel, Vienna, Austria
P: +44 0-207-384-7980
www.cis-downstream.com
Valve World Expo & Conference,
Nov. 29Dec. 1, Fairground
Dsseldorf, Dusseldorf, Germany
P: +1 312-781-5180
info@mdna.com
www.valveworldexpo.com
DECEMBER
FEBRUARY 2017
Egypt Petroleum Show (EGYPS),
Feb. 1416, CICEC, Cairo Egypt
P: +971 0-4445-3726
clairepallen@dmgeventsme.com
www.egyptpetroleumshow.com
MARCH 2017
Corrosion 2017, Mar. 2730,
Ernest N. Morial Convention
Center, New Orleans, Louisiana
nace@conferencedirect.com
www.nacecorrosion.org
APRIL 2017
Gastech Conference
& Exhibition, April 47,
Makuhari Messe International
Convention Complex,
Tokyo, Japan
P: +44 0-203-772-6086
info@gastechevent.com
www.gastechevent.com
JUNE 2017
Global Petroleum Show,
June 1315, Stampede Park,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
P: +1 403-209-3555
jessyzhao@dmgevents.com
www.globalpetroleumshow.com
AUGUST 2017
HCSMRP 11TH Annual
Symposium, Aug. 911,
Moody Gardens, Galveston, Texas
P: 281-452-9800
CCedro@hunterbuildings.com
www.hunterbuildings.com
Center for Chemical Process

Safety (CCPS) Global Summit
on Process Safety, Dec. 45,
InterContinental Al Jubail,
Jubail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
info@mee-events.com
www.aiche.org
Hydrocarbon Processing/
Events
P: +1 713-520-4475
Melissa.Smith@GulfPub.com
EnergyEvents@GulfPub.com
Power Generation Gas

Turbine User Group, Dec. 67,
Thinktank, Birmingham
P: +44 0-207-973-1251
eventenquiries@imeche.org
www.imeche.org
American Petroleum
Institute (API)
P: +1 202-682-8195
registrar@api.org
www.api.org
MIKE RHODES, MANAGING EDITOR

Mike.Rhodes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
People
Dr. Christoph Wegner

will become president
of BASFs Information
Services and Supply
Chain Operations division,
effective December 1, 2016.
He succeeds Dr. Robert
Blackburn, who is leaving
the company. Dr. Wegner
joined BASF in 1997 as a
research scientist, and has
since served in numerous
management positions,
including his most recent
role as senior VP of BASFs
Regional Business Unit
Amines Europe.
Victoria Pope has joined
as its global events
director. After 12 years in
the events industry, where
she was responsible for
strategy and management
of global events in the
downstream oil industry
and financial markets,
Ms. Pope will oversee a
portfolio of international
events in the global
upstream, midstream and
downstream markets. She
will also work closely with
Gulfs information brands
Hydrocarbon Processing,
World Oil, Gas Processing
and Petroleum Economist.
JV Driver Group has
expanded its US
leadership team with the
transfer of Todd Robinson
from its corporate HQ
in Alberta, Canada to
the firms Gulf Coast
office in Houston, Texas.
Mr. Robinson will be
responsible for oversight
of all project operations,
including both office
and field services.
Siluria Technologies,
a provider of process
technologies for the
energy and petrochemical
industries, has appointed
Robert Trout as its CEO.
He will bring 30 years
of experience to his
new role, as well as to
his new place on Silurias
board of directors. Prior
to joining Siluria, Mr. Trout
spent his entire career
at Royal Dutch Shell in
numerous leadership roles.
Most recently, he served
as the president of
Criterion Catalysts &
Technologies, where he
was responsible for the
overall integrated strategy
related to Shells catalyst
and licensing businesses,
and was directly
accountable for the global
refining catalyst business.
aeSolutions global
functional safety
consultant Paul Gruhn
has been appointed
as co-chair to the
ISA84 Committee.
As co-chair, he will help
build consensus among
participants on ISA84
standards interpretations
and modifications, and
ensure that the committee
operates within its scope
and purpose. Mr. Gruhn
is an ISA Life Fellow,
a member of the ISA 84
standards committee
for 26 years, a developer
and instructor of ISA
courses on safety systems,
the author of two ISA
textbooks, and the
developer of the
first commercial safety
system software
modeling program.
The Measurement, Control

& Automation Association
(MCAA) has named
Teresa Sebring as its new
president. Ms. Sebring
joined MCAA in 1997 as
administrative assistant to
the president. Since 2012,
she has served as VP and
has been responsible for
MCAA operations that
include communications,
data programs and staff
oversight, marketing and
meeting/event planning,
as well as membership
development, retention
and strategic planning.
Pyry PLC is reducing its
group executive committee
from 10 to seven members.
Anja McAlister has
been appointed head
of transformation and
strategy, and will lead the
HR team on an interim
basis. Richard Pinnock is
now executive VP of the
merging energy business
group and global sales
and project management.
Juuso Pajunen has been
appointed executive VP
and CFO of Pyry PLC.
Martin Porta will assume
the role of president
and CEO, and chairman
of regional operations.
Nicholas Oksanen is
now an executive VP
and the president of the
industry business group,
while Erik Olsson serves
as an executive VP
and the president of
the management
consulting business group.
Pasi Tolppanen has been
appointed as an executive
VP and vice chairman
of Northern Europe
regional operations.
Stephen Williamson
has assumed the role of
president and chairman
of the board for T.D.
Williamson, a Tulsa,
Oklahoma-based pipeline
and services company.
He will succeed his
brother, Richard B.
Williamson, who has
retired but will maintain
the position of chairman
emeritus. Stephen
Williamson has served
on the board of directors
since 1977, and most
recently held the position
of vice chairman.
He joined T.D. Williamson
in 1971 and has served
in numerous functional
and leadership roles
during his career.
In January 1989,
Mr. Williamson purchased
and ran a Canada-based
division of T.D. Williamson
until January 2007, when
it was sold back to
T.D. Williamson. He was
active in the Canadian
Gas Association (CGA)
and served on the CGA
board for 6 years.
Frank Oehler has
been named as VP of
international sales for
JMA Wireless, where he
will oversee the sales
organizations in the
Europe/Middle East, Latin
America and Asia-Pacific
regions. Prior to joining
JMA Wireless, Mr. Oehler
held leadership positions
at the Kathrein Group
and Nokia Siemens
Networks. He brings 20
years of experience in
business development,
account management and
marketing to his new role.
Chevron Corp. has elected

Dr. Dambisa Moyo
(pictured) and
Dr. Wanda Austin to
its board of directors.
Dr. Moyos appointment
is effective October 11,
and she will serve on
the companys audit
committee. Dr. Austins
appointment is effective
December 1, and she will
serve on the companys
board nominating and
governance committee
and public policy
committee.
Dr. Moyo has been
the founder and CEO
of Mildstorm LLC since
2015. From 2001 to 2008,
she worked at Goldman
Sachs in various roles.
Prior to that, she worked
at the World Bank in
Washington, D.C. and
served as a director of
Lundin Petroleum AB
from 2009 to 2012.
She now serves on the
boards of Barclays Plc.,
Barrick Gold Corp.,
SABMiller Plc. and
Seagate Technology Plc.
Dr. Austin joined
The Aerospace Corp.
in 1979, and served in
numerous leadership
positions before becoming
president and CEO in
2008. She holds
an adjunct research
professor appointment
at USCs Viterbi School
of Engineering. Prior to
The Aerospace Corp.,
Dr. Austin worked at
Rockwell Intl. on the
technical staff. She serves
on the boards of the
Horatio Alger Assoc.,
the National Geographic
Society and the University
of Southern California.
Visit us at Power-Gen in Orlando!

December 13-15 Booth #1612
TEMPORARY RELIEF
Take a couple of aspirin
and call KOBELCO.
in the morning.
FOR THE CURE

Call KOBELCO first
and avoid pain relievers altogether.
KOBELCO has been curing gas compressor headaches for almost 100 years.
Simply stated, we know compressors. After consulting with you on the required specifications, Kobelco will
manufacture a custom engineered compressor package that can be delivered and serviced anywhere in the world.
Providing our clients with the best possible solution and service is our top priority.
Kobelco Compressors America, Inc.

Houston Office: sales@kobelco-kca.com p. (713) 655-0015 f. (713) 982-8450
Tokyo, Japan
Houston, Texas
Munich, Germany
Jurong, Singapore
Dubai, U. A. E.
Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry
GasProcessingNews.com | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2016
LNG TECHNOLOGY
Reduce LNG costs, complexity
with optimized expander system
Solutions for nearshore FLNG
GAS COMPRESSION
Compact BOG recondenser

minimizes equipment costs
PIPELINES
Optimize integrated gas

production and distribution
Special Supplement to
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL COMMENT
As of early 2016, approximately 140
metric MMtpy of LNG capacity were
under construction. Of this volume, 62
metric MMtpy are located in the US and
50 metric MMtpy are in Australia. A total
of 42 metric MMtpy of LNG capacity are
slated for commercial startup in 2016.
Nearly half of the remaining 98 metric MMtpy of LNG capacity under conADRIENNE BLUME,
struction are tentatively scheduled to
Editor
come online by the end of 2019. Approximately 448 metric MMtpy of liquefaction capacity could be
in operation by 2020, representing a 40% boost in worldwide
LNG output over a five-year period.
The large volume of LNG capacity starting up will create
an oversupply that could last until 2024. This overhang could
also weigh on final investment decisions for LNG projects
through the end of 2017.
Despite the potential for an oversupply of LNG, liquefaction terminal and FLNG vessel projects will continue to be approved and constructed. The need for LNG imports will grow
in South America, Asia and Europe, and the booms in natural
gas production in North America and the Pacific will continue
to drive export opportunities.
Successful LNG and FLNG projects will take advantage
of optimized engineering and design to lower the complexity and costs of LNG production facilities, as discussed in this
issue's Special Focus on LNG technology. For more LNG/
FLNG spending, construction, trade and technology analyses
and forecasts, see Hydrocarbon Processings HPI Market Data
2017 annual report, available in October. GP
www.GasProcessingNews.com
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EDITORIAL
Editor
Technical Editor
Editor/Associate Publisher,
9
SPECIAL FOCUS: LNG TECHNOLOGY
13
Dual-methane expander liquefaction

reduces LNG costs and complexity
G. W. Howe, G. F. Skinner and A. D. Maunder
17
Develop successful nearshore FLNG solutions

Part 2: Natural gas liquefaction
S. Mokhatab, S. Basi and P. Hunter
23
Use integrated analyses in design

and operation of LNG systems
J. Valappil, R. Kumar and J. Mumm
29
Impacts of benzene and piperazine

concentrations on LNG plant capacity
K. K. Hwang and S. Kim
PIPELINES AND INFRASTRUCTURE

35
Optimize an integrated natural gas

production and distribution network
D. Aluma, N. Thijssen, K. M. Nauta,
C. C. Pantelides and N. Shah
GAS COMPRESSION
Super-compact BOG recondensing system
minimizes equipment lifecycle costs
K. Hayashi, K. Yarimizu and S. Furutani
Adrienne Blume
Bob Andrew
Lee Nichols
41
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Angela Bathe Dietrich
Ashley Smith
David Weeks
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COLUMNS
Executive Q&A Viewpoint .................................................. 9
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Copyright 2016 by Gulf Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
No novelty is the new novelty

for NextDecades first LNG export project
ONLINE EXCLUSIVE
President/CEO
CFO
Vice President
John Royall
Pamela Harvey
Ron Higgins
Sheryl Stone
Other Gulf Publishing Company titles include: Hydrocarbon Processing, World Oil
and Petroleum Economist.
New in Gas Processing Technology

Cover Image: The winoujcie LNG import terminal in winoujcie, Poland is
operated by Polskie LNG, a subsidiary of Gaz-System. The facility, shown here
during construction in October 2015, is now in operation. winoujcie LNG
received its first commercial LNG cargo on June 17, 2016 from Qatar.
GAS PROCESSING NEWS
BOB ANDREW, Technical Editor
Cryogenic valves
for new vessels
Parker Bestobell Marine

received a major new order from
Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine
Engineering (DSME) in South Korea
to supply cryogenic valves for
three new vessels. The companys
valves will be used in the cargohandling systems, including the
main discharge line that controls
the initial flow of LNG from the
cargo tanks when pumping starts.
The three vessels are part of
the Yamal series of Arc7 ice-class
LNG carriers that will be operated
in Arctic winter conditions. Parker
Bestobell Marine previously
supplied cryogenic globe and
check valves to the first vessel
in the series, owned by Russias
Sovcomflot.
The on-deck valves will be
subjected to extreme sub-zero
temperatures, which is not an issue
with cryogenic valves designed to
operate at a temperature as low
as 196C. For added protection,
Parker Bestobell Marine will supply
covers for the headworks to
protect exposed valve parts.
Due to the arctic conditions
in which the LNG carriers will
operate, it is not possible to use
actuators, which operate via
hydraulic oil due to viscosity issues.
As a result, Parker Bestobell Marine
innovated within its valve design
to ensure that the valves could
operate efficiently using electric
actuators. The LNG carriers will be
the first to have electric actuators
fitted to globe valves.
Fifteen ships are planned to
be built in this series by DSME for
three different owners: Mitsui O.S.K
Lines (Japan), Teekay (Canada)
and Dynagas (Greece). The ships
are designed specifically for the
LNG Yamal project in Russian
Siberia. The 15 Arc7 ice-class gas
carriers will operate in Arctic
conditions, with temperatures as
low as 54C. They will be required
to independently navigate ice
more than 2 m thick.
GTL conversion without CO2 emissions

A team of scientists from CoorsTek Membrane Sciences, the University of Oslo in Norway, and the Instituto
de Tecnologa Qumica in Spain has developed a new process to use natural gas as a raw material for aromatic
chemicals. The process uses a ceramic membrane to make the direct, non-oxidative conversion of gas to
liquids possible for the first time. This process reduces cost, eliminates multiple process steps and avoids
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The resulting aromatic precursors are source chemicals for jet fuel, insulation
materials, plastics and textiles, among other products.
Direct activation of methane has been a key goal of the hydrocarbon research community for decades. By
using a ceramic membrane that simultaneously removes hydrogen and injects oxygen, the team was able to
produce liquid hydrocarbons directly from methane in a one-step process.
Temperature and pressure have historically been the main parameters chemists and engineers have
used to control reactions. Catalysts can improve speed and selectivity without promoting reactions beyond
their chemical equilibrium limit. Integrating a ceramic ion-conducting membrane into the reactor enables
an increase in productivity of industrially appealing processes that are otherwise impractical due to strong
thermodynamic constraints. The ceramic membranes are made from abundant materials like barium and
zirconium, found within large sand deposits, with the addition of thin electrocatalytic layers of plentiful metals
like nickel and copper.
While the reactor costs will be standard, the results enabled by this new process have the potential to
improve both the financial and environmental costs of chemical production.
Compressor repair
savings with unique
chemistry
A midstream gas plant in

Texas was experiencing severe
black powder fouling resulting
in compressor, valve and piston
failures on two compressors each
week. The plant looked to U.S.
Waters energy team for a system
solution.
After a plant survey, the team
discovered that the formation
of black powder was the cause
of unscheduled compressor
downtime.
The first recommendation
was to conduct a trial antifoulant
chemistry on the second-stage
compressor inlet to remove the
blockage and measure the debris
concentration located in the gas
streams. The results from the
debris analysis allowed U.S.
Water to formulate a custom
inhibitor package for the two
separate trains. Working together
with the engineering and
equipment team, chemical feed
equipment was designed to allow
the plant to deliver the antifoulant
by atomization throughout the
entire system.
Since the plant introduced
U.S. Waters solution into its
system, one compressor has been
running uninterrupted, and the
other has been on a six-month
run. In addition to continuous
production, the plant was able to
save $670,800.
4SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2016|GasProcessingNews.com
Automation and safety systems

for Goldboro LNG
Honeywell Process Solutions
will provide full automation and
safety systems and serve as the
integrated main automation
contractor (I-MAC) for a new
LNG facility being built in Eastern
Canada to process North American
natural gas for international export.
Located on the eastern shore
of Canada in Nova Scotia, Pieridae
Energys Goldboro LNG project will
include a natural gas liquefaction
terminal and facilities for LNG storage and marine export. The facility will be
able to process 10 metric MMtpy of LNG and have a storage capacity of 690
Mm3. Startup is expected in 2021.
Honeywell is responsible for designing, delivering and installing the
distributed control systems, safety instrumented systems, fire and gas
systems and operator training simulator for the project. The company will
also be responsible for helping Pieridae integrate all plant infrastructure to
the business enterprise systems.
Specific key deliverables include a number of Honeywells patented
technologies. By leveraging these integrated solutions, Honeywell will
reduce risks and minimize potential schedule delays for both Goldboro LNG
and its engineering, procurement and construction contractor during the
facility startup.
Regasification system for ship conversion

Wrtsil has been contracted
to supply the regasification
system for an FSRU conversion
project that Hegh LNG plans
to carry out on a modern
LNG vessel.
The Wrtsil regasification
system to be supplied will feature
regasification technology using
water glycol as the intermediate
medium, instead of propane. This provides a more compact solution, as it
is approximately 15% smaller and lighter than the propane-based system.
The Wrtsil scope of supply for this project comprises the water
glycol regasification module, the water glycol/seawater heaters and
the pumps. Delivery is scheduled for autumn 2017. Wrtsil previously
supplied eight regasification systems to Hegh LNG.
Additional news items can be found online

at GasProcessingNews.com.
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US INDUSTRY METRICS
A. BLUME, Managing Editor
US natural gas spot prices at Henry Hub

and NGL spot prices at Mont Belvieu, $/MMBtu
25
Natural gasoline
Isobutane
Butane
NGPL composite
Propane
Ethane
Natural gas spot prices (Henry Hub)
$/MMBtu
20
15
10
5
0
Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept.
2016 2016 2015 2015 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016
Source: US EIA
US gas production (Bcfd) and prices ($/Mcf)

100
Production, Bcfd
60
40
20
0
4
3
Monthly price (Henry Hub)
12-month price avg.
Production
J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J
2014
2015
2016
2
1
0
Gas prices, $/Mcf
80
Production equals US marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.
US natural gas plant field production of NGL,

LPG, ethane/ethylene and propane/propylene, Mbpd
120
US gas plant field production, Mbpd
In the US, Henry Hub natural gas spot prices increased sharply
in June and July from suppressed levels earlier in the 2Q, as
domestic production decreased slightly. However, natural gas
storage inventories were at an all-time high of 2,480 Bcf at
the beginning of the injection season on April 1. Inventories
were still at record levels as of early September, despite a
summer heat wave over a large portion of the US that led to
higher power burn. Meanwhile, output of NGL slid in July from
record-high levels in May, as gas processing plants marginally
curbed production. GP
100
80
NGL
LPG
Ethane/ethylene
Propane/propylene
60
40
20
June- July- Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016
Source: US EIA
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22M082016H
Big LNG expertise.

Also available in small LNG plants.
Air Products has contributed to the success of more LNG operations than
any other company. And we bring our full capabilities to LNG projects of
any scale, from peak-shaving plants producing less than 0.1 MMTPA to
the largest base-load facilities, on land or off-shore. Our LNG team can
help you get a plant up and running at the highest efficiencyon time,
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EXECUTIVE Q&A VIEWPOINT
No novelty is the new novelty

for NextDecades first LNG export project
SHAUN DAVISON, Senior Vice President of Development and Regulatory Affairs, NextDecade, The Woodlands, Texas
SHAUN DAVISON leads commercial project

development for North America, specifically
the Gulf of Mexico, for NextDecade LLC. An
entrepreneurial professional with more than 20
years in the energy industry, Mr. Davison is a
business development and infrastructure specialist with broad-based expertise in all aspects
of the natural gas and LNG industry. He has
extensive knowledge of the energy/natural gas
value chain: pipelines, storage, US and global
markets, NGL, and LNG terminals and shipping.
Texas-based NextDecade LLC is

working to develop and manage new
land-based and floating LNG projects in
the US and abroad. At present, the company is focusing on a land-based LNG
plant, Rio Grande LNG (FIG. 1), to be located in Brownsville, Texas.
In addition to this project, NextDecade continues to explore and develop additional opportunities, including but not
limited to the creation of natural gas infrastructure, transportation and storage of
LNG, and natural gas/LNG trading. The
company is creating new business models
for LNG that compete on a fundamentally lower cost basis, providing market players and international end-users access to
Henry Hub-indexed or oil-indexed LNG.
Gas Processing spoke with Shaun Davison, senior vice president of development
and regulatory affairs for NextDecade,
about the Rio Grande projects status and
NextDecades future development plans.
GP. Can you provide a brief
background on the Rio Grande
LNG projects conception and
development? What is the status
of Rio Grande LNG and the Rio
Bravo pipeline, and what export
opportunities exist for the project?
Davison. Coming off involvement

in FLNG developments in Australia and
downstream development of FSRUs globally, members of the NextDecade team recognized the potential for smaller and more
nimble entrepreneurial companies in the
LNG value chain. Experiencing firsthand
how FSRU technology has changed and
reshaped the traditional LNG industry, our
team set its sights on opportunities to challenge the status quo on the upstream side
through liquefaction development.
After initially reviewing an FLNG
solution for a US-based project, we recognized the likely regulatory hurdles
that were legacy issues from the original
FSRU/offshore regasification projects.

Working with our industry partners, we
developed an alternative path optimizing
a land-based solution that capitalizes on
the US abundant gas supply, vast pipeline network and transparent regulatory
process for traditionally engineered landbased projects. For NextDecades first US
export project, our technology mantra
has been no novelty is the new novelty.
Rio Grande LNG is our proposed LNG
export facility at the Port of Brownsville in
Texas. The project, planned for a 1,000acre industrial site, includes the 140-mi
Rio Bravo Pipeline. The project is now going through the rigorous Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission (FERC) permitting process. On May 5, 2016, we submitted our full National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA) application (assigned docket
numbers CP16-454 and CP16-455, respectively). We expect to receive the Draft
Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS)
before the end of 2016. A final investment
decision (FID) is expected to take place
sometime in mid-2017.
In November 2015, we announced
that NextDecade had signed non-binding
agreements for 14 MMtpy of LNG with
customers from across Asia and Europe.
Since then, that number has grown to 30
MMtpy, demonstrating a continued desire
for US-produced LNG from customers
around the worldand, specifically, a desire for LNG from the Rio Grande facility.
GP. What benefits has NextDecade
experienced in working with
domestic LNG solutions providers?
Davison. Our team has great experience across the full LNG value chain;
however, we recognize and appreciate
the tremendous value of partnering with
the best energy and LNG companies out
there to deliver safe, sustainable, economically sound and environmentally responsible projects. We are proud to have closeGas Processing|SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 20169
EXECUTIVE Q&A VIEWPOINT

uefaction plant development, which does
not necessarily make it easy for FLNG to
break into the existing value chain.
GP. What will be the impact of low
commodity prices on the global LNG
market? How will it affect US LNG
export projects?
FIG. 1. Aerial view of the proposed Rio Grande

LNG facility at the Port of Brownsville in Texas.
ly partnered and built strong relationships

within all of the key support industries
necessary to develop, permit, construct
and operate LNG projects.
For the Rio Grande LNG and Rio Bravo Pipeline projects, these include Ecology & Environment, CH-IV, Norton Rose
Fulbright, CB&I, and Moffat & Nichol,
among others. The wealth of expertise and
insight that these companies bring to our
projects is evidenced by the quality of the
products they deliver, and visible throughout our FERC and regulatory filings.
GP. What opportunities does
NextDecade see for FLNG?
Davison. NextDecades core team has

been very involved with the creation and
evolution of the floating regasification industry. NextDecades CEO, Kathleen Eisbrenner, was the founder and CEO of the
original FSRU leader, Excelerate Energy,
spearheading the development of this
segment of the valve chain and dramatically altering the LNG industry.
We have seen some minor growth in
the upstream/liquefaction component
of the FLNG industry per the development of Shells Prelude project offshore
Australia, at least one Malaysian project
from Petronas, and the construction of
Exmars small-scale floating liquefaction
module previously aimed at Colombias
Pacific Rubiales-led project. However, at
NextDecade, we are also looking for other
opportunities. We do believe there will be
some opportunities in the FLNG space,
but these are likely to be explored by national oil companies, or international oil
companies like Petronas and Shell, rather
than by smaller players.
Despite the smaller scale of FLNG,
there remains a high-dollar barrier to entry, and there are limited market areas that
would allow for smaller developers like a
NextDecade to participate. At the same
time, the US is expected to remain the
incremental low-cost opportunity for liq-
Davison. Buyers are pushing back on

long-term contracts and pricing agreements that were executed when commodities were high, while suppliers are making
concessions due to low commodity pricing and current oversupply. Liquefaction
projects that have been proposed or are
under development have, in many cases,
delayed or deferred their FIDs. In some
cases, they have been canceled altogether.
At the same time, on the downstream
side, there is an aggressive push to develop regasification capacity to take advantage of this low pricing environment. As
we move through the present phase of the
market cycle, with liquefaction projects
curtailing and imports expanding, the industry will inevitably need to rebalance.
For US projects that continue to advance with an eye toward the 20212023
marketat which point it is quite possible that there will be a global undersupplydiscussions with customers are in
a state of suspension. Few customers are
ready to execute sales-and-purchase agreements (SPAs). However, at the same time,
they are pushing hard for pricing at preCheniere-Train-3 (i.e., sub-$3/MMBtu)
levels, with an eye to 20172018 as they
begin to plan for the 2020s.
GP. Do you foresee a glut of LNG
supply impacting the success of Rio
Grande LNG or other US LNG export
terminals scheduled to come online
over the next few years? Should
US LNG producers be investigating
other export outlets?
Davison. At present, the conventional

wisdom is that, by 20212023, the existing LNG supply overhang will have been
absorbed, and the market will be looking for the next tranche of LNG supply.
In that regard, we do not see the existing
supply overhang impacting the success of
Rio Grande LNG; however, that does not
mean that all current US export projects
will be standing when the market comes
back. Only well-developed, well-engineered and economically sound projects
will remain.
The downstream LNG industry has

been changing quite rapidly with the development of the FSRU. Floating regasification technology has opened up new
markets previously shut out of the LNG
space. Countries like Argentina, Indonesia, Brazil, Kuwait, Lithuania, Pakistan
and Jordan have become LNG importers due to economical FSRU technology. The potential for FSRUs to provide
broader LNG market penetration opens
up entirely new markets, and US LNG
producers must be willing to work with
these customers rather than relying on the
traditional players from Europe, South
Korea and Japan, for example.
GP. How does NextDecade foresee
LNG contracts being renegotiated in
the present volatile market?
Davison. It is evident that the traditional Asian players, especially Japan, are
seeking more destination flexibility with
their historic long-term supply. As far as
new US projects are concerned, the present oil price climate has put downward
pressure on the US formula, and most
customers are pushing for a sub-$3/
MMBtu liquefaction fee. However, with
no new SPAs executed, there is still somewhat of an unknown component to US
pricing for the second wave of projects.
GP. What actions or activities might
help energy prices to recover to
$80/bbl for oil and $4/Mcf for gas?
Davison. I, along with many others, wish we had the silver bullet for that
question! My response assumes the recognition that oil (Brent) and gas (Henry
Hub) are not linked and have very different drivers. Brent is largely affected by
international markets, and Henry Hub
is driven by US/North American supply
and demand factors.
For oil, greater alignment between
OPEC and others could certainly have the
greatest and quickest impact to oil prices,
but its anyones guess as to the likelihood
of that occurring anytime soon. For US
natural gas prices, there is always the specter of US policy issues tied to new regulations for exploration, production and/or
power generation that can potentially impact prices, making gas more costly. Additionally, the market demand response
could, to some degree, lift US gas prices,
with LNG exports being the greatest driver of this demand. GP
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Dual-methane expander liquefaction

reduces LNG costs and complexity
G. W. HOWE, G. F. SKINNER and A. D. MAUNDER, Gasconsult Ltd., London, UK
LNG producers have sought to enhance project returns

through higher plant capacities to achieve economies of scale.
Many complex multi-refrigerant plants were constructed to realize this objective. However, the unprecedented capital costs
and financial risks associated with these mega-scale plants may
be unsustainable in an era of distressed energy prices. Some operators are looking for more flexible project development and
commercial models that alleviate risk; they are seeking means
to monetize smaller gas reserves with lower-cost schemes.
Dual-methane (DM) expandera liquefaction offers a differentiated solution for mid-scale and floating LNG (FLNG)
applications. Unlike conventional processes, it uses no external
refrigerants, utilizing instead natural gas feed as the refrigerant
medium in an optimized system of expanders. This setup eliminates refrigerant storage and transfer systems used in MR cycles, as well as the additional process equipment used to extract
refrigerant components from the feed gas. Makeup refrigerant
is low-cost natural gas, as opposed to nitrogen or a mixture of
hydrocarbons, thereby avoiding complex supply logistics and
reducing operating costs.
The absence of liquid hydrocarbon refrigerant also makes
for safer operations. The methane process requires significantly
less power than other safe systems, such as multiple-expander
nitrogen processes, allowing reduced capital cost through lower
installed compressor power or increased LNG production from
a selected compressor driver.
Single-train capacities exceeding 2 MMtpy are possible, facilitating phased project development and lower initial capital
requirements, yet still allowing a progressive buildout of significant LNG capacity. The avoidance of equipment to produce,
handle, store and process external refrigerants reduces cost,
weight and footprint, making the technology particularly attractive for FLNG schemes. Where appropriate, freed-up deck
space could be used to install additional productive liquefaction capacity, which would enhance project returns.
A number of variants of the basic configuration have also
been developed for low-pressure (LP) feeds, the removal of
heavy hydrocarbons and to facilitate benefits from high-speed
(HS) compression. These variants further differentiate the
technology and are described in this work.
Process configuration. A simplified schematic of a proprietary DM expander process is shown in FIG 1. Refrigeration is
effected in two expander circuits, a warm circuit indicated in
red and a low-temperature circuit shown in blue. Chilled gases
from expanders CX1 and CX2 are routed to the cold box for
cooling duty, and then returned to the expanders by the recycle
compressor CP1. Flash gas is also routed through the cold box
for cooling duty and recaptured to the system by a small compressor, CP2, which feeds the suction of the recycle compressor. The expanders are configured as companders and operate
in series with the recycle gas compressor (FIG. 2), providing approximately 35% of the total compression power.
The methane cycle is similar in concept to nitrogen expander schemes. However, it enjoys a fundamental advantage,
as methane has a higher specific heat than nitrogen. This factor significantly reduces circulating gas flows, which, in turn,
reduces power consumption and pipe sizes.
A patented feature of the described process is that partial liquefaction takes place in the low-temperature expander
CX2this efficiently converts latent heat directly into mechanical work and also permits a reduction in heat-transfer area
and cost of the main heat exchanger HX1. An optional liquid
turbine, TU1, in the LNG rundown line also improves efficiency by providing a significant chilling effect.
These features, together with the optimized distribution
of flows, temperatures and pressures in the expander circuits,
makes for a highly energy-efficient system consuming approximately 300 kWh/metric t of LNG in temperate climates. This
performance is equivalent or better than that involving singlemixed-refrigerant (SMR) processes, and 15%30% lower than
the more sophisticated variants of dual- and triple-expander
nitrogen schemes.
To fuel
CP1
CP2
Recycle gas
Zone 1
Cold box HX1

Zone 2
Flash gas
Zone 3
TU1
Pretreated feed gas

CP: Compressor SP: Separator
CX: Compander TU: Liquid turbine
SP1
SP2
SP3
NGL
CX1
CX2
LNG
FIG. 1. Simplified schematic of proprietary DM expander process.

Gas Processing|SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 201613

Alternative configurations. A number of variants of the
technology have been investigated. These variants have the potential to further reduce capital cost and/or increase operating
efficiency. Open methane cycles lend themselves to advantageous configurations for LP feed gases, removal of heavy hydrocarbons and HS rotating equipment.
IPL for LP feed gases. All liquefaction technologies consume

more power at lower feed gas pressures. The integrated pressure liquefaction (IPL) variant (FIG. 3) of the described process
boosts LP feed gas by routing it after liquids separation in SP1
back to an interstage suction point on the recycle gas compressor, instead of to Zones 2 and 3 of the liquefaction section of the
cold box, as shown in FIG. 1. This process provides a higher inlet
pressure to the cold box independent of the feed gas pressure,
TABLE 1. Basis of design for the DM process
Gas composition, mol%
CH4 of 95; C2H6 of 4; C3H8 of 1
Gas pressure at liquefaction inlet
As indicated
Feed gas pressure
As indicated
Process streams cooled to, C
40 and 40
Heat leak to cold box
Integrated heavies removal (IHR). With heavier feed gases
0.50%
Minimum cryogenic approach

temperature, C
above or close to their critical pressures, adequate removal of

C5+ and aromatics may require an upstream NGL unit. Typically, this expands the feed gas to a sub-critical pressure, condenses the heavy material and then recompresses the depleted
gas for liquefaction.
Recycle gas compressor polytropic,
85%
Expander adiabatic,
87%
enhancing liquefaction efficiency without the need for a separate feed gas compression plant.
For 40C ambient conditions on 25-bar pipeline gas
(as might prevail, for instance, in the US Gulf Coast region),
IPL operation at 80 bar achieves a reduction in power demand
exceeding 20% of that for the basic DM expander system
(FIG. 4). This capability is only available to open methane cycles. Nitrogen or SMR schemes require an additional compression facility to enhance liquefaction cycle efficiency; unlike
open methane cycles, they do not have a methane compressor
in their basic configuration.
FIG. 5 provides the authors computations of the relative
power demand measured in kWh/metric t of the DM (in
IPL mode), SMR and dual-nitrogen processes over a pressure range of 20 bar80 bar. This data is based on normalized
machine efficiencies and provides an indication of the relative
merits of the technologies in a warm climate and feed gas precooled scenarios (40C and 40C cooled to temperatures,
respectively). The DM process is advantaged over the full
data range. The FIG. 5 data assumes the design basis provided
in TABLE 1.
30
Recycle gas
To process
Reduction in power
LT compander
Compressor driver
25
HT compander
15
10
5
Recycle
compressor
0
20
FIG. 2. The expanders operate in series with the recycle gas

compressor, providing 35% of total compression power.
30
40
Feed gas pressure bar
50
60
FIG. 4. IPL operation at 80 bar achieves a reduction in power demand

exceeding 20% of that for the basic DM expander system.
To fuel
CP1
20
CP2
700
Cold box HX1
Zone 1
Zone 2
500
Zone 3
TU1
Pretreated feed gas

SP1
SP2
SP3
kWh/metric t
Recycle gas
Dual N2 -40C
SMR -40C
Dual CH4 -40C
600
Flash gas
40C
400
300
Dual N2 40C
SMR 40C
Dual CH4 40C
-40C
200
100
NGL
CX1
CX2
LNG
FIG. 3. The IPL variant boosts LP feed gas by routing it after liquids
separation back to an interstage suction point on the recycle gas
compressor.
0
20
30
40
50
Feed gas pressure bar
60
70
FIG. 5. Computations of the relative power demand of the dualmethane (in IPL mode), SMR and dual-nitrogen processes at a
pressure range of 20 bar80 bar.
80
TABLE 2. Economically matched equipment configurations

LNG production, metric MMtpy
0.9
1.1
1.5
2.2
PGT25 + G4
LM6000PF
LM6000 + MD
Frame 7
2BCL800/29.8
2BCL1007/34.8
2BCL1400/46.7
2BCL1400/81.5
LT expander/power MW
EC50-1/5.4
EC50-1/6.7
EC50-1/9.5
EG50-1/13.4
HT expander/power MW
EC60-1/11.1
EC50-1/13.8
EC50-1/8.6
EC60-1/13.8
EC50-1/8.6
EC60-1/13.8
Gas turbine
Compressor/absorbed MW
HT expander/power MW
In its IHR variant, the described DM cycle process removes heavy components by passing the feed gas and recycle
gas through the warm circuit gas expander CX1 (FIG. 6), and
separates the condensed heavy material from the expander
outlet at subcritical pressure, around 10 bar15 bar.
This solution decouples the vapor/liquid separation and
feed gas pressures and saves a large part of the equipment and
cost of a separate expander-based NGL removal unit. Specifically, the compander (CX1), recompression facilities (CP1)
and associated bulk materials already exist in the basic DM
configuration, avoiding additional capital cost. Weight and
footprint are also reduced, which is particularly relevant to
FLNG schemes.
High-speed compression. Methane can be compressed at
a significantly higher rotational speed than the higher-molecular-weight hydrocarbons found in mixed refrigerant cycles.
This permits the use of HS driver/compressor combinations
that are significantly lower in cost and weight than those used
in conventional processes.
In a recent study conducted around an HS 46-MW output
gas turbine (FIG. 7), the main recycle compressor is direct-driven and runs at a much higher speed (6,600 rpm) than conventional MR compressors. Since the turbine is a single-shaft machine, a small starter/helper electric motor, M1, is provided.
The study, developed with support from the OEM, demonstrated an ability to achieve a capacity of 1.5 MMtpy/train
with a power demand of approximately 310 kWh/t of LNG,
based on a feed gas pressure of 60 bar, ambient air temperature
of 30C and seawater temperature of 23C. Significant weight
savings (> 70 metric t) for the gas turbine and the recycle
compressor were demonstrated compared to a typical aeroderivative based solution, with cost savings for this equipment
measured at 20%30%. Although the gas turbine subject of the
study was an industrial machine, the changeout capability at 48
hr is comparable to aero-derivative machines. The turbine also
has longer equivalent operating hours (60,000 hr) between
major overhauls than aero-derivatives. The energy efficiency
at > 38% was respectable, with DLE < 15 ppm NOx .
Technology advantages. In addition to its low power de-
mand, reduced equipment count and low footprint, a further

set of advantages accrue to methane cycles from the absence of
external refrigerants. Many of these advantages have particular
relevance for FLNG schemes, where weight, deck space, operational simplicity and safety are important factors:
No refrigerant logistics issues are present in remote
or offshore locations. Neither shipments of light and
To fuel
CP2
CP1
Cold box HX1
Flash gas
Recycle gas
TU1
Pretreated
feed gas
SP2
SP1
SP3
inc C5+
aromatics
CX1
LNG
CX2
FIG. 6. In its IHR variant, the DM cycle process removes heavy

components by passing the feed gas and recycle gas through
the warm circuit gas expander.
Fuel gas
Natural gas
High-speed GT
CP1
M1
M2
Cold box HX1
Zone 2
Zone 1
Zone 3
TU1
CP2
Flash
gas
Pretreated
feed gas
Recycle
gas
CX1
CX2
SP1
NGL
CP: Compressor SP: Separator

CX: Compander TU: Liquid turbine
SP2
SP3
CX1
CX2
LNG
FIG. 7. In an HS 46-MW output gas turbine, the main recycle

compressor is direct-driven and runs at a higher speed than
conventional MR compressors.
heavy hydrocarbons, nor segregated storage to facilitate

blending a mixed refrigerant, are required.
Absolute security of refrigerant supply is ensured.
No propane or other liquid hydrocarbon refrigerants
are present, which offers a major safety advantage
relative to MR schemes.
Single-phase refrigerant (always a gas) makes the system
motion-tolerant.
Operational benefits relative to MR schemes are present.
These benefits include no refrigerant makeup cost,
no refrigerant composition adjustments to maintain

cycle efficiency, shorter startup time from warm
condition and reduced flaring.
Project returns. Most liquefaction schemes are built around
a preselected compressor driver. An economically matched set

of ancillary process equipment is assembled around this driver.
Once the compressor driver is selected, the power available for
liquefaction is set. Then, the overwhelmingly dominant factor determining LNG production is the liquefaction cycle efficiency. For mid-scale projects, the differential can run to some
hundreds of millions of dollars, as measured by NPV.
FIG. 8, developed by the authors from a case study, plots cumulative NPV vs. time for the DM cycle, a dual-nitrogen cycle
Dual CH4
SMR
Dual N2
IRR 44%
IRR 51%
IRR 39%
NPV, $MM
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
-500
-1,000
-1,500
7
8
Years
10
11
12
13
14
15
FIG. 8. Cumulative NPV vs. time for the DM cycle, a dual-nitrogen cycle
and a basic SMR scheme for a 4-metric-MMtpy, five-train FLNG project.
and a basic SMR scheme for a nominal, 4-metric-MMtpy, fivetrain FLNG project monetizing a 2-Tcf gas field. The DM cycle
earns higher returns over a shorter period of time because its
superior efficiency supports a higher production capacity.
Technical validation. All equipment in the methane cycle process is fully proven in operation, and the process steps are well
established in dozens of cryogenic gas processing plants. BP
and three engineering companies (under nondisclosure agreements) have reviewed the described design, from simulations
through key process and detailed design parameters.
All of the companies confirmed the energy efficiency and key
performance parameters. Leading equipment vendors have confirmed the mechanical design/configuration viability and that
all equipment operates within a window of proven operating experience. Work performed in conjunction with a leading OEM
established economically matched rotating equipment configurations around various gas turbine drivers for single-train capacities in the range of 0.9 metric MMtpy2.2 metric MMtpy.
An important outcome from this work was confirming an
achievable train capacity of > 2 metric MMtpy. For the particular compressor driver, this capacity is significantly higher than
that achievable by nitrogen or the simpler SMR processes, providing an economy-of-scale advantage for the methane cycle.
Takeaway. For mid-scale operation, the DM expander process
combines high energy efficiency with a fundamental simplicity, low equipment count and low investment cost. Elimination
of external refrigerants provides OPEX, CAPEX and logistics
advantages and simplifies operations. The open-methane cycle
allows advantageous variants to the basic process. Single-train
capacities exceeding 2 metric MMtpy of LNG allow substantial production capacity buildout on a phased basis, decreasing
upfront costs and reducing project risk. No equipment supply
is tied to the technology licence, and all equipment is available
from multiple vendors, allowing for fully competitive procurement with cost and schedule benefits. GP
a
NOTE
The dual-methane expander process described in this article is the ZR-LNG (Zero
Refrigerant LNG) system that is owned, patented and licensed by Gasconsult Ltd.
The gas turbine cited in the high-speed compression variant is a Siemens SGT800. The various economically matched equipment configurations in the capacity
range 0.9 metric MMtpy2.2 metric MMtpy were worked up with GE Oil & Gas
and are as shown in TABLE 2, with a basis of design as per TABLE 1 (but with
process streams cooled to 20C).
BILL HOWE is the CEO of Gasconsult Ltd. He graduated as a chemical engineer

from Birmingham University and has spent 30 years in the E&C industry, mainly
with Foster Wheeler. He was managing director of Foster Wheelers South African
affiliate and, subsequently, director of sales and marketing at Foster Wheeler
Reading in the UK.
GEOFF SKINNER is a director at Gasconsult Ltd. He graduated from Oxford University
and joined Foster Wheeler in the UK in 1965. From 1981 to 1986, he was technical
director of Foster Wheeler Synfuels Corp. in Livingston, New Jersey. Upon his return
to the UK, Mr. Skinner acted as a consultant to several multinational companies and
has registered a number of patents, including LNG liquefaction processes.
TONY MAUNDER is a director at Gasconsult Ltd. He holds degrees in mechanical
sciences and chemical engineering from Cambridge University. After working
with ICI General Chemicals, he spent 16 years in the E&C industry, including with
Foster Wheeler. From 1980 to 1993, he worked for BP Research and BP Engineering
on natural gas conversion to liquids, synthesis gas and fuels. He has registered a
number of LNG liquefaction process patents.
Develop successful nearshore FLNG solutions

Part 2: Natural gas liquefaction
S. MOKHATAB, Gas Processing Consultant, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada;
and S. BASI and P. HUNTER, KBR, London, UK
Nearshore small- to mid-scale (0.5 MMtpy2.5 MMtpy) FLNG

production technology, which is viable for monetizing nearshore
gas fields or converting pipeline-quality gas into LNG, provides another push to the FLNG market. As such, there is great interest in
developing successful solutions for nearshore FLNG projects that
may have advantages over competing onshore projects.
Part 2 of this series discusses various natural gas liquefaction
processes to allow a selection that best fits the needs of FLNG
applications. In addition, this paper addresses some of the design
considerations that can reduce capital costs, thereby improving
the overall economics of nearshore FLNG projects.
FLNG DESIGN BACKGROUND

It is clear that the design criteria for an FLNG facility is quite
different from a land-based LNG plant in terms of process safety,
storage, compactness, design flexibility, sensitivity to motion and
simplicity of operation. Sensitivity to motion, which can cause
process upsets or mechanical failures for an open-ocean offshore
FLNG facility, is a lesser concern for a nearshore FLNG located
in a relatively calm marine environment.
Further protection for a nearshore FLNG vessel can be provided by breakwaters or by fixing the FLNG vessel to a gravitybase structure or jetty structure. When the FLNG vessel is located adjacent to the shoreline, referred to as at-shore FLNG,
opportunities exist to decongest the topside design by locating
some non-hazardous elements onshore.
A successful nearshore barge-mounted FLNG project requires a proven liquefaction technology that is safe, simple,
easy to operate and maintain, flexible for variations in gas composition and turndown, scalable and efficient in terms of space
and cost. A number of design factors must also be addressed,
such as machinery configuration, heat exchanger type, and
utility systems. Each FLNG facility must be tailored to sitespecific conditions to determine the optimal nearshore FLNG
plant configuration.
FLOATING LIQUEFACTION CYCLES
Three main types of refrigeration cycles (cascade, mixed refrigerant and turboexpander) have been proposed for FLNG
applications. Based on a proven track record with onshore facilities, mixed refrigerant (MR) and turboexpander-based technologies have been qualified by numerous operating companies
for FLNG applications.
Although the Conoco Phillips Optimized Cascade Process
is proven in mid- to large-scale onshore service, it is being con-
sidered for offshore service only by the technology licensor. As

a result, the ConocoPhillips Optimized Cascade process is not
covered in detail in this review.
Mixed-refrigerant cycles. MR technology has been assessed
for offshore liquefaction for both single-MR (SMR) and dualMR (DMR) cycles. The SMR process (FIG. 1) benefits from operational simplicity and flexibility, as well as reduced equipment
count; however, these benefits come at the expense of lower efficiency compared to the DMR cycle. With two refrigerant loops,
the DMR cycle (FIG. 2) better matches the MR boiling curves to
the overall feed gas condensation curve. The DMR process has
been successfully applied to large-scale onshore LNG projects,
while the SMR process is a proven solution for smaller onshore
LNG facilities. Onshore SMR cycles are provided by Air Products and Chemicals Inc. (APCI), Linde and Black & Veatch,
while DMR cycles are provided by APCI and Shell.
The APCI propane precooled single MR (C3-MR) process
is a two-refrigerant loop process in which precooling is performed in multiple kettle-type heat exchangers with a propane
refrigeration loop. This feature helps the process achieve a higher efficiency than the SMR process, due to the ability to better
match the MR boiling curve to the feed gas condensation curve.
However, the large inventory of propane and the relatively
large plot space that is required for the propane evaporators
make the C3-MR process less attractive for FLNG projects
than other cycles. The advantage of SMR and DMR technoloCompressor
Treated feed gas
Cooler
MR loop
LNG
FIG. 1. Typical process scheme of an SMR cycle.

gies is the use of compact heat exchangers, which require significantly less topside footprint than the C3-MR technology.
Another variant of MR technology is the Mixed Fluid Cascade
(MFC) process developed by Linde. This process has a similar
efficiency to the DMR technology, but it utilizes three discrete
MR refrigeration loops within two or three spiral-wound heat
exchangers in series. This configuration increases the equipment
count, congestion and hydrocarbon inventory, which is undesirable for small- to mid-scale FLNG facilities.
Expander cycles. Turboexpander refrigeration cycles, which
use nitrogen (N2) as the refrigerant, have been widely used

for small-scale LNG production (up to 0.8 MMtpy per train).
While the single-expander cycle has relatively low efficiency,
higher process efficiencies can be achieved by adding a second
(FIG. 3) or third expander. Adding a precooling cycle, based on
propane or other refrigerants (e.g., hydrofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide or methane), can improve overall efficiency and
significantly increase throughput for a given barge size.
Increased FLNG facility complexity, reduced overall reliability and the need for increased refrigerant storage are potential disadvantages of adding a precooling refrigeration circuit.
Many of the safety concerns can be negated by the selection
of non-flammable refrigerants, and reliability concerns can be
addressed by the use of parallel equipment or trains on larger
FLNG facilities.
Several developments utilizing methane (sourced from
the feed gas) and/or its combination with N2 have been proposed based on the dual-N2 expander cycle, but none of these
schemes have been proven at small- to mid-scale capacities.
LNG
Treated feed gas
Precooling MR
compressor
Coolers
Cold MR
compressor
FIG. 2. Typical process scheme of a DMR cycle.
Process comparison. A comparison of liquefaction cycles is

necessary to select an appropriate process for a given FLNG opportunity. TABLE 1 compares the liquefaction processes, taking
into consideration typical criteria that influence the technical and
commercial acceptance of small- to mid-scale FLNG projects.
Of the processes compared in TABLE 1, the Cascade, C3-MR
and DMR cycles are well-proven within large onshore LNG facilities. In adapting these technologies to a small- to mid-scale
FLNG design, factors such as hydrocarbon inventory, equipment count and equipment selection must be addressed. None
of these challenges are insurmountable or preclude the use of
these technologies for FLNG; however, for a facility producing
up to 2.5 MMtpy, other technologies may be more suitable.
The main disadvantage of the MR cycles (relative to the expander processes) is that they have a large hydrocarbon inventory at elevated pressure and require storage for significant quantities of liquid hydrocarbon refrigerants. These features raise
additional safety concerns within a confined FLNG facility.
For all hydrocarbon-based refrigerant cycles, the sourcing
of refrigerants may be an issue when processing lean feed gases
(e.g., pipeline gas) that do not contain significant quantities
of LPG. In these circumstances, the refrigerants can either be
imported or extracted from the feed gas with the aid of a frontend NGL extraction scheme. However, this additional scheme
will increase the weight, congestion, hydrocarbon inventory,
cost and complexity of the FLNG topside.
The dual-N2 expander cycle provides many benefits for offshore and nearshore FLNG applications. A major advantage
of using N2 as the cycle fluid is that it is inert, non-flammable
and inherently safe. A process using inert refrigerant allows
for compact equipment spacing on the FLNG vessel, as long
as appropriate safeguards are taken to mitigate the asphyxiation risk in the event of a large leak. Using N2 eliminates the
need for a C2/C3/C4 fractionation process for refrigerant
makeup or for onboard refrigerant storage, since the N2 production needed for equipment purging and inerting can
be augmented.
N2 is circulated in the gaseous phase at all points of the refrigeration cycle, so maldistribution in the heat exchangers is
not a concern, unlike other refrigeration cycles that use multicomponent refrigerants. As a result, the dual-N2 process performance is less sensitive to marine-induced motion.
The dual-N2 design is simple, and the reduced complexity
will require less operator intervention than MR-based cycles.
The control of specific temperatures is not as important for
TABLE 1. Comparison of liquefaction processes for small- to mid-scale FLNG projects

Thermal efficiency
Dual-N2 expander
SMR
C3-MR
DMR
Cascade
Medium
Medium
High
High
High
Equipment count
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
High
Hydrocarbon refrigerant
inventory
None
Medium
Large
Medium
Large
Small-scale FLNG suitability

(nearshore/at-shore)
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Mid-scale FLNG suitability

(nearshore/at-shore)
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Compactness
High
Medium
Low
Medium
Low

dual-N2 as with MR cycles, and the process is inherently stable
and robust. Another important attribute of the dual-N2 cycle
is the ability to quickly start up and shut down in a safe and
controlled manner.
The dual-N2 and SMR cycles are considered more appropriate technologies for FLNG facilities at the smaller end of the
capacity range, as the relative inefficiency of each cycle results
in a low LNG-production-to-topside-area ratio.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to designing a compact, flexible and energyefficient gas liquefaction process, several design considerations
must be properly addressed at the conceptual stage so that fundamental decisions can be made for developing a nearshore
FLNG project. The following sections describe some of these
considerations.
Liquefaction system. Key design requirements of the liquefaction system must be considered for the development of any
FLNG project. This section will review main process equipment, train size and utility systems.
Main process equipment: Liquefaction heat exchangers.
The main cryogenic heat exchanger, a critical piece of equipment in the liquefaction system, will be either a plate-fin heat
exchanger (PFHE) or a spiral-wound heat exchanger (SWHE),
depending on the liquefaction process selected.
PFHEs, often referred to as brazed-aluminum heat exchangers, consist of an aluminum core of alternating layers (passages) of corrugated fins. The layers are separated from each
other by parting sheets. Each core will typically comprise no
more than five streams. The design of each layer is optimized
by varying fin type, fin height and pass geometry to maximize
the heat transfer coefficient from streams in close proximity to
each other. Layers are stacked within a core up to a maximum
manufacturing limit. For liquefaction service, it is possible to
manifold up to 68 cores together within a cold box.
PFHEs are specialized equipment manufactured by several
vendors. The main advantages of PFHEs over SWHEs are their
compactness, low equipment weight, small footprints, shorter
lead times and lower capital costs. One disadvantage of PFHEs
is that they are vulnerable to mechanical damage or damage
from thermal shocks due to transient operating conditions,
particularly in two-phase service. Exchangers subjected to repeated thermal excursions could fail, resulting in refrigerant or
hydrocarbon leaks to atmosphere. This risk is partially mitigated by using PFHEs for single-phase, smaller-scale expander
liquefaction cycles.
Distributing two-phase refrigerant across multiple cores
could prove problematic for an FLNG facility, even with mild
marine motion. The process must be operated to ensure a temperature difference between the different passes of no more
than 50F (28C) to minimize thermal stress. Since PFHEs are
contained within a self-supporting, insulated cold box with internal distribution headers, accessibility for in-place cleaning
and repairing is difficult and time-consuming.
SWHEs are essentially vertical, helically wound shell-andtube exchangers designed with a high heat transfer area, which
allows them to operate with a larger temperature gradient. The
advantages of an SWHE include its proven tolerance to ther-
mal shocks (resulting from transient refrigerant/load imbalances) and containment of tube leaks within the exchanger shell.
These features make the use of SWHEs an appropriate selection
for MR cycles in FLNG applications. Compared to PFHEs, the
SWHE is higher in capital cost, size and weight. The number of
SWHE suppliers is limited, with each exchanger having a longer
delivery time compared to a single, large cold box.
Technical design limits the available heat exchanger size for
FLNG service. A single cold box typically can be designed to
liquefy up to 0.75 MMtpy of LNG. However, a higher-train
capacity would require multiple cold boxes to be grouped together in parallel to provide the necessary heat exchange area.
For FLNG, a single SWHE in SMR service can be designed
to produce up to 1.5 MMtpy. In precooled MR service, it can
be designed for up to 4 MMtpy of LNG. In general, PFHEs
can be a good choice for small- to mid-scale floating liquefaction due to their lightweight, compact and highly efficient design for simultaneous heat exchange between multiple streams.
For FLNG projects that are designed to utilize either PFHEs
or SWHEs, the exchanger must be designed for the transient
structural loads and vessel motions in addition to the thermal
and hydraulic loads.
Both PFHEs and SWHEs are well proven within onshore
LNG plants, and PFHEs have been successfully used offshore
for many years. However, both types of exchangers are currently unproven in nearshore or offshore LNG service, with
the first FLNG facility due to come onstream in 2016.
Compressor drivers. The refrigeration compressors in
LNG plants are commonly driven by gas turbines. Electric
power for LNG facilities is commonly provided by gas turbine
generators. In some cases, electric motors or steam turbines
have been used as compressor drivers. However, selecting the
best driver for an FLNG facility is a challenging issue. Several
parameters must be considered when addressing this issue,
Compressor
Cooler
Treated feed gas
Warm expander
Cold expander
LNG
FIG. 3. Typical process scheme of a dual-expander cycle.

such as thermal efficiency, ease of operation, availability, economics, space and weight limitations, maintenance and safety
considerations.
Heavy-duty industrial gas turbines, commonly used in onshore LNG plants, are difficult to deploy on an FLNG vessel as
they are large in size, require significant maintenance periods
and have limited speed variation capabilities. Aeroderivative gas
turbines, which are lighter and more compact than heavy-duty
frame industrial gas turbines, are better suited for floating installations, although they have been used only in LNG projects at
power levels below 45 MW. Aeroderivative turbines have relatively high availability and reliability and are easy to service and
maintain. In addition, they are more thermally efficient than industrial gas turbines (TABLE 2), resulting in lower fuel consumption and lower carbon emissions per unit of power.
Multiple aeroderivative gas turbines may be installed in parallel to achieve the required compression power demand for
large LNG trains. With the many advantages of the aeroderivative turbines and the potential capital cost and energy savings
over industrial machines, their use is being accepted for process drivers, particularly in smaller FLNG facilities.
Commercially available packages, in which aeroderivative
turbines are coupled with centrifugal compressors, provide a
new solution for FLNG applications. These packages feature
faster installation, enhanced reliability and availability, ease of
maintenance, and a reduced footprint and weight relative to
frame machines. It should be noted that all gas turbine options
have some inherent limitations that require detailed evaluation
to determine the optimal selection for each FLNG facility.
Electric motor drive systems for the main refrigerant
compressor(s) are more expensive than gas turbines, but they
are an attractive option due to their higher availability, ease of
operation and lower emissions. They may be an option for atshore FLNG applications, as some of the larger electrical elements (e.g., switchgear, transformers) can be located off-barge.
Some elements, however, must be located on the barge (e.g.,
variable-speed drive cabinets, harmonic filters).
In the event of importing electric power to a nearshore facility, motor drives will result in a shorter project schedule than
for a project that includes a power generation unit. Electric
motors of 65 MW have been used for an onshore LNG project, and 78-MW motors have been tested for a project under
construction. While large electric motors offer high reliability,
they also require a complex electrical system for startup and
control. The economic feasibility of using large electric drives
is dependent on the availability of a local, low-cost, reliable,

high-voltage power supply.
Traditional steam turbine drivers are the best choice for
overall reliability, availability and safety (no open ignition
source). However, steam turbines necessitate more infrastructure (steam boilers, large heavy pipes, etc.) and include complex operations (requiring freshwater makeup and wastewater/
chemical disposal). In addition, steam systems have a large footprint, more weight and the highest maintenance burden of the
driver choices. The early onshore LNG facilities featured steam
turbine drivers, but in the 1980s facilities switched to industrial
gas turbine drivers, which proved to be more cost- and plotefficient than steam turbines and supporting systems. As such,
the steam turbine is not usually an economic driver selection for
refrigeration compressors on an FLNG facility.
Turboexpanders. Todays turboexpander technology can
deliver robust designs with a small footprint and high performance (with typical isentropic efficiencies of nearly 90%)
for FLNG applications. However, a limit exists on the size of
current companders, meaning that multiple compander trains
would be used if a large facility is required.
Liquefaction train size. For any type of LNG facility, the
total facility capacity is often dictated by gas deliverability from
dedicated gas fields or supply pipeline gas availability. The liquefaction train size is determined based on evaluating economies
of scale for a large train vs. the availability benefits of multiple
identical trains. For mid-scale FLNG, the facility may opt for either the single- or multi-train concept. In a multi-train concept,
the facility has the capability to continue production when one of
the trains is down for maintenance or an unexpected shutdown,
while a single train may result in the lowest capital cost per unit
of production.
Utility systems. For an at-shore FLNG facility, common utilities (i.e., refrigerant storage, amine storage, cooling water, seawater desalination, fuel gas, instrument air, N2 supply and storage tank systems) can be installed onshore and connected to
support operation of the process units. No absolute definition
is given of which utilities can be installed onshore; it is a matter
of site-specific economics, regulations and other factors. However, a few utility systems should remain onboard to improve
the safety, reliability and energy efficiency of the FLNG facility.
Cooling system. The interstage cooling for the refrigerant
compressors on the nearshore FLNG facility can be provided
by coastal seawater, freshwater or ambient air. For an at-shore
TABLE 2. Power output and efficiency of available gas turbines

Heavy-duty-frame gas turbines
Model
Siemens SGT 700
GE5D
GE 6B
GE 7EA
GE 9E
ISO power, MW
33.7
32.6
43.5
86.2
130.1
Efficiency, %
38.2
29.4
33.3
33
34.6
GE PGT25+G4
GE LM6000
GE
LMS100
Siemens (RR)
RB211 DLE
Siemens (RR)
Trent DLE
ISO power, MW
34.3
43.9
100.2
33
54.2
Efficiency, %
41.2
43
44.1
40.5
43.9
Aeroderivative gas turbines

Model

FLNG facility, air cooler(s) can be installed onshore where
space is available, but higher-approach temperatures to ambient air will result in lower process efficiency. Within FLNG, design safety concerns are paramount; therefore, only an indirect
closed cooling water loop would be considered for onshore air
cooling service.
The water cooling system can be an open or closed loop.
In an open-loop system, a huge amount of seawater is drawn
in, pumped directly through shell-and-tube heat exchangers
(which are constructed of expensive, corrosion-resistant material, such as titanium) in the refrigeration systems, and then discharged back to the sea. Invariably, the nearshore FLNG facility
will be located in shallow water close to shore, where warmer
seawater will be encountered. This positioning will impact the
process efficiency and adversely impact LNG production. Also,
the water discharged into the sea must meet environmental requirements (in terms of maximum allowable return temperature, maximum temperature rise and residual chemical treatment) to minimize impact on ocean life nearshore.
In the closed-loop system, fresh cooling water is pumped
through a closed circuit to the plate-and-frame heat exchangers (which are constructed of less-expensive carbon steel material), in which heat is rejected to seawater. This option allows
for the possibility of controlling the inlet and outlet temperatures of the heat exchangers, thereby stabilizing the process.
The introduction of an intermediate loop ultimately increases
the process to seawater approaching temperature, with a consequential increase in the weight and loss of process efficiency.
Heating system. To improve the safety case of the FLNG
facility, the heating system should not use fired heaters, if possible. As such, waste heat from gas turbine exhaust is recovered
to provide process heating. The recovered heat is used mainly
to meet the amine unit reboiler duty. Applying a heat-recovery
steam-generation system on the exhausts of the gas turbines can
also produce steam, which is used to generate additional electric
power and to provide high-quality heat for regenerating molecular sieve beds. For operational simplicity, a heat transfer fluid is
preferred to steam, as it avoids the operational complexity, large
footprint, cost and weight of a steam generation system.
Power generation and emergency power. Although power
to nearshore/at-shore FLNG facilities can be provided from
the local power grid or an efficient combined-cycle power
plant located onshore, the facility should include an onboard
power-generation system to provide essential power to support
the entire facility. The facility should also have its own diesel
generators as a minimum to ensure safe shutdown, or a larger
generator as a backup to normal operation.
Modularization. The modular building of the FLNG facility
potentially reduces delivery time and moves costly site construction hours to fabrication yards, where cost and quality
are best controlled. When practical, modules are designed up
to 2,000 t to facilitate crane and transport availability. Larger
modules (up to 4,000 t) have been installed on FLNG ships
when the economic or schedule benefits were justified.
Potentially significant cost savings and advantages exist in
modular design, but the application to LNG facilities has not
yet been successful in reducing the overall cost. However, innovation, development, improved project management and
redefinition of the workflow are necessary for more cost-effective modularization projects. These elements include offsite
modularization at sites with lower labor costs and prefabrication of as many FLNG components as possible.
TAKEAWAY
Evaluating criteria for the commercial acceptance of FLNG
projects has shown that the dual-N2 expander liquefaction process is an appropriate selection for both offshore and nearshore
small-scale FLNG projects where layout area is limited. N2
expansion technology is a proven, simple, compact solution,
and is undoubtedly the safest design among the well-known
refrigeration cycles.
The SMR process, in which a low equipment count gives
a more compact design, is well-suited for small- to mid-scale
nearshore FLNG with better efficiency than the dual-N2 cycle,
but with a higher risk profile. SMR provides operational simplicity while maintaining high process efficiency and low operating costs. The viability of LNG projects can be improved by
maximizing production, but FLNG has a finite limit on barge
size and equipment size. Therefore, increased production can
be realized by switching to a more efficient DMR liquefaction
process, even though this will introduce additional hydrocarbon inventory and increase the equipment count.
Each FLNG facility will have unique aspects that require the
process design to be tailored to achieve the optimum configuration. In addition to selecting the correct liquefaction capacity and technology, the execution aspects of the FLNG project
(modularization strategy, construction philosophy, project execution and schedule) are also fundamental to achieving the
overall objective of minimizing the cost/t of LNG.
End of series. Part 1 appeared in the July/August issue. GP
SAEID MOKHATAB is an internationally recognized gas
processing consultant who has been actively involved in several
large-scale gas field development projects, concentrating on
design, precommissioning and startup of processing plants.
He has presented on gas processing technologies worldwide
and has authored or coauthored nearly 250 technical
publications, including two well-known and frequently
referenced Elsevier handbooks. He has held technical advisory positions for
leading professional journals, societies and conferences in the field of gas
processing, and has received a number of international awards in recognition of
his outstanding work in the natural gas industry.
SUKHPAL BASI is a chief technical adviser with the LNG
technology group at KBR in London, UK. Having started at
M. W. Kellogg in 1995, he has worked on LNG studies, FEED
and EPC projects across a range of onshore and offshore
applications throughout his career.
PHILIP HUNTER is the senior vice president for global LNG,

FLNG and GTL technology and development at KBR in London,
UK. He has more than 38 years of experience in the LNG
business, and is considered one of the worlds leading technical
experts in the natural gas liquefaction area. He has been
involved in different sectors of major LNG and gas processing
projects, from feasibility study, technology management,
conceptual design, and project engineering and construction, to plant
commissioning, startup and operation. He has authored or coauthored several
technical papers on LNG, and given numerous technical presentations at
prestigious international conferences.
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Use integrated analyses in design

and operation of LNG systems
J. VALAPPIL, R. KUMAR and J. MUMM, Bechtel Oil, Gas and Chemicals, Houston, Texas
The LNG industry has seen tremendous growth in recent

years, with several grassroots plants being built around the
world. Many of these facilities are being constructed onshore,
although the gas field may be located offshorein some cases,
hundreds of km away.
The transportation of the gas and condensate from these offshore fields to the gas processing and LNG facilities introduces
several challenges. The pipeline from the offshore field to the
shore is characterized by long distances and elevation changes.
Any operational disturbances in the upstream pipeline can adversely impact the operation of the gas processing or LNG facility. These impacts include the formation of slugs that can cause
severe operational challenges for the inlet facilities of the onshore plant. Accounting for these upstream disturbances in the
design of slug catcher and inlet facilities is critical to ensuring
reliable facility operation.
The slug catcher in the onshore facility is designed to handle
the slugs that result from various operational scenarios. In addition, the inlet facilities, including the stabilizer system, are
designed to account for the condensate liquids that must be
processed. The proper designs of these units are important for
the reliable operation of the entire facility under all conditions.
The unit designs are a balance between operational flexibility
and capital cost. A design that can handle the volume of slug for
all operational scenarios without impacting the operation can
be prohibitive from a capital-cost perspective. Therefore, some
operational flexibility is sacrificed to design a facility with reasonable CAPEX.
The slug catcher and stabilizer facilities are designed to handle the slug generated during various modes of operation and
upset conditions. This is usually accomplished by flow assurance analyses in the early stages of the facility design (front-end
engineering or earlier).1 This analysis uses a rigorous model to
determine the effects of various operational scenarios. These
scenarios include pigging, startup after shutdown, flow rampup, minimum turndown and other relevant scenarios. Transient
simulation of the pipeline model is utilized to determine the
slug arrival time, slug volume and other pertinent information.
Additional benefits are gained by integrating a rigorous dynamic model of the pipeline with a model of the onshore facility. This model helps eliminate assumptions regarding the
conditions at the interface between offshore and downstream
facilities. The integrated model can also be valuable to establish
operational strategies on both sides to account for the various
upstream scenarios. This process helps verify the design of the
entire natural gas/LNG value chain (from wells to the delivery

point). The tradeoffs established during design between capital cost and operational flexibility can be verified in a rigorous
manner with this methodology.
A case study is presented where a rigorous pipeline model is
linked with a dynamic process simulation model of an onshore
LNG plant. This integrated model is used to test various operational scenarios, including pigging and flow ramp-ups. The
results are valuable for verifying the design of the individual
equipment and units, and for identifying operational recommendations for the entire offshore/onshore gas transport infrastructure and LNG facility.
DESIGN AND OPERATION OF SLUG

CATCHER AND STABILIZER SYSTEMS
At onshore gas processing facilities, the first step is to separate the gas from the liquids. Slug catchers are used onshore to
catch large slugs of liquid in pipelines and to provide a temporary storage buffer. These liquids are then delivered to the liquid
processing facility at a suitable rate. These slug catchers may be
of the vessel type or the finger type. The finger-type slug catchers are normally preferred for the larger volumes typical in natural gas and LNG facilities. FIG. 1 shows a typical inlet facility in
an LNG plant with a three-phase slug catcher. The gas from the
slug catcher is sent for further purification and liquefaction.
The condensate stabilization system is designed to process
the NGL from the slug catcher and produce condensate that
meets Reid vapor pressure (RVP) and H2S specifications. The
process schematic of a condensate stabilization unit typically
Acid gas removal/
dehydration
Vapors
Upstream pipeline feed
Gas to liquefaction
Slug catcher
Liquids
Three-phase
separation
Condensate
stabilization unit
Aqueous liquids
Hydrocarbon liquids
FIG. 1. A typical slug catcher inlet facility configuration in a natural

gas/LNG plant.

used in LNG plants is shown in FIG. 2. Here, the hydrocarbon
liquids from the slug catcher are let down to an intermediate
pressure in the flash drum. The flash gases are recovered and
sent back to the feed gas; then, the liquids are routed to the condensate stabilizer column. The overhead vapor from the stabilizer is compressed and returned back to the feed gas system and
the amine unit. The bottom product from the stabilizer column
is the condensate product.
Upstream scenarios affecting onshore facilities. The design of the slug catcher and inlet facilities must account for the
various operational scenarios and disturbances in the upstream
pipeline feeding the LNG plant. Several scenarios impact the
feed to onshore facilities, especially the slug volume:
1. Pigging. Pigging operation is necessary in multiphase
flow systems for the purpose of inspection/maintenance
and ensuring that the pipeline is clean. When pigging,
a liquid slug is created ahead of the pig, which can be
challenging for receiving facilities (i.e., the LNG plant).
2. Flow ramp-up. The increase of pipeline flow from
turndown rates to full rate is a major disturbance for
the onshore plant. This disturbance is due to the fact
that the liquid holdup in the pipeline is higher at lower
rates. As the flow is ramped up, the extra liquid is swept
onshore, creating a surge of liquid at the onshore facility.
To AGRU
Second-stage
compressor
First-stage
compressor
Water
Condensate
stabilizer
Slug
catcher
Feed gas
C4+ from NGL unit
Water
Reboiler
MP flash
drum
Stabilized condendate
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
Volume in slug catcher

Net liquid flow into slug catcher
Liquid flow into slug catcher
Accumulated liquid
Liquid flow out of slug catcher
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Accumulated liquid
Removable liquid volume in slug catcher, flowrate
FIG. 2. A typical condensate stabilization system in a natural gas/

LNG plant.
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
50
10
15
20
25
Time, hr
30
35
40
45
FIG. 3. Various factors that go into sizing the slug catcher for a flow
ramp-up case.
3. Gas field switchover. In several cases, a single LNG

plant can be fed from multiple pipelines and wells.
Switching of these pipelines or production wells can
cause a compositional disturbance that changes the
volume of liquid in the pipeline.
4. Onshore plant operational upsets. Various
operational upsets in the onshore plant can cause the
pressure at the slug catcher to vary significantly. This
pressure variance can result in changes in the volume of
liquid arriving at the onshore facility.
Sizing of slug catcher and stabilizer systems. The sizing of
the slug catcher in a natural gas facility is intended for process

stabilization, phase separation and storage of the liquid during
various operational scenarios. The slug catcher is intended to
dampen the effects of flowrate surges and deliver a steady supply of liquid to the production facilities.
The size of the slug catcher is based on the liquid accumulation rate. This can be calculated as Liquid input mass rate Liquid discharge mass rate = Liquid accumulation mass rate.
The liquid input mass rate is the liquid flowrate entering
into the slug catcher. It is dependent on the system operating
philosophy, strategies and procedures adopted. Liquid discharge mass rate is a function of the capacity of the control
valve and the stabilizer unit. The liquid accumulation rates
can be calculated to determine an appropriate size for the
slug catcher.
Significant CAPEX savings can be realized by optimizing the
size of the slug catcher that is required to handle the slugs and
prevent upsets on the downstream equipment. Analysis using
multiphase simulation tools early in the design phase can be
valuable in optimizing the size.
Stabilizer systems are sized to handle the liquids from the
slug catcher to produce NGL products, and are sized for the
normal liquid rates, within an appropriate margin. It is impractical to size the stabilizer systems for the maximum liquid rates
expected during various upstream scenarios. It is possible to
oversize the stabilizer system beyond the normal liquid rate.
This scenario reduces the required size of the slug catcher,
thereby establishing a tradeoff between the capital cost of the
slug catcher vs. the stabilizer system.
The removable liquid in the slug catcher (FIG. 3) is the volume above the minimum volume required for the slug catcher.
The pipeline was initially operating at the steady-state flowrate. It was then shut down and gradually ramped up to the
final flowrate.
Tradeoff between capital cost and operability. The design of the slug catcher and inlet facilities should account for
the various upstream operational scenarios that can impact the
natural gas facility. In many cases, it is not economically feasible
to size the slug catcher to handle the maximum slug arrival rate,
considering all the scenarios. In these cases, the facility must
sacrifice the operability to reduce the slug catcher size and,
therefore, the capital cost.
Placing an economic figure on the operability of the plant
may prove difficult, but an attempt should be made to account
for this figure in economic calculations. The overall design is,
therefore, a tradeoff between capital cost and operability.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS METHODOLOGIES

A brief overview of the design methodology normally used
for multiphase pipeline systems is outlined in the following
sections.
Design using model of upstream pipeline. A rigorous sim-
ulation model of the upstream pipeline is normally utilized in

the design of the slug catcher in the onshore plant. The model should offer the capability to predict the multiphase flow
characteristics to accurately estimate the slug sizes. All the relevant aspects of the pipeline, including elevation changes, are
included in the model. Normally, the model is developed as
a part of the flow assurance study performed during the early
design phase.
The rigorous pipeline model is then used to run steadystate and transient simulations of the various aforementioned
operational scenarios. The main information used for sizing
is the volume of liquid flows coming from the pipeline to the
slug catcher.
In establishing the design and operation of the multiphase
pipeline, valuable data can be obtained from such an analysis:
1. Steady-state pressure profiles. These profiles are
critical to ensure that an adequate flow can be fed to the
onshore facility at various pressures. The pressure drop
is calculated using multiphase flow correlations.
2. Steady-state liquid holdups. The steady-state liquid

holdup in the pipeline is important in establishing
the liquid volume during turndown conditions. At
lower flowrates, the liquid volume is greater. FIG. 4
demonstrates the relationship between flowrate and
liquid holdup.
3. Slug sizes during various scenarios. Transient analysis
of the upstream pipeline model is used to establish slug
sizes during various scenarios, including pigging and
flow changes.
4. Methodology for startup. Ramping up pipeline flow
to a higher rate (low to full) is impractical due to the
large volume of liquids that will be swept onshore. A
more practical approach is to establish a staged startup,
where the flow increases in a step fashion, holding at
intermediate rates to sweep out the liquid. A maximum
flow ramp-up rate from turndown conditions can also
be established, beyond which the slug catcher capacity
will be exceeded.
Integrated upstream and onshore facility models. It is im-
portant to analyze the impact of upstream disturbance on the

onshore equipment and facilities. Sequential simulations for the
upstream pipeline and the downstream plant can be performed.
The flowrates for the gas/condensate and compositions as a
1.2
.01
Scaled liquid holdup
This tradeoff is demonstrated in FIG. 4, which shows the

amount of liquid holdup in the upstream pipeline as a function of flowrate. At lower flowrates, the holdups can be large.
Performing pigging operation at these low flowrates, or ramping up from these low rates to full rate in a reasonable time,
requires a slug catcher that is larger than an optimal one (FIG.
4). This is cost prohibitive, so the more practical approach of
performing a pigging operation and ramp-up rate change (continuous, step-mode) should be performed to meet the slug
catcher boundary conditions.
During ramp-up operation in step mode, slug catcher inventory is reduced after each step. This adds to the ramp-up
time, affecting operability. If permissible prior to the pigging or
ramping-up operation, the liquid inventory in the system can be
lowered by various modes of operation.
To account for many of the upstream scenarios, the onshore
facility can be prepared in a number of ways:
Prepare slug catcher. The slug catcher can be drained
to the lowest level and then set at the proper operating
pressure to reduce the impact.
Initiate condensate stabilization. The condensate
stabilization unit can be ramped up to maximum
production before the arrival of a slug.
Reduce time in turndown conditions. This decreases
the liquid inventory in the pipeline, minimizing the slug
volume arriving at the onshore facility.
Change compositions fed to the pipeline. If feasible,
the upstream source composition can be modified to
minimize the liquid inventory. This normally means
using lean wells before pigging.
Tailor flow ramp-up to satisfy the slug catcher. The
increase in flow from turndown or shutdown to full rate
may be tailored to reduce the slug size.
Operational
management
0.8
0.6
0.4
Slug catcher size
0.2
0.0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Scaled flowrate
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
FIG. 4. Liquid holdup in pipelines as a function of flowrate.
Pressure
Pipeline
operation process
simulation model
OPC connection
Server
Process
simulation
model
Client
Temperature
Phase flows
P-F derivatives
Component phase flows
FIG. 5. Integrated upstream and onshore process models used for
analysis.

function of time can be entered into the downstream facility
model to evaluate the effect on inlet facilities.
The main disadvantage is that a sequential approach does
not account for the interaction between the upstream and onshore units. For example, the change in flow to the onshore
plant would, in turn, impact the volume of liquid and the composition of the pipeline flow. This method would only be appropriate if the pipeline flow is independent of the pressure, or
if the pressure is well-controlled at the slug catcher.
Benefits of integrating the upstream pipeline and downstream natural gas facility models include:
1. The integrated model captures the effect of upstream
operations on the downstream facilities and control
system, and vice versa, more accurately. This visibility
eliminates the need to assume unrealistic boundary
conditions. For example, the change in pressure at the
slug catcher impacts upstream behavior. This pressure,
in turn, is affected by what is delivered from the pipeline
and the behavior of the LNG plant.
2. The integrated model allows for development
of operational strategies for both upstream and
downstream.
3. The integrated model allows for the development of
control schemes that are best suited to both upstream
Normalized liquid volumetric flowrate
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1,400
1,420
1,440
Time, min.
1,460
1,480
1,500
FIG. 6. Liquid volumetric flowrate into the slug catcher as the slug
exits the pipeline during pigging.
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0
500
Time, min.
1,000
1,500
FIG. 7. Liquid volumetric flowrate at the exit of the pipeline as the

flowrate into the pipeline is increased.
and downstream operations. For example, the integrated

model would be beneficial in designing and validating
the compressor controls in the downstream units.
Case study setup. The dynamic model for this analysis consisted of a rigorous offshore pipeline model linked to a separate dynamic process simulation model of the onshore LNG
plant. Separate simulation software packages were utilized for
the pipeline and LNG plant models to accurately capture the
transient behaviors unique to each section, including transient
multiphase flow within the pipeline, and operability and control
within the LNG plant.
A link between the two models was established using the native pipe unit operation in the plant process simulation model,
which allowed the pipeline models outlet stream to be connected to the plant models inlet stream. To establish the connection,
the pipeline model was first configured to be compliant with
open platform communications (OPC). Variables controlling
time and speed were exposed from within the pipeline model
software to start/stop the model and to allow for synchronization of simulation time (FIG. 5).2
The scope of the pipeline model extended from the export
of the offshore wells to the inlet of the slug catcher. Production
from the wells was controlled via a source node (export) with
a fixed flowrate and composition. The outlet boundary node
(ending at the inlet to the slug catcher) was specified with a
fixed pressure. For each case, the initial steady-state temperature, pressure, flow, compositional and phase profiles along the
pipeline were configured by fixing the pressure at the outlet
boundary node and running a steady-state preprocessor within
the pipeline simulation software.
During transient simulations, the pressure at the outlet node
was calculated by the dynamic plant model and sent back to the
pipeline model as a fixed value at the beginning of each integration step. The flow conditions along the pipeline were then calculated and tracked within the pipeline simulation software, and
the resulting conditions at the outlet node were sent back to the
plant model. During integration, both models were executed in
parallel; as a result, there was a one-step time delay when passing
boundary pressure and flow information. To prevent oscillation,
pressure-flow derivatives were communicated between the models to predict the boundary response during transient conditions.
Temperature and phase flow information were also retrieved by the plant model to set the composition and temperature of the inlet. For the flow ramp-up, pressure change
and pigging simulation cases, a non-compositional pipeline
model was used. In these cases, a fixed total composition was
assumed in the pipeline model, meaning that specific component fractions were neither calculated nor tracked. For the
composition change case, a separate pipeline model with composition tracking was used.
Upstream operational scenarios. Three cases were investigated as part of this analysis: pigging, flowrate ramp-up and
inlet composition changes.
Pigging is a common practice in pipeline systems, wherein
a pig is propelled through a pipeline by the pressure of the
product flow for inspection, maintenance and cleaning. During pigging, a liquid slug is often created ahead of the pig,
which can result in a sudden surge of liquid entering the slug
catcher. Typically, slug catchers are designed to receive a cer-
1.00
tain net liquid volume over a specified period of time. However, if they are under-designed, the arrival of a slug can result in
liquid overflow to those downstream processes where liquid
could disrupt production.
For this analysis, the arrival of such a slug during pigging was
simulated to determine the impact on the receiving facilities,
and to verify that the sizing of the slug catcher was sufficient to
receive and process the full volume of the slug.
As the pig traveled through the pipeline, a liquid slug
formed ahead of the pig. FIG. 6 shows the total liquid volumetric flowrate into the slug catcher. As the slug exited the pipeline, the flowrate increased and was maintained at a high rate
for nearly 1 hr. The area under this curve represents the total
volume of the slug.
In response, flow to the condensate stabilization system was
increased to maximum capacity. To analyze the capability of the
stabilization system and to process the sudden increase in liquid, the relative volatility of the condensate product was tracked
via the RVP. A temporary spike occurred in the RVP as the stabilizer capacity was suddenly increased. Such a disruption could
have been minimized by ramping up the stabilizer capacity at a
slower rate; for this case, the slug catcher would have provided
a sufficient buffer volume to allow for more gradual corrective
action on the stabilization system.
When the flow through a pipeline is ramped up, the increase in flowrate sweeps out the liquid within the pipeline and
results in large slugs of liquid volume entering the slug catcher.
To determine the impact of a ramp-up and the volumes of resulting slugs, a dynamic simulation was performed in which the
inlet flowrate was increased at a predefined maximum rate from
turndown conditions to the maximum production rate.
For the flowrate ramp-up case, the total mass flowrate at the
inlet of the pipeline was ramped up from turndown conditions
to full capacity over a period of 1 hr. FIG. 7 shows the liquid phase
flowrate at the exit of the pipeline. As the flowrate increased, residual condensate built up within the pipeline was pushed out,
resulting in a large surge of liquid into the slug catcher.
For this case, the peak liquid flowrates into the slug catcher
were lower than in the pigging case; therefore, flow to the stabilizer was increased more gradually. Eventually, the stabilizer
reached maximum capacity well before the increase in the slug
catcher liquid level subsided.
Inlet composition changes. The transition of the plant inlet composition from the pipeline was also simulated to analyze
any potential operational issues. Compositional change can occur due to switching or changing of production wells with different well fluid compositions.
For this case, the inlet composition from the well was assumed to transition from a case with a high nitrogen content to a
case with a higher concentration of heavier components, meaning more condensate formation along the pipeline. After changing the feed composition, the fraction of liquid in the feed increased as heavier hydrocarbons condensed along the pipeline.
FIG. 8 shows the volumetric flowrate of the liquid phase arrival at the inlet to the slug catcher. The wave of liquid took approximately 27 hr to traverse the entire length of the pipeline,
resulting in the sudden increase shown in FIG. 8. This increase
in liquid volume was found to be within the capacity of the slug
catcher, and no action was required.
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1,400
1,500
1,600
1,700
Time, min.
1,800
1,900
2,000
FIG. 8. Liquid volumetric flowrate into the slug catcher after the feed
composition is changed to one with heavier components.
TAKEAWAY
The impact of upstream operation on the onshore facilities
can be significant and must be taken into account in design
and operation. The sizing of the facility is a tradeoff between
capital cost and operability. This balance can be established
early in the design phase to eliminate any issues during the facility lifetime.
Analysis using an integrated model is beneficial in various
ways, including for verification of the integrated operation of
the entire facility. Operating procedures can be developed to
handle a variety of upstream transients using these analyses and
methodologies. GP
LITERATURE CITED
Hagesaether, L., K. Lunde, F. Nygard and H. Eidsmoen, Flow assurance modeling: Reality check and aspects of transient operations of gas/condensate pipelines, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May 2006.
2
Heum, J. R., Steady state vs. dynamic simulation and OLGA, e-Field Seminar,
Dubai, UAE, November 1, 2009.
1
JALEEL VALAPPIL is a principal process engineer and team lead

for Bechtel Oil, Gas & Chemicals advanced simulation group in
Houston, Texas. His areas of expertise include process
engineering, simulation, control and optimization. He is
responsible for developing and deploying advanced technical
solutions during design, commissioning and operation
of various Bechtel projects, including LNG. Dr. Valappil holds a
BS degree from the Indian Institute of Technology in Kharagpur, India and a PhD in
chemical engineering from Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
RAKESH KUMAR is an engineering supervisor in Bechtel Corp.s
pipeline division. His field of experience includes process plant
operation, construction, precommissioning, commissioning,
detailed design and operations support for system startup.
His responsibilities include flow assurance, thermal hydraulic
design and assessment of gas, liquid and multiphase systems.
Mr. Kumar holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India and an MS degree in chemical engineering
from Lamar University in Beaumont, Texas.
JESSE MUMM is a process engineer in Bechtel Oil,
Gas & Chemicals advanced simulation group. His
responsibilities include the hands-on development of
dynamic plant models and utilizing simulation for the design,
validation and optimization of LNG and gas processing plants.
He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from the
University of Minnesota and has several years of experience
in dynamic process simulation.
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Impacts of benzene and piperazine

concentrations on LNG plant capacity
K. K. HWANG and S. KIM, SK E&C, Houston, Texas
Benzene emissions can have an effect on LNG plant capacity when a vent gas incinerator is not present. Here, a typical
amine sweetening unit for acid gas removal, featuring a typical
lean feed gas composition, is modeled using commercial amine
sweetening software to calculate annual benzene emissions
rates. The maximum allowable benzene content in a given feed
gas rate is set by US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
benzene emissions limits.
Two parametersbenzene concentration in the feed gas
stream and piperazine content in the methyldiethanolamine
(MDEA) solutionare used to determine LNG plant capacity. LNG plant capacity is described by an empirical curve fit
equation. This equation provides a method to predict LNG
plant capacity when a vent gas incinerator is not present.
Understanding the effects of benzene emissions rates on
LNG plant capacity provides operators and designers a basis for
the interpretation and manipulation of a broad range of feed gas
compositions in LNG plant design.
Parameter overview. Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) are present in natural gas streams and are picked
up in the exit CO2 stream of the amine unit. Typically, the vent
gas is incinerated through a thermal oxidizer to meet EPA BTEX
emissions limits. BTEX components are listed by the EPA in the
Clean Air Act of 1990 as some of the 188 hazardous air pollutants. The EPA sets a standard of 25 tpy for total aromatic compounds emitted by any given plant. A 10-tpy limit also exists on
each individual aromatic compound that can be emitted.
The reasons1 for the restrictions are as follows:
1. Benzene is a human carcinogen that promotes leukemia
2. Toluene exposure can lead to reproductive or
developmental effects
3. Ethylbenzene affects the blood, kidneys and liver
4. Xylene exposure can affect the central nervous system,
leading to respiratory and cardiovascular problems.
Therefore, most gas operations incinerate BTEX, which are
then absorbed in the amine unit and eventually released to the
atmosphere to resolve the disposal issue of BTEX components
in the vent gas stream.
However, the vent gas incinerator (thermal oxidizer) is a
major source of flue gas, such as NOx and CO. The NOx and
CO emissions rates from the thermal oxidizer could pose a major issue in obtaining local environmental air permits. In addition, the vent gas incineration is a thermal oxidation process in
which the BTEX components are combusted at a temperature
of 1,500F. Since most of the vent gas stream is water-saturated

CO2 , a considerable amount of fuel gas is required for this operation. In other words, the vent gas incineration process can
be operating cost-prohibitive from a fuel-usage standpoint.2
The other challenge posed by the thermal oxidizer comes
from a construction viewpoint. According to National Fire
Protection Association Standard 59A, process equipment
containing LNG, refrigerants, flammable liquids or flammable
gases shall be located at least 50 ft from the ignition source.
The separation distance could provide another problem, since
most small-scale LNG feed gas treatment systems inclusive of
amine units are designed by modular fabrication.
The modular fabrication provides benefits such as an accelerated schedule, lower installed cost and increased reliability for LNG plant operations. Therefore, efforts to replace the
vent gas incinerator with adsorption technology have drawn
attention, and are under study. In this work, the authors provide the example of the removal of vent gas incineration from
amine regeneration in the feed gas treatment portion of an
LNG plant, and explain how this modification would affect
LNG plant capacity. More specifically, the authors review
the configuration of the feed gas treatment system and explain how benzene emissions rates from the amine regenerator can impact the capacity of an LNG plant without a vent
gas incinerator.
In this study, the authors use a commercial process simulator to model a typical acid gas removal unit (AGRU) without a
vent gas incinerator. The model allows for the predicted measurement of annual benzene emissions rates for the two parameters, which are benzene contents in the feed gas stream and
piperazine concentrations in the amine solution.
Requirements of feed gas treatment. In an LNG plant,
natural gas from the gathering system must be treated before
liquefaction can take place. Four major categories of contaminants in the raw feed gas are considered potentially damaging
to the liquefaction process: mercury, heavy hydrocarbons, acid
gas and water.
Mercury is known to cause stress cracking in brazed aluminum heat exchangers that are used in the cryogenic section. To
prevent this stress cracking from occurring, the typical mercury specification for LNG is set at 10 Ng/m3. Mercury can
be easily removed by conventional methods, such as a non-regenerable metal oxide guard bed. In addition, a sulfur-impregnated mercury-sulfur guard bed is used to meet the EPA H2S
emissions limit.

The optimal location of the lead-lag beds is upstream of the
AGRU, since the vent gas stream with H2S from the amine regenerator is not supposed to be incinerated. Also, the heavy hydrocarbon (HHC) removal unit should be placed upstream of the
amine unit so that a significant amount of BTEX is not released
into the acid gas along with the CO2 from the amine regenerator.
CO2 removal from natural gas using amine to very low levels
(< 50 ppmv) is required to prevent freezing in the cold box. In
a typical commercial amine process, an aqueous alkanolamine
solution is in counter-current contact with natural gas containTABLE 1. Acid gas stream composition and operating conditions
Gas component
mol%
C1
94
C2
C3+
0.3
Benzene
4 ppmv
CO2
Inert
Balance
Operating condition
Measurement
Temperature, F
95
Pressure, psig
900
Flowrate, MMscfd
320
TABLE 2. Amine solution composition and operating conditions

Amine solution
wt%
MDEA
45
Piperazine
Water
50
Operating condition
Measurement
Temperature, F
113
CO2 loading to MDEA solution, mol
0.58
Vent gas to ATM
Sweet gas to
dehydration
ing CO2 in an absorber column. Finally, water must be removed

from the gas stream prior to liquefaction to avoid freezing in the
cold box. These treating facilities are an essential part of LNG
plants, helping ensure reliable LNG production. As discussed
in the previous section, this case study highlights the AGRU to
address benzene emissions without a vent gas incinerator.
Modeling of AGRU. In this study, a typical amine sweetening unit (FIG. 1) is modeled using a commercial process simulator. An aqueous MDEA solution is in counter-current contact
with natural gas containing CO2 in an absorber column. The
MDEA reacts with the acidic CO2 gas to form a dissolved salt,
allowing purified natural gas to exit absorber. The rich amine
solution is regenerated in a stripper column to produce an acid
gas stream concentrated with CO2, and is eventually vented
to atmosphere without incineration. The lean solution is then
cooled and returned to the absorber, allowing the process to
repeat in a closed loop.
The acid gas stream, MDEA solution and operating parameters used for the study are summarized in TABLES 1 and 2.
Typically, feed to LNG plants is composed primarily of
methane, together with ethane, propane, butane and heavier
components. A typical lean gas feed composition is used for the
higher content of CO2 gas in the study. All stream properties of
the amine unit are calculated using amine sweetening software
in a commercial process simulator. Benzene content and composition of amine solution are varied for the sensitivity studies,
irrespective of the performance credit of the HHC removal unit.
Results and discussion. Benzene is the least soluble aromatic
component in LNG and poses the highest risk of freezing in

the cold box. Therefore, benzene content is used as a target
specification for the operation of the HHC removal unit in the
LNG plant. The benzene content in the AGRU feed can vary,
depending on the performance of the HHC removal unit in
conjunction with CAPEX and OPEX.
Benzene contents in the vent gas stream from the amine regenerator and sweet gas stream from the amine contactor are
shown in FIG. 2 as a function of the benzene concentration of
the AGRU feed gas stream.
Amine
contactor
Acid gas from
HHC unit
Amine
regenerator
Steam
Rich
amine
flash
Benzene content in outlet streams of amine unit, ppmv
80
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Amine
solution
FIG. 1. AGRU process scheme.
Benzene content in vent gas

Benzene content in sweet gas
70
25
10
15
20
Benzene concentration of feed gas stream, ppmv
FIG. 2. Benzene content in outlet streams of the AGRU.
30
35

mately 8 ppmv of benzene is theoretically soluble in liquid
methane at the typical liquefaction temperature of 250F.
Consequently, the maximum benzene content of 4.5 ppmv
meets the LNG specification and the EPA benzene emissions
limit, as well.
The benzene content is determined by the performance of
the HHC removal unit, which is located upstream of the AGR
unit. For instance, the performance of temperature swing adsorption removing HHC inclusive of benzene is dependent on
adsorbent volume (CAPEX) and regeneration cycle (OPEX).
Specifically, the benzene content of the AGRU feed gas stream
could be reduced at the cost of CAPEX and OPEX.
Eventually, the reduced benzene content can increase LNG
plant capacity, meeting the EPA benzene emissions limit. To
investigate the dependency of LNG plant capacity on benzene
concentration, the same calculation methods described in FIG. 3
are conducted, varying the feed gas flowrate. In this calculation,
20
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
3
4
5
6
7
-100
Estimated annual benzene emissions
EPA emissions limit
18
-120
-140
14
-160
12
-180
Temperature, F
16
10
-200
-220
-240
-260
-280
FIG. 4. Calculated yearly benzene emissions at 4 320 MMscfd.
20
Benzene emissions, tpy

EPA emissions limit
18
Bullen et al.3 reported that the solubility of benzene in 50

wt% MDEA solution at 110F should be approximately 0.017
scf/gal. However, as shown in FIG. 2, a very small amount of
benzene is absorbed in the MDEA solution due to low partial
pressure of benzene in the feed gas stream. By increasing the
benzene concentration of the feed gas stream, benzene contents in sweet gas and vent gas streams display an increase.
From the benzene contents in the vent gas stream of the amine
regenerator, represented by a diamond symbol in FIG. 2, annual benzene emissions to the atmosphere are calculated based
on a feed gas flow of 320 MMscfd.
FIG. 3 reports the calculated annual benzene emissions
rate in tpy, in terms of benzene concentration of the feed gas
stream, for the case study of 320 MMscfd of feed gas flow. The
calculated annual benzene emissions rate and the EPA emissions limit are designated by the blue diamond symbol and
the red dotted line, respectively. The EPA limit of 10 tpy is
taken to indicate that approximately 18 ppmv (maximum) of
benzene content is allowed in the feed gas stream.
Since LNG plants are typically designed with multiple
trains for larger production rates or operational flexibility to
meet client needs and commercial requirements, the feed gas
flow of the case study is extended to 4 320 MMscfd. As expected, the benzene loading at the feed gas flow of 4 320
MMscfd shifted to a lower concentration in comparison to the
feed gas flow of 320 MMscfd to meet the EPA emissions limit,
as shown in FIG. 4. In other words, the HHC removal unit upstream of the AGRU must reduce the benzene content to approximately 4.5 ppmv (maximum) to meet the EPA benzene
emissions limit.
As stated earlier of the study result, there is a high risk of
precipitation of benzene in the LNG product, due to its higher freezing point compared to cyclohexane and other aromatic components. Therefore, the maximum benzene content
of 4.5 ppmv, meeting EPA limits, must be examined so that
freezing does not occur in the LNG product. Experimental
solubility data for benzene in methane from Neumann4 are
shown in FIG. 5. According to the solubility data, approxi-
-300
0
10
15
20
25
FIG. 3. Calculated yearly benzene emissions at 320 MMscfd.
30
35
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Concentration of benzene in CH4, ppm (mol)
80
90
FIG. 5. Solubility of benzene in methane (reproduced from Neumann4).


the benzene emissions rate of 9 tpy is taken as a threshold point
determining the benzene content in the feed gas stream, considering a 10% safety margin on the EPA emissions limit.
FIG. 6 reports estimated LNG plant capacity as a function
of the benzene concentration of the feed gas stream. The LNG
plant capacity decreases as benzene content in the feed gas
stream increases to meet the EPA emissions limit. The dependency of the LNG plant capacity (Ca) on the benzene concentration (Bz) of the feed gas stream is well described (R2 = 0.99)
by the empirical curve fit (solid line) shown in Eq. 1:
Ca =
5,326
Bz
(1)
where the fit constant has a unit of ppmv MMscfd.

The other parameter affecting the benzene emissions rate of
the vent gas is the amine solution. Amines reactivity with CO2
and benzenes solubility in amine solution could factor into the
12,000
Estimated LNG capacity, MMscfd
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
benzene emissions from an AGRU without a vent gas incinerator.

MDEA is preferably used as an absorbent in applications
involving CO2 removal from natural gas in LNG production
due to its low regeneration energy. However, its reaction with
CO2 is extremely slow, and the absorption process is controlled
entirely by resistance to mass transfer in the solvent phase. For
this reason, 5% of piperazine in MDEA solution was used in the
modeling study of the AGRU. Piperazine is a cyclic diamine
that reacts with CO2 approximately 10 times faster than MDEA.
To further investigate piperazines effect on the benzene
emissions rate of the vent gas stream, a commercial amine
sweetening simulation was conducted, varying piperazine concentration in the MDEA solution and maintaining the same
benzene concentration of 4 ppmv in the feed gas stream.
FIG. 7 shows the benzene content in the vent gas stream as a
function of piperazine concentration. According to the simulation result, benzene content in the vent gas stream decreases as
piperazine concentration increases. From the benzene contents
in the vent gas stream shown in FIG. 7, yearly benzene emissions
to atmosphere are calculated based on a feed gas flow of 4 320
MMscfd and benzene content of 4 ppmv in the feed gas stream.
FIG. 8 shows that the yearly benzene emissions rate decreases
as piperazine loading increases. As discussed previously, piperazine is a promoter absorbing CO2 rather than benzene.
As a result, benzene content in the vent gas stream decreases
as piperazines strength in amine solution (50 wt%) increases.
In other words, it is likely that benzenes solubility decreases as
TABLE 3. Piperazine concentrations and curve fit constant
2,000
Piperazine concentration,
wt%
Curve fit constant,

A, ppmv MMscfd
3,150
0
0
4
6
8
10
12
FIG. 6. Estimated LNG plant capacities.
5,326
6,509
10
7,292
16
45

EPA emissions limit
35
Benzene content in vent gas stream, ppmv
14
25
12
10
15
6
4
5
6
7
8
Piperazine content in MDEA solution, wt%
10
FIG. 7. Benzene content in the vent gas stream at 4 ppmv of benzene

in the feed gas stream.
11
4
5
6
7
8
Piperazine content in MDEA solution, wt%
10
FIG. 8. Estimated yearly benzene emissions at 4 ppmv of benzene in

the feed gas stream.
11

the MDEA fraction in the amine solution decreases. The study
result is enhanced by reference study results3,5 showing that the
solubility of benzene in the MDEA solution is reduced by as
much as 30% as MDEA concentration decreases by 10%. More
detailed analysis on benzenes solubility in piperazine should be
conducted in a separate study.
To investigate the dependency of LNG plant capacity on
benzene and piperazine concentrations, the same calculation
method and the same EPA emissions criteria described in
FIG. 6 are conducted, varying the feed gas flowrate. As shown in
FIG. 9, LNG plant capacity increases as piperazine concentration
in the MDEA solution increases at the same level of benzene
concentration of the feed gas stream.
The dependency of LNG plant capacity (Ca) on benzene
concentration (Bz) of the feed gas stream is well described
(R2 = 0.99) by the empirical curve fit (Ca = A/Bz) and summarized in TABLE 3 for all piperazine loading rates.
The curve fit constant linearly correlated with the piperazine
concentration. The slopes and intercept of the linear regression
were 418.9 MMscfd . ppmv . wt%1, and 3,150 MMscfd . ppmv1,
respectively (R2 = 0.99). By compiling the fit constant into the
empirical curve fit (Ca = A/Bz), the LNG plant capacity can be
expressed in terms of benzene and piperazine concentrations using the curve fit shown in Eq. 2:
Ca =
3,150 + 418.9Pi
Bz
(2)
designers to interpret and manipulate a broad range of feed gas

compositions in LNG plant design. GP
LITERATURE CITED
Majumdar, D., A. K. Mukherjeea and S. Sen, BTEX in ambient air of a metropolitan city, Journal of Environmental Protection, Vol. 2: 2011.
2
Morrow, D. and K. Lunsford, Removal and disposal of BTEX components
from amine plant acid gas streams, Proceedings from the 76th annual GPA
convention, 1997.
3
Bullin, J. and W. Brown, Hydrocarbons and BTEX pickup and control from
amine systems, Proceedings from the 83rd annual GPA convention, 2004.
4
Neumann, A., R. Mann and W. Von Szalghary, Solubility of solid benzene in
liquid hydrocarbons, Kaeltetech Klim, Vol. 24, 1972.
5
Critchfield, J., H. Holub and F. Mather, Solubility of hydrocarbons in aqueous
solutions of gas treating amines, Proceedings from the Laurance Reid Gas
Conditioning Conference, 2001.
1
KENNETH K. HWANG is a registered professional chemical

engineer with more than 17 years of experience in the oil
and gas industry, and in research. He received his PhD in
chemical engineering from Texas A&M University. Dr. Hwang
works for SK E&C as a senior process engineer. He has
expertise in natural gas processing, LNG, LPG and ethylene
plant design.
SUCKHEE KIM is a principal process engineer with more than
22 years of engineering, procurement and construction (EPC)
and front-end engineering design (FEED) experience in the
oil and gas industry. Mr. Kims specific areas of technical
expertise include LNG liquefaction technology, NGL processing
and natural gas treatment. He works for SK E&C as a principal
process engineer.
To the authors knowledge, neither benzene nor piperazine

concentration dependency on LNG plant capacity has been
previously reported. Ultimately, with knowledge of the benzene concentration (0 < Bz 8 ppmv) and piperazine concentration (0 Pi 10 wt%), Eq. 2 provides a powerful method
for making predictions of LNG plant capacity where a vent gas
incinerator is not present. In other words, the contribution of
benzene emissions without a vent gas incinerator can also be
extended to typical gas processing and treating plants.
Ultimately, understanding the effects of benzene emissions
rates on LNG plant capacity provides a basis for operators and
TRI-CON
9,000
8,000
7,000
Estimated LNG capacity, MMscfd
TRI-CHECK
TRI-BLOCK
Piperazine = 0 wt%
Piperazine = 5 wt%
Piperazine = 8 wt%
Piperazine = 10 wt%
6,000
WWW.ZWICK-VALVES.COM
5,000
THE NEXT GENERATION
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
0
4
6
8
FIG. 9. Estimated LNG plant capacities at various benzene and

piperazine loadings.
10
TRI-SHARK
TRI-CONTROL
TRI-JACK
Protecting You
During LNG Transmission
From well head or tanker to terminal or pipeline, the
transportation of natural gas or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is
an extensive process that brings risk to all personnel involved.
During the processing of well head gas and/or the unloading,
storage and vaporization process of LNG, there is a potential
for fire and/or explosion. HUNTER understands the need for
protecting the facility personnel engaged in these transitions.
HUNTER engineers and manufactures modular, blast-resistant
buildings designed to safeguard personnel and critical
equipment during all phases of the processing and transporting
this explosive material. All HUNTER buildings have undergone
physical blast tests and meet ASCE guidelines for Design of
Blast-Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities. Buildings
feature climate control, fully-furnished interiors, flexibility, and
meet all applicable codes and building standards.
As a one-stop solution for blast-resistant buildings,

HUNTER buildings can be configured for the following
applications:
n Compressor Stations
n Operator Stations
n Metering and Instrumentation Stations
n Shelter in Place
n And More
Design / Manufacture / Customization / Installation / Site Services / Leasing
HunterBuildings.com
14935 Jacinto Port Boulevard / Houston, Texas 77015 / +1 281.452.9800
Optimize an integrated natural gas

production and distribution network
D. ALUMA and N. THIJSSEN, Shell International Exploration and Production, The Hague, The Netherlands;
K. M. NAUTA and C. C. PANTELIDES, Process Systems Enterprise Ltd., London, UK; and
N. SHAH, Imperial College London, London, UK
Gathering significant volumes of natural gas usually involves connecting to wells

in different oil and/or gas fields that can
be spread across vast geographical areas.
Supplying processed gas and associated
liquids, such as LPG and NGL, to consumers often requires an extensive network of
degassing stations, compressor stations,
pipelines and gas processing plants, as well
as storage facilities and shipping terminals
for the liquids.
Natural gas networks have peculiar
characteristics that complicate supply
chain management. For example, there is
usually no intermediates storage. For associated natural gas, it is generally impossible
to curtail well production, as this leads to
loss of oil revenue. Therefore, a drop in
consumer gas demand or an outage in the
gas network typically results in significant
gas flaring. The penalty for a constrained or
inefficient gas network is environmentally
and economically severe, more so than for
liquids- or solids-based process networks.
The use of network modeling and optimization technologies for strategic decision-making yields substantial benefits,
not only in economic and environmental
terms but also in an improved understanding of the interaction between the
various components of the process and
the overall business.1 Key benefits of the
application of systematic optimization to
natural gas network production include:
Increased profitability: Given
the tight market conditions, even
small improvements in the gas
supply chain can have an impact on
profitability, and could be critical to
long-term business viability.
Improved reliability: A network
optimizer provides a tool that
can be used, for example, to
rapidly reallocate production
upon equipment failure to satisfy
customers and honor contractual

delivery commitments.
Investment planning:
Comprehensive network models
can be used to gain insights into
network bottlenecks and to enable
planning for debottlenecking or
expansion projects.
Flare reduction: Network
optimization techniques can be
used to minimize environmental
and economic penalties from
inefficient operations.
Even greater benefits can be realized by
considering multiple production periods
through the simultaneous optimization
of production, sales and inventory over
consecutive time periods, with demands,
prices and costs varying across periods.
APPROACHES TO SUPPLY
NETWORK OPTIMIZATION
Conventional approaches to the optimization of large supply networks tend to rely
on simple models of the individual nodes
(e.g., production facilities and processing
plants) in these networks, often taking the
form of simple (frequently linear) relations
between the flowrates of the various materials entering and leaving each node.
While this greatly simplifies the solution of the underlying mathematical
optimization problem, it may be problematic in important ways. In particular,
the resulting solutions may not be implementable in practice, as they may exceed
plant capabilities. This problem may be
addressed by performing the optimization calculations in a conservative mannerfor example, by introducing safety
margins to ensure that the solution does
not violate critical constraints. Alternatively, some appropriate adjustments may
be applied, often at the local level of individual processing plants, a posteriori to the
optimal solution to restore the feasibility of any constraints that it violates. However, such pragmatic adjustments almost
always lead to suboptimal solutions. Given the substantial revenue flows in such
large networks, these solutions may translate into a significant loss of opportunity.
An alternative approach to natural
gas supply chain optimization is to use a
higher level of physical detail in describing
the operation of the individual production and processing nodes, thereby ensuring that any obtained solution satisfies all
important constraints on the operation of
plant equipment.
Until recently, this approach was considered to be impractical because of two
significant obstacles. First, the construction of detailed models for the individual
plants is a non-trivial exercise. Secondly,
the resulting optimization problem was
often outside the capabilities of existing
numerical solvers.
However, detailed mathematical modeling is increasingly being used for the
simulation and optimization of individual
plants, which means that the required
plant models are already available in many
cases. Also, the continual evolution of
computer hardware and process modeling
technology is now bringing the solution
of models of the required size within the
scope of the available tools.
A key development in this context has
been the significant progress made over the
past decade by equation-oriented process
modeling frameworks.2 These frameworks
now allow large-scale models, comprising
fairly detailed, smaller models of individual
equipment items within wide system envelopes, to be constructed and reliably solved
with minimal user intervention. Moreover,
coupling these models with rigorous mathematical optimization solvers allows the
effective and efficient exploration of deGas Processing|SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 201635

cision spaces spanning large numbers of
decision variables. In practical terms, it is
now possible to perform the optimization
of models comprising several hundreds of
thousands of nonlinear equations that are
subject to dozens of decision variables.
INTEGRATED NATURAL GAS

PRODUCTION AND
PROCESSING NETWORKS
The technological developments outlined in the previous section, coupled
with improving process knowledge and
developments in the global natural gas inWest Qurna
field (three
compressor
stations)
13
12
61
25
62
11
23
dustry, are now driving rapid innovation

in natural gas/NGL supply chain modeling and optimization. This work describes
how detailed models of such networks are
used to optimize profitability, as well as
other business objectives, creating significant economic benefit without the need
for additional CAPEX.
The natural gas network of Basrah Gas
Co. (BGC)a is used as a case study. The
BGC network in southern Iraq, shown
schematically in FIG. 1, processes associated natural gas from four oilfields situated
in West Qurna, North and South Rumaila and Zubair. BGC produces dry gas and
10
24
North
Rumaila
field (five
compressor
stations)
6
2
4
29C
34
27
7
5
1
3
GTU
North Rumaila NGL plant

(slug catchers, liquids strippers,
booster stations, acid gas removal
units and NGL fractionators)
26
Pipelines legend
Raw gas
Dry gas
Condensate
Broad cut
C3
C4
Gasoline
Slops
28
42B
91A
39
South
Rumaila
field (four
compressor
stations)
40
37
38
35
36
47
Petchem plant
and other users
14
33
Zubair field
(three compressor
stations and two
dehydrator stations)
29B
15
V1
42A
18
20
91
58
19
21
22
43
90
10
31 29A
41
32
49
Khor al Zubair
slug catcher
44
45
46
47
Khor al Zubair plant
(two NGL trains and
three LPG trains)
Um Qasr storage
terminal
50 52 54 56
51 53 55 57
59
Um Qasr marine
terminal
60
FIG. 1. BGC gas network schematic.
FIG. 2. BGC network model topology showing top-level models and their connectivity.
Each model is actually an entire plant (see FIGS. 35).
LPG for the domestic Iraqi market. LPG

and condensate are also exported after
satisfying local demand.
At each oilfield, gas is received at different pressures following its separation
from oil. The gas is then compressed at
a number of compressor stations and
transported via an extensive (650-km)
pipeline network to an NGL processing
plant at North Rumaila and to NGL and
LPG plants at Khor al Zubair.
An important characteristic of the network is that gas from the South Rumaila
field may be sent to either of the two processing locations, providing an additional
degree of overall operational flexibility.
Moreover, the two processing facilities
are coupled via a broadcut liquid stream
comprising propane, butane and gasoline,
that is sent from the North Rumaila plant
to Khor al Zubair for further processing.
Dry gas from both plants is introduced
into the domestic Iraqi network via a gas
transmission unit (GTU), while liquid
products from Khor al Zubair are sent to
the Um Qasr storage and marine terminals.
NETWORK MODEL
A detailed model of the BGC natural gas network was developed using a
commercially available, equation-based
process modeling and optimization tool.
The model was constructed in a hierarchical manner, with models of the individual production and processing facilities embedded within a top-level model
shown in FIG. 2. The unit operation models were taken from standard libraries
supplied within the environment. The
overall model comprises approximately
280,000 nonlinear equations.
To provide suitable fidelity for optimization calculations, detailed pipeline
models, compressor models with performance curves and multicomponent
vapor-liquid-equilibrium (VLE) models
were used throughout. Murphree tray efficiency was applied to the tray-by-tray
distillation column to align predicted column performance with actual data from
plant operations.
Component and mixture properties were supplied by the built-in physical property package, using the PengRobinson equation of state to describe
the pressure-volume-temperature (PVT)
properties of the natural gas system.
To establish a reliable basis for the
optimization studies, the network model

was validated against operational data
from the BGC network.
Compressor station modeling. Detailed steady-state models were implemented for the compressor stations, utilizing the actual compressor performance
curves. Interpolation methods are used to
determine polytropic head and efficiency
from the flow data.
The compressor station models also
contain air-cooled heat exchangers, vaporliquid separators and a triethylene glycol
(TEG) dehydration unit to meet the pipeline specification for H2O. The TEG unit
was modeled as a simple component splitter to remove water from the compressed
gas. FIG. 3 shows the model topology for a
three-train compressor station.
Pipeline modeling. The pipelines are
modeled using a distributed model to describe pressure drop in the line and heat
transfer to surroundings. This level of
detail is required to properly account for
multiphase flow and liquid dropout in the
extended pipeline system. Pressure drop
is calculated based on the Haaland friction factor correlation, with appropriate
corrections applied to account for pipeline bends, elevations and inline deposits.
NGL plant modeling. The NGL plant
comprises a slug catcher, gas booster
units, an acid gas removal unit (AGRU),
cooling loops, a low-temperature separator and a deethanizer. Detailed models
were used for the cooling loops, lowtemperature separator and deethanizer.
The AGRU was not modeled, as the H2S
treatment function does not significantly
affect network flowrates and production.
Slug catchers. The slug catcher removes the transient slugs that develop
in the pipeline and ensures a steady flow
of gas to the NGL plant. The liquids that
form in the pipeline as a result of ambient
cooling are also removed. The operation
is modeled as a simple flash drum affecting the necessary vapor/liquid separation.
Liquid stripper units. The liquid
from the slug catcher goes to a liquid
stripper unit, which causes any gas in
the liquid to desorb, thereby increasing gas recovery while stabilizing the
resulting liquid stream. The latter is
pumped to broadcut storage, where it
mixes with the broadcut (C3+) from the
deethanizer bottoms.
The liquid stripper unit is modeled

as a trayed column with a reboiler. The
column model incorporates detailed
phase equilibria.
Cooling loops and low-temperature
separator. The gas cooling cycle was modeled in detail (FIG. 4). The cycle involves a
number of recycle loops comprising chillers and heat exchangers for the integration
of heat between the inlet and outlet streams
of the low-temperature separator (LTS).
After cooling to about 30C, the fluid
flows into the LTS, where it is flashed.
The gas phase is dry gas (mostly methane), which is fed into the export grid after it is used to cool the inlet stream. The
liquid phase from the LTS is also used to
cool the inlet streams before flowing to
the deethanizer fractionator.
Deethanizers. Dry gas (methane and
ethane) is extracted from the top of the
deethanizer distillation column while the
C3+ is drawn from the bottom. An impor-
tant constraint during network optimization is the avoidance of flooding in the various columns. Failure to take proper account
of this constraint may result in significant
over-estimation of the plants processing
capacity. The authors optimization calculations required the actual vapor velocity to
not exceed 85% of the flooding velocity, as
determined via the fair correlation.
LPG PLANT MODELING

The LPG plant at Khor al Zubair
comprises three parallel trains, each including depropanizer and debutanizer
columns (FIG. 5).
Each depropanizer receives two feeds
(one with and one without reheating) of
C3+ components from the NGL trains.
A condensed, propane-rich stream is extracted from the top, while the C4+ components are drawn from the bottom and
go to the corresponding debutanizer. The
latter produces a butane-rich top product
FIG. 3. Three-train compressor station model.
FIG. 4. NGL plant model showing cooling cycles, LTS and deethanizer.

and a natural gasoline (C5+ components)
bottom product. As in the case of the NGL
plant deethanizers, flooding constraints
were implemented in both columns.
The top products from the depropanizers in the three trains, and the top and bottom products from the debutanizers, are
combined to form the propane, butane and
gasoline product streams of the LPG plant.
OPERATIONAL OPTIMIZATION
A number of different operational optimization cases were studied. The full
network model described in the previous
section was used in each case, and the optimization was carried out with respect to
77 decision variables, including feed gas
rates from oil production, gas-to-NGL
plant splits, distillation column reflux
ratios and column boilup ratios. The optimization also took account of 32 constraints, including product specifications
and equipment limits.
The optimization studies were closely
related to the business objectives listed
in the beginning of this work, and covered both normal and abnormal operating scenarios.
Optimization under normal operating scenarios. Several normal opera-
tional scenarios were considered:

Maximize operating profit, taking
account of the values of the various
products (dry gas, propane,
butane and natural gasoline) based
on market-driven contractual
sales prices, as well as variable
production costs, including raw
gas and utilities (electricity, and
heating and cooling utilities)
Maximize total production (i.e.,
the total mass flowrate of all
product streams), irrespective of
any economic factors
Maximize specific product yields
(i.e., the ratio of that products
mass flowrate divided by the
overall mass flowrate of gas
entering the system)
TABLE 1. Operational optimization results for normal operation

Base
value
Objective
Maximize profitability, $yr1
Optimal
value
Improvement over
base operating point, %
Not disclosed
+4.9%
Maximize total production, kg s1
346.9
359.2
+3.5%
Maximize propane yield, kg kg1
0.23
0.34
+47.8%
Minimize flaring, kg s1
9.85
1.26
87.2%
FIG. 5. LPG plant showing depropanizer and debutanizer columns.
Initial
product
inventory
Period
1
Product
inventory
at end of
period 1
Product sales
FIG. 6. Multi-period optimization schematic.
Period
2
Product sales
Product
inventory
at end of
period 2
Minimize flaring (i.e., the

difference between the total mass
flowrate of gas entering the system
and that of all product streams).
The performance of the network under
optimal operation was compared with that
of a base point representing design operating conditions. The magnitudes of the resulting improvements in operation are listed
in TABLE 1. Profitability optimization results
in a potential 4.9% profit increase compared
to the base case. A more detailed analysis of
the results indicates that this increase arises
largely from the optimized routing of raw
gas from the different compressor stations
to the two NGL plants and, to a lesser but
significant extent, from applying optimal
reflux and boilup ratios in the columns.
Significant improvements are also obtained under the other normal operating
scenarios. In particular, there is scope to
increase total production by 3.5%. Additionally, the results show that it is possible
to increase the yield of a key product by
nearly 50%, if required, and flaring can be
reduced by 87% if this is posed as the primary objective.
Optimization under abnormal operating scenarios. The following abnor-
mal scenarios were also considered:

Maximize production under
equipment failure, resulting in the
unavailability of one of the two NGL
trains at the Khor al Zubair plant
Maximize production under field
decline, resulting in lower gas
flowrates being received from the
West Qurna field.
TABLE 2 compares the optimal production rates with base values representing
the rates that would result from the above
failure scenarios leading to deviation from
normal design operation. The potential
benefits from a rigorous mathematical
optimization approach are even more pronounced than those under the normal scenarios shown in TABLE 1. In such cases, the
optimizer provides a tool that can be used
to significantly reduce the effects of abnormal situations on the networks operation.
MULTI-PERIOD OPTIMIZATION
OF NETWORK PROFITABILITY
The profitability maximization study
considered in the previous section focused on a single operating period with
given product prices and unit costs. The
production rate for each product was as-
Optimal
value
Production improvement over

existing operating practices, %

equipment failure (one KAZ
NGL train down), kg s1
233.5
295.3
+26.5%

field decline, kg s1
230.5
343.2
+48.9%
TABLE 3. Profitability over two-period operation

Integrated network profitability (relative units)
Period 1
Period 2
Total
Profitability improvement
over base case, %
1.19
2.19
0%
Sequential optimization
1.02
1.21
2.23
2%
Multi-period optimization
0.26
2.07
2.32
6.2%
Base operation
sumed to be equal to its sales rate; therefore, the potential of building up product
inventories, or of using existing inventories to support sales, was not considered.
In this section, the simultaneous optimization of production, sales and inventory over consecutive time periods is considered, with demands, prices and costs
potentially varying across periods. The
goal is to maximize the overall profit for the
entire time horizon by varying, in each period, the process operating variables, sales
rates (subject to contractually committed
levels and maximum market demands)
and the inventory levels (subject to storage capacities). Overall, this multi-period
optimization (MPO) problem, illustrated
schematically in FIG. 6, aims to combine
operational optimization with commercial
planning using the full network model.
To illustrate the potential benefits of an
MPO approach, a two-period problem is
considered, with product prices in the second period being higher than in the first.
The optimization makes use of a restricted
subset of the decision variables, excluding
the column reflux and boilup ratios. Limitations on product storage tank capacities
are taken into account, as well as the constraints introduced in the previous section.
TABLE 3 compares network profitabilities
achieved via 1) a base case operation, 2) application of the optimization approach described in the previous section to each of the
two periods independently (sequential optimization), and 3) the MPO approach. It
is evident that MPO results in significantly
improved profitability (6.2% over the base
case) compared with that achieved via the
sequential application of even a sophisticated single-period optimization approach.

In particular, when product prices are
expected to be higher in future periods,
the MPO approach deliberately reduces
product sales rates, instead increasing inventories that can be sold more profitably
in subsequent periods. In contrast, the
sequential optimization approach myopically optimizes the network operation
based only on the present periods product demands and prices.
TAKEAWAY
Significant economic benefits can be
achieved via the holistic optimization of
natural gas production and processing networks. The use of detailed, physics-based
models of processing plants in this context
significantly increases the probability of
the solutions obtained being both optimal
and practically implementable. Moreover,
notwithstanding the underlying mathematical complexity, such optimizations
are now feasible using current process
modeling technology.
Even higher benefits may be achieved
via the extension of this approach to supply chain optimization over multiple periods, thereby bridging commercial planning
with operational decisions. However, the
computational cost increases significantly
with the number of periods, and specialized
MPO solvers are likely to be necessary for
solving problems of practical interest. GP
romance.hoerbiger.com
Base
value
Objective
...R...O...MA...NCE
TABLE 2. Operational optimization results for abnormal scenarios
ONLINE EXCLUSIVE
Complete literature cited, authors note and author bios
available at GasProcessingNews.com
325037_Hoerbiger_AZ_Romance_PTQ_59x270mm_RZ.indd 1
11.03.16 11:08

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GAS COMPRESSION
Super-compact BOG recondensing system

minimizes equipment lifecycle costs
K. HAYASHI, K. YARIMIZU and S. FURUTANI, JFE Engineering Corp., Tokyo, Japan
Processing boiloff gas (BOG) is a challenge for the hydrocarbon processing industry. The industry has been addressing the issue by installing BOG recondensing systems, which reduce power
consumption by the BOG compressor.1 To further minimize the
lifecycle cost of BOG processing equipment, the authors propose
a considerable reduction in the size of the BOG recondenser.
Here, an innovative BOG recondenser with a volume of only
2% of conventional ones is introduced. Patents were filed for
the recondenser. The units recondensing performance and
benefits, as well as the control system that ensures the safe and
stable operation of the entire system, are also described.
Since it began importing LNG from Alaska in 1969, Japan
has become the worlds biggest importer and consumer of
LNG. Japan also has the largest number of LNG importing terminals in the world, along with rich experience in the design,
construction and operation of these terminals.
During this period of nearly 50 years, the country has confronted various technical issues regarding LNG, and it has
demonstrated the methods of overcoming these problems to
the industry. The technology introduced here is one of the
products based on this experience.
Several types of BOG recondensing systems have been commercialized. The packed-bed type (FIG. 2) is most widely applied. However, it requires a large and heavy recondenser, which
consists of two portions with a skirt. The upper portion is the
packed-bed section where the BOG is liquefied as it contacts
with the subcooled LNG. The lower portion is the holdup section, which serves as a suction drum for the secondary pump.
The skirt is required to provide the net positive suction head
(NPSH) for the secondary pump.
Due to its design, this type of recondenser is very high, as
shown in FIG. 3. This height requires operators to climb up platforms for regular inspections and maintenance, which increases
their workload and risk. It also requires a large crane whenever
the operators need to replace the packing.
Another type of recondenser is the heat exchanger type
(FIG. 4), which is more common in Japan. LNG flows into the
shell, the BOG flows into the tubes, and the gas is condensed
Conventional BOG processing: Power consumption. The
To pipeline
tanks, piping and equipment that contain LNG are always subject to heat input because the temperature of the liquefied gas,
at approximately 160C, is far below ambient temperature.
LNG is circulated through the piping and equipment to remove the input heat and maintain the equipment at cryogenic
temperature. As a result, the heat is gathered to the LNG tank,
and the LNG in the tank is partly evaporated by the collected
heat and the direct heat input at the tank. This evaporated gas
is the BOG (FIG. 1).
Due to its evaporation in the tank, the BOG is discharged to
the connected pipeline to keep the tank under the design pressure. The BOG compressor pressurizes and sends the BOG
out to the pipeline. However, the compressor requires huge
power, as the pipeline operating pressure is generally very high
(5 MPa or more). This increases the OPEX of the terminal.
Conventional BOG recondensing system. A BOG recondensing system, which liquefies BOG by utilizing the cold
energy of LNG, will greatly reduce the power consumption
of the compressor, as pumping the BOG in the liquid phase
requires considerably less power than compressing the same
in the gas phase.
BOG compressor
(high pressure)
LNG carrier
P
Primary
pump
LNG vaporizer
Secondary pump
FIG. 1. Process flow of LNG import terminal without BOG

recondensing system.
BOG compressor
(high pressure)
BOG compressor
(low pressure)
BOG recondenser
(packed bed)
Primary
pump
LNG vaporizer
Secondary pump
FIG. 2. Process flow of packed-bed BOG recondensing system.

GAS COMPRESSION
by subcooled LNG. This type of recondenser is also large because it needs a wide heat transfer area. The large shell and the
dense-allocated tubes inside add to its weight.
As shown in FIG. 4, this type of recondenser requires two
additional pumps in the system. One is for pumping LNG to
the heat exchanger, and the other is for discharging the liquefied BOG to the secondary pump. This configuration will
increase OPEX.
The dominant advantage of the new

recondenser is its compactness. The
recondenser is smaller in size and weight
than the conventional types, which
brings benefits in the construction and
operation of the recondensing system.
Inspection and maintenance are also challenging with this

type of configuration. The operator must discharge all LNG
in the shell to detach the tube bundle for inspection. Although
LNG and BOG are clean and noncorrosive, authorities require
scheduled inspections in some places, such as Japan.
New BOG recondensing system: Process description. This
recondenser is a vertical pipe structure (FIG. 5). LNG flows into
the recondenser, and BOG is introduced into the LNG through
proprietary nozzles inside. The nozzles convert the BOG into
very fine bubbles, and the bubbles are recondensed immediately.
The nozzles were developed through trial-and-error laboratory tests with water and steam. Significant experiments were
carried out to find the optimum arrangement of the nozzles
and other parameters.
The dominant advantage of the new recondenser is its
compactness. As shown in FIG. 6, the recondenser is smaller in
size and weight than the conventional types. In a typical case
(BOG recondensing capacity = 14 tph), the diameter is only
0.3 m and the length is 3 m. A heat exchanger-type BOG recondenser with the same capacity is 1 m in diameter and 12 m
in height. This means that the new recondenser is only 2% of
the volume of the conventional recondenser, and is approximately 1/15 the weight.
The significant compactness of the new recondenser design
brings benefits in the construction and operation of the reconBOG compressor
(high pressure)
BOG compressor
(low pressure)
BOG recondenser
(static mixer)
P
Primary pump
LNG vaporizer
Secondary pump
FIG. 5. Process flow of new BOG recondensing system.
FIG. 3. Packed-bed BOG recondenser.

BOG compressor
(high pressure)
BOG compressor
(low pressure)
BOG recondenser
(heat exchanger)
P
Primary pump
LNG vaporizer
Secondary pump
FIG. 4. Process flow of heat exchanger BOG recondensing system.
FIG. 6. Conventional recondenser designs vs. new recondenser design.
GAS COMPRESSION
densing system. In the aforementioned typical case, CAPEX is
reduced by approximately 20%, and the footprint is decreased
by approximately 40%. OPEX is expected to be 60% lower than
that of the heat exchanger-type recondenser because fewer
pumps are required.
The new recondenser system is also less labor-intensive in
many ways. It is virtually maintenance-free because of its simple internal structure. The control system is straightforward
and does not require manual operation.
System configuration and control. The configuration of the
system is shown in FIG. 7. The low-pressure BOG compressor
sends the BOG to the recondenser, and the recondenser mixes
the BOG with LNG to liquefy it. The BOG/LNG mixture
pump sends the mixture to the secondary pump.
The system control is quite simple. The LNG flowrate to
the BOG recondenser is maintained at the set value by controlling the outlet flowrate of the BOG/LNG mixture pump. The
set value is not affected by the BOG flowrate and is unchanged
in principle. The value is reduced only when the LNG regasification rate becomes lower than the initial set value.
The maximum allowable BOG flowrate (i.e., the amount of
BOG that can be recondensed) is calculated from the process
data shown in FIG. 8. The flowrate of the low-pressure BOG
compressor is always kept at or below the calculated allowable
value. If the BOG generated is greater than the allowable value,
the excess BOG is sent to the pipeline by the high-pressure
BOG compressor.
BOG flowrate, tph
14 at 40C
LNG flowrate, tph
140 at 157C
Pressure, MPaG
and 10) was installed in the Chita-Midorihama works of

Toho Gas Co. Ltd. Its specifications are shown in TABLE 1.
The commissioning of the plant was completed in June 2016,
and its performance was confirmed to be in accordance with
the design. Details of the test results are provided in the
following sections.
BOG recondensing performance. The actual BOG recondensing performance, represented by the ratio of LNG/
BOG mass flowrate, is far better than the typical heat exchanger-type recondenser and close to the theoretical limit (FIG. 11).
The theoretical limit is the minimum LNG/BOG ratio where
all BOG can be recondensed completely, assuming 100% heat
exchanger efficiency. The dots connected by the red lines in
FIG. 11 indicate the state in which the operating LNG/BOG
ratio is gradually reduced toward the theoretical limit while
maintaining other conditions, such as pressure, temperature,
9
LNG regasification rate
LNG flow control (FLC)
Process data (P, TG, TL)
LNG composition
Calculated maximum allowable
BOG flowrate
BOG compressor flowrate
control
TABLE 1. Specifications of the first commercial plant

(operating targets)
Number of system
First commercial plant. The first commercial plant (FIGS.
FIG. 8. Basic control philosophy of new BOG recondensing system.
0.76
Allowable N2 content in BOG, mol%
20 (maximum)
BOG compressor
(high pressure)
BOG compressor
(low pressure)
FG
BOG recondensing
system
Newly developed
BOG recondensor
TG
LNG
vaporizer
FLC
P
Primary
pump
TL
BOG/LNG
mixture pump
Secondary
pump
FIG. 7. System configuration of new BOG recondensing system.
FIG. 9. Overview of new BOG recondensing system.

GAS COMPRESSION
etc. The series of dots demonstrate that the new recondenser,
as a device, has the potential to perform at conditions very
close to the theoretical limit.
Another beauty of the recondenser is the very small pressure loss. If the pressure loss is large, the pressure at the outlet
of the recondenser will be reduced, and the LNG sensible heat
for the recondensation will also be reduced. Therefore, the
BOG recondensing capacity will be diminished.
Safe operation. The behavior of the entire recondensing
system was tested in case the operating conditions deviated suddenly. When the BOG flowrate or the LNG pressure changed
suddenly, the system maintained safe and stable operations.
The emergency shutdown sequence was also tested. The

system is designed to initiate an emergency shutdown when
the BOG is not completely recondensed and discharged downstream of the recondenser. The test conditions were created by
manually reducing the LNG flowrate. The behavior of the system conformed to design specifications, and the system made
an emergency shutdown in a safe manner.
Noise and vibration have been negligible throughout the
commissioning and initial commercial operation. The continued absence of noise and vibration problems will minimize
any potential issues related to these elements throughout the
recondensers long lifecycle.
Takeaway. The BOG recondensing system that has been developed is much smaller and lighter than conventional recondensing systems. This advantage contributed to the reduction
of lifecycle cost and footprint for the recondenser. Additionally, its maintenance-free structure and simple control philosophy will minimize the workload of the operators.
The first commercial plant has demonstrated excellent
BOG recondensing performance that is close to the theoretical limit. The plant has also demonstrated continuous, safe
and stable operation, even during a sudden fluctuation in
operating conditions. Noise and vibration were measured at
negligible levels. GP
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to the codeveloper, Toho Gas Co. Ltd.,
which cooperated and contributed greatly to the design, construction and commissioning of the first commercial plant.
FIG. 10. The new BOG recondenser.
KANETOSHI HAYASHI is group manager of the research center

of engineering innovation for JFE Engineering Corp. He joined
JFE in 1990 and has been responsible for the research and
development (R&D) of processes and equipment in the energy
and environmental areas since that time. His areas of expertise
include heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid dynamics.
His R&D project involvement has included thermal energy
storage, energy conversion and multi-phase/phase-change processes. He was
a visiting researcher for Argonne National Laboratory in the US between 1997
and 1999. He earned his MS degree in mechanical engineering from the
University of Tokyo, Japan in 1990.
12
Typical performance of
heat exchanger type
Ratio of LNG/BOG mass flowrate (operation)
11
10
Theoretical limit
O.67 MPaG
O.72 MPaG
O.76 MPaG
O.80 MPaG
6
6.0
6.5
LITERATURE CITED
Lemmers, S. P. B., Simplify BOG recondenser design and operationPart 1,
Gas Processing, June 2014; and Lemmers, S. P. B., Simplify BOG recondenser
design and operationPart 2, Gas Processing, August 2014.
7.0
7.5
8.0
Ratio of LNG/BOG mass flowrate (theoretical limit)
8.5
9.0
FIG. 11. BOG recondensing performance of the first commercial plant.
KEIJI YARIMIZU is a project engineer in the energy division

of JFE Engineering Corp. and is responsible for project
management of LNG import terminals. He has 20 years of
experience in the design of underground LNG storage tanks
and in the process engineering and commissioning of LNG
import terminals. He has been involved in various LNG import
terminal projects for power and city gas companies in Japan.
Mr. Yarimizu earned his MS degree in mechanical engineering from Tokyo
Metropolitan University, Japan in 1995, and joined JFE in the same year.
SHIGEYA FURUTANI is a senior engineer in the energy
division of JFE Engineering Corp., responsible for business
development in the oil and gas midstream area, including
the LNG value chain. He joined JFE in 1994 and has over
20 years of experience in engineering, construction and
project management of onshore and offshore pipeline
projects in Japan, Vietnam, Saudi Arabia and Hong Kong.
He earned his MS degree in civil engineering from Kobe University, Japan
in 1994, and is a registered professional engineer in Oregon, US.
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CT, DC, DE, MA, MD, ME, NC, NH,

NJ, NY, OH, PA, RI, SC, VA, VT, WV,
EASTERN CANADA
Texas Pipeline Map ...................................46

Hoerbiger .......................................................39
Hunter Buildings ..........................................34
INDIA
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Phone: +91-22-2837 7070/71/72
Mobile: +91-98673 67374
E-mail: India@GulfPub.com
Merrie Lynch
Phone: +1 (617) 357-8190
Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943
E-mail: Merrie.Lynch@GulfPub.com
Pentair .............................................................48
RedGuard ......................................................... 2
SNC-Lavalin ...................................................22
JAPANTOKYO
Zwick Valves..................................................33
Yoshinori Ikeda
Pacific Business Inc.
Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138
E-mail: Japan@GulfPub.com
DATA PRODUCTS
JNette Davis-Nichols
Phone: +1 (713) 520-4426
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provided as a service to advertisers and a convenience to our readers.
Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.
Legend for Texas Natural Pipelines Map

Legend for the detailed map shown at 100%

An Exclusive Gas Processing

Petroleum Economist Texas Pipelines Map
Coming Soon!
Sample area for Texas Natural Pipelines Map
Map shows an area of the map (Port Arthur to Port Lavaca coast section including Houston)
with full infrastructure illustrated shown at 100%


Area defined shows the whole of the state of Texas.

Surrounded by other states
and
Mexico.

Map sheet size: 1,016mm x 711.2mm
(Folded map TBD)

Note the map shown does not

represent final quality

Processing

The US is on its way to becoming one of the largest LNG

exporting countries by 2020. Thanks to its shale gas boom, the
US has announced over 330 MMtpy of new LNG export capacity
at a cost of nearly $200 B. The majority of new US LNG export
capacity will be located along the US Gulf Coast in Texas and
Louisiana. Both states are well connected to the countrys
intricate domestic natural gas grid.

We have given

To be published with the December 2016 issue

of Gas Processing.

This large format (40 x 28 in. / 1016 x 711.2 mm) Texas

Pipelines map details the following information:

Inter-State, Intra-State and International Pipelines

Gas Processing plants
LNG facilities

Area defined shows the whole of the state of Texas. Surrounded by other states and Mexico.
Map sheet size: 1,016mm x 711.2mm (Folded map TBD)
Note the map shown does not represent final quality

Title box to include

map title and details
on Hydrocarbon
Processing

Sponsorship opportunities are available.

Please contact your local representative or Catherine Watkins,
Catherine.Watkins@GulfPub.com for additional information.

WorldOil.com

GasProcessingNews.com
46
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2016|GasProcessingNews.com

Register
Today!
November 12, 2016
Houston, Texas
WGLConference.com/2016
2016 WOMENS
Explore the Dynamics Impacting the Industry + Get

Valuable Advice on How to Become a Leader
Dear Gas Processing Readers,
Id like to invite you to join me and hundreds of the energy industrys leading and aspiring
professionals for the 13th Womens Global Leadership in Energy Conference (WGLC) and explore the
challenges faced by all segments of the industry (upstream, midstream and downstream). We will also
discuss the opportunities arising from these challenges for those stepping into leadership positions to
affect positive change and drive performance.
The events opening session will focus on the present state of the industry, as well as provide a
look into the future. Dr. Kenneth B. Medlock III, Senior Director, Center for Energy Studies at Rice
Adrienne Blume
Universitys Baker Institute for Public Policy, will commence the session with a presentation titled,
What does the future of energy look like? Following his presentation, I will moderate a panel
discussion on the State of the Industry: Upstream, Midstream and Downstream. Joining me are panelists Marianne Kah,
Chief Economist, Corporate Planning and Development, ConocoPhillips; Frank Cassulo, President, Chevron Pipeline;
and Liz McDaniel, Vice President Environmental, Health & Safety, Polyurethanes Division, Huntsman.
In our panel discussion, we will address key topics influencing the state of the upstream, midstream and downstream
energy industries, including:
Opportunities for energy efficiency and cost savings in oil and gas production and processing operations
When a shift in the energy pricing down cycle may occur, and the impacts that could follow from it
Growth in market share for natural gas, and the changing landscape of energy usage around the world
Emerging technology applications for smaller-scale and modularized energy production and distribution
Additional session topics include: tackling challenges to create opportunity; supplier diversity; women in the workplace;
networking effectively; creating opportunities for women and minorities; big data initiatives; stepping into a leadership
position; building a more sustainable tomorrow; and women in the C-suite.
You can download the full agenda and register at www.WGLConference.com/2016.
If you have questions or would like more information, please contact Tranessa Hunt, Events Program Manager,
at Tranessa.Hunt@GulfPub.com or +1 (713) 520-4470.
Sincerely,
Adrienne Blume
Editor
Gas Processing
Executive Editor
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HARNESS THE POWER

OF ADVANCED HRSG TECHNOLOGY

The industry leader in Heat Recovery Steam Generators for gas

HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS

OCTOBER 2016 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

PROCESS CONTROL AND

OCTOBER 2016|Volume 95 Number 10

41 The history, and possible future, of model-less multivariable control

45 Use process knowledge management systems to accelerate innovation

J. Bird, D. Seillier and E. Piazza

S. Hall and P. Mahoney

51 Measure naturally occurring radioactive material in polypropylene plants

Global Project Data

ADVANCES IN SULFUR MANAGEMENTSUPPLEMENT

S-64 Low-sulfur projects dominate the downstream construction landscape

PROCESS ENGINEERING AND OPTIMIZATION

N. Kasiri, P. Jouybanpour and M. Reza Ehsani

MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY

93 Use dynamic simulation to maximize plant operating performance

GAS PROCESSING SUPPLEMENT

The 2016 Top Project award

PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

Codes and Standards

K. E. Litz, K. Edison and J. Rankin

79 The effect of various parameters on tray point efficiency

75 Remove sulfur and nitrogen from liquid hydrocarbons

New challenges demand

What is the future of the

MAGAZINE PRODUCTION / +1 (713) 525-4633

CIRCULATION / +1 (713) 520-4440 / Circulation@GulfPub.com

Hydrocarbon Processing (ISSN 0018-8190) is published monthly by Gulf Publishing

Copyright 2016 by Gulf Publishing Company. All rights reserved.

Latin America Middle East

FIG. 1. Total active projects by region. Source: Hydrocarbon

Driving better decisions

Symphonite Supply Chain & Production

For more information, please visit

Over 120 years of experience in valve

Full range of services and top

LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

The 2016 Top Project award nominees are out!

Top refining project nominees

Kochi Integrated Refinery

Jazan, Saudi Arabia

Talara Refinery expansion

Nghi Son Refinery

Nghi Son Refinery and

Nghi Son, Vietnam

Clean Fuels Project

Top petrochemical project nominees

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Ain Sokhna, Egypt

Refining and Petrochemical

Oyster Creek PDH Unit

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Although adsorbents have yet

LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER