PHYSIOLOGY & ANATOMY

(LECTURE)
Skeletal System consists of bones, as well as their
associated connective tissue, which include cartilage,
tendons, and ligaments.
Dynamic
Living tissue that are able to grow
Detect pain stimuli
Adapt to stress
Undergo repair after injury
Skeleton- is derived from a Greek word meaning dries.

Framework of the body

Joint - an articulation, is a place where two bones

come together.
FUNCTIONS:

Movement- rigid strong bones is well suited for

bearing weight and is the major supporting
tissue of the body.
Protection- bone is hard and protects the
organs it surrounds.
Skull enclose and protects the brain.
Vertebrae surround the spinal cord.
Rib cage protects the heart, lungs and
other organs of the thorax.
Movement- contraction of the skeletal muscle
moves the bones, producing body movements.
Storage- minerals in the blood - principally,
calcium and phosphorus- are stored in the bone.
Blood cell production- red bone marrow, which
produces blood cells platelets.

TYPES OF BONES

The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance,

and organic molecules, as well as water and mineral.

Collagen- is an s tough, rope like protein.

Makes cartilages tough, whereas the
water-filled proteoglycans can make it
smooth and resilient.
Proteoglycans- large molecules consisting of
polysaccharides attached to core proteins, like
needles of a pine tree attached to the tresss
branches. It can attract and retain large
amount of water between their polysaccharides
needles.
Tendons and ligaments- contains large
amount of collagen fibers, making these
structure very tough, rope like or cables.
Cartilages- contains collagen and
proteoglycans.

Long bones- longer than they are wide.

Upper and lower limbs

Short bones- approximately as wide as they
are long.
Wrist and ankle
Flat bones- relatively thin, flattened shape.
Skull bones
Ribs
Scapula
Sternum.
Irregular bones-shaped do not fit readily into
the other.
Vertebrae
Facial bone

STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE

Diaphysis- central shaft
Epiphysis- two end.

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Bone, cartilage, tendon, and ligaments of the skeletal
system are all connective tissues.

Relatively rigid, but it springs back to its

original shape after being bent or slightly
compressed.
Excellent shock absorber.
Bone - contains collagen(rope like collagen
fibers, like reinforcing steel bars in concrete,
lend flexible strength of the bone) and
minerals(bone compression (weight bearing)
strength),including calcium and phosphate.
Hydroxyapatite(mineral)- calcium
phosphate crystal

Epiphyseal plate- when the long bone is

growing. It is composed of cartilages between
epiphysis and diaphysis. Where the bone
grows in length.(spongy bone)
Epiphyseal line- when bone growth stops, the
cartilages of each epiphyseal plate is replaced
by epiphyseal line.

Articular cartilage- covers the end of the epiphysis

where the bone articulates.

Medullary cavity- these spaces are filled with soft tissue

called marrow.

Yellow marrow- mostly of adipose tissue.

(adult)
Red marrow- consists of bone forming cells and
is the only site of blood formation (children)
(epiphysis)

Periosteum it is a dense connective tissue covering

most of the outer surface of the bone.

Endosteum - surface of the medullary cavity is line with

a thinner connective tissue membrane.
HISTOGY OF THE BONE
Osteoblast- bone forming cell, for the formation of
the bone as well as repair and remodelling of bone.
Osteoclast- bone- eating cells. Contribute to bone
repair and remodelling by removing existing bone
Osteocytes- when osteoblast becomes surrounded by
matrix. Located between the lamellae within the spaces.
Lamellae- thin sheet of extracellular matrix
Lacunae- spaces between lamellae where you can
found osteocytes.
Canaliculi- cell processes extend from the osteocytes
across the extracellular matrix of the lamellae within the
tiny canal.
2 TYPES OF BONE TISSUE

Compact bone- forms of the diaphysis of a

long bone and the thinner surfaces of all other
bones.(solid matrix)
Osteons
Central canal or aversion canal
Spongy Bone- no haversian canal. Located
mainly in the epiphysis of the bone. It form the
interior of all the other bones.
Trabeculae- consists of delicate
interconnecting rods or plate of bone,
which resemble the beams of
scaffolding of a building. The spaces
are filled with marrow. No blood
vessels
Each trabeculae consists of several
lamellae with osteocytes between them.

BONE OSSIFICATION
Ossification- formation of bone by osteoblast.
Intramembranous ossification- occurs when
osteoblast begin to produce in connective tissue
membranes

Bones of the skull

Ossification center- area where osteoblast line up on

the surface of connective tissue fibers and begin
depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae.
Endochondral ossification- from cartage models.
Process where bones at the base of the skull and most
of the remaining skeletal system develop.
Chondrocytes- cartilages cells. Increase in number,
enlarge and die.

Produced cartilage model with the general

shape of the bone.
Cartilages are calcifies
Bone collar is produced
Perichondrium of the diaphysis becomes
Periosteum.

Primary ossification center- center part of the

diaphysis, where bone first begin to appear.

Blood vessels grow

Secondary ossification center- form in the epiphysis of

long bones.
Appositional growth- osteoblast deposit new bone
matrix on the surface of bone between the Periosteum,
and the existing bone matrix, the bone increase in width,
or diameter.
Bone Remodelling

Removal of existing bone by osteoclast and the

deposition of new bone by osteoblast.
Responsible for, bone shape change,
adjustment of bone to stress, bone repair and
calcium ion regulation in the body fluids.
Remodelling is important to maintain calcium
levels with normal limits.

Calcium is removed by bones when blood calcium levels

decreases.

Calcium levels are too low, the osteoclast

activity increases. The calcium level are too
high the osteoclast activity decreases.

Calcium Homeostasis maintained by three

hormones; parathyroid gland hormone (PHT) from the
thyroid glands, calcitonin from the thyroid gland

PHT and Vit.D are secreted when blood

calcium levels are too low; calcitonin
are secreted when blood calcium
levels are too high.

PHT Mechanism to increase blood flow:

PHT indirectly stimulates osteoclast to

break down bone which released
stored calcium into the blood.
PHT stimulates the kidney (kidney
tubules) to take up calcium from the
urine and return it to the blood.
PHT stimulates the formation of active
Vitamin D, which in turn, promotes
increased calcium absorption from the
small intestine.

BONE REPAIR
1. Hematoma Formation (clot) - blood released
from damaged vessels forms a hematoma.
2. Callus formation- internal callus forms between
the ends of the bones, and the external callus
forms a collar around the break.
Callus- network of fibers and islet of
cartilage between the two bone
fragments.
3. Callus ossification- woven, spongy bone
replaces the internal and external calluses.
4. Bone remodelling- compact bone replaces
woven bone, and part of the internal callus is
removed, restoring the medullary cavity.

Transverse tubules or T tubules- tube-like

invaginations interval along the muscle fiber and extend
inward into it.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum- highly organized smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.

Sarcoplasm- it is a cytoplasm inside each muscle fiber.

Chapter 7 Muscular System

Movement of the body

Maintenance of posture
Production of body heat.
Communication
Constriction of organs and vessels
Contraction of the heart.

Actin myofilaments
Myosin myofilaments
Sarcomere- where myosin and action filaments are
highly arranged ordered in repeating units end to end to
form the myofibrils.

3 TYPES OF MUSCLE

Skeletal Muscle- associated connective tissue,

constitutes proximately 40%of the body
Striated muscle
Contractility- ability to shorten to
forces.
Excitability- capacity of skeletal muscle
to respond to a stimuli.
Extensibility- means that skeletal
muscle stretch.
Elasticity- ability of skeletal muscle to
recoil to their original resting length.

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Perimysium- connective tissue sheath

surrounding each skeletal muscle.
Perimysium- loose connective tissue
subdividing the whole muscle into numerous
visible bundles called fasciculi.
Endomysium- separate muscle cells, called
muscle fibers.

Actin myofilaments/ thin filaments are made of three

components:

Sarcolemma- cell membrane of the muscle fiber.

Muscle fiber are located just deep to the
sarcolemma.

Smallest portion of skeletal muscle

capable of contracting.
When sarcomere shorten, myofibrils
shorten, which is the ultimate cause of
contraction of the muscle fiber during
contraction.
Z disk- network of protein fibers forming an
attachment site for actin myofilaments.
I band- consists only of actin myofilaments.
A band- actin and myosin myofilaments
overlaps. Darker, central region in each
sarcomere.
H Zone- consists only of myosin myofilaments.
M line- myosin myofilaments are anchored in
the center of sarcomere at a dark- stunning
band.

ACTIN AND MYOSIN MYOFILAMENTS

MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE

Myofibrils- threadlike structure that extend from

one end of the muscle fiber to the other. It
contain major types of protein.
Types of protein fibers

Functions:

T tubules connect the sarcolemma to the

sarcoplasmic reticulum.
It has relatively high concentration of Ca2+
(calcium), which play a major role in the
muscle contraction.

Troponin- molecules are attached at specific

interval along the action myofilaments.
Tropomyosin- binding sites for Ca2+ (calcium).
Located along the groove between the twisted
strands of actin filaments subunits.
Block myosin myofilaments binding sites
on the actin myofilaments in an
unstimulated muscle.

Actins strand- resemble two

minute strand of pearl twisted

together. Have attachment sites for

the myosin myofilaments.
Myosin Myofilaments/ thick myofilaments- resemble
bundles of minute golf clubs.

Myosin head- part of the myosin myofilaments

that resemble golf club head.
Bind attachment sites on the actin
myofilaments.
Can bend and straighten during
contraction.
They can break down ATP, release
energy.

Nerve Supply and Muscle Fiber Stimulation

Motor neurons- specialized nerve cell that stimulate the
muscle to contract.
Neuromuscular junction- branch forms a

junction with a muscle fiber.

Synapse- cell-to-cell junction between a
nerve cell and either another nerve cell or an
effector cells, such as muscle or gland.
Motor unit- a single motor neurons and all
the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates
constitute.
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Muscle twitch- contraction of a muscle
fiber in response to a stimulus.
Lag phase/latent phase- between
application of a stimulus and the beginning
of contraction.
Contraction Phase- time during which
muscle contracts.
Relaxation phase- time when muscle relax.
Summation force of contraction of individual muscle
fibers is increased by rapidly stimulating them.
Tetanus- is a sustained contraction that occurs when
the frequency of stimulation is so rapid that no
relaxation occurs.

Fast- twitch fibers- contain either type Ilia (ten times

faster that slow twitch) or type Ibis (fasters) myosin
myofil

Energy Requirements for Muscle Contraction

Muscle fibers are very energy- demanding cells whether
at rest or during any form of exercise.
Generally, ATP is derived from four processed in
skeletal muscle:
1. Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise
and normal condition.
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive
short- term work.
3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine and
phosphate to ATP.
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one
AMP.
Aerobic respiration- requires O2 and breaks

down glucose to produce ATP, CO2 and H2O.

It can also process lipids or amino acids to
make ATP.
Anaerobic respiration- does not require
O2, to break down glucose and produce ATP
and lactate.
Fatigue- temporary state of reduced work
capacity.
MUSCLE TYPE OF CONTRACTION

FIBER TYPES

Muscle fibers contracts more slowly.

Muscle fibers contracts quickly.

Works anaerobically.

Slow twitch can sustain contraction longer than fast

twitch.

Recruitment- number of muscle fibers contracting is

increased by increasing the number of motor units
stimulated.

Slow twitch fibers- contain type I myosin as the

predominant or even exclusive type

Work aerobically.

Isometric Contraction- length of the

muscle does not change, but the
amount of tension increases during
contraction process.
Isotonic Contraction- amount of
tension produced by the muscle is
most constant during contraction, but
the length of muscle decreases.
Concentric Contraction- isotonic
contraction in which muscle tension
increases as the muscle shortens.
Eccentric Contraction- are isotonic
contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle to lengthen.
Person slowly lowers a heavy
weight.

 Substantial force- is
produced in muscle during
eccentric contractions, and
muscle cam be repetitive
eccentric contraction.
Auto rhythmicity- spontaneous
contraction of smooth muscle.
Cardiac muscle contraction is auto rhythmic.
It also exhibits limited anaerobic respiration.
Intercalated disk- connecting cardiac
muscle cells to one another.

They are specialized structure that

include tight junction and gap
junctions and that facilitate action
potential conduction between the
cells.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous System- involves in some way in
nearly every body function.
Functions:
Receiving sensory input- sensation
from the stimuli.
Integrating information
Controlling muscle and glands
Maintaining Homeostasis
Establishing and maintaining mental
activity- central and mental activity.
2 MAJOR DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System (CNS) brainstem and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) nervous tissue outside the CNS
(nerves and ganglia).
Carries information about
different tissue of the body to
the CNS and carries
commands from the CNS.
Sensory division afferent (toward) PNS
conducts action potentials from sensory
receptors to the CNS.
Sensory Neuron- neurons that transmit
action potential from the periphery to the
CNS.
Motor Division efferent (away) - PNS
conducts action potential from the CNS to
effector organs (muscle and gland).

Somatic Nervous System- action

potential from the CNS to skeletal
muscle.
Autonomic Nervous Systemtransmits action potential from the
CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
and glands.
Parasympathetic Division
Sympathetic Division
Enteric Nervous System- unique
subdivision of PNS. It has both sensory
and motor neurons contained wholly
within the digestive tract.
Can function without input from
the CNS.
Motor Neurons- neurons that transmit
action potentials from the CNS toward the
periphery.
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Neurons- receive stimulus, conduct action
potentials and transmit signals to other
neurons or effector organs. Not capable of
cell division.

Cell body- single nucleus. Source of

information for gene expression.
Dendrites- receiver information from
the other neurons or from sensory
receptors and transmit the information
toward the neurons cell body. Short,
high branching cytoplasmic
extensions.
Axon-single long cell process
extending from the neuron cell body.
Axon of sensory neurons
conduct action potentials
toward the CNS.
Axon of motor neurons conducts
action potential away from the
CNS.
Axon hillock- where axon
leaves neuron cell body.
Collateral axons- form by the
axon that remain branched or
unbranched.
Surrounded by myelin sheath.

Types of Neurons

Multipolar Neurons- many dendrites

and a single axon. ( motor
neurons)
Bipolar Neurons - two process: one
dendrites and one axon. (retina of
the eye and nasal cavity)
Pseudo unipolar Neurons- single
process extending from the cell body.
It has two process:
One process extend to the
periphery
One process extend to the CNS.
Sensory neuron

Glial Cells (neuroglia) - primarily supportive

cells of the CNS and PNS. They do not
conduct action potential. They are capable
of cell division.

Astrocytes- major supporting cells in

the CNS. It can stimulate or inhibit the
signalling activity of nearby neurons.
Star shaped.
Blood- brain barrierpermeability barrier to isolate
the brain from the damages of
neural tissue.
Ependymal cells- produce
cerebrospinal fluid.
Microglia- acts as immune cells of
the CNS. Help protect the brain by
removing bacteria and cell debris.
Oligodendrocytes- provide
insulating material that surrounds the
axon in the CNS.
Schwann Cells- provide insulating
material that surrounds the axon in
the PNS.

Myelin Sheath- specialized layer that wrap

around the axon of some neurons. Formed
by cells process of Oligodendrocytes in the
CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Insulator
that prevents almost all ions movements
across the cell membrane

Myelinated axon- axon with myelin

sheath.
Unmyelinated axon- axon without
myelin sheath.
Multipolar neuron mostly consist
unmyelinated axon.

Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in the

myelin sheath...
Multiple sclerosis- disease of myelin
sheath that cause loss of muscle
function.

ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE

Gary matter- group of neuron cell bodies
and their dendrites (soma), where there is
very little myelin.

Cortex- surface of the brain.(CNS)

Nuclei- cluster of gravy matter
located deeper within the brain. (CNS)
Ganglion- cluster of neuron cell
bodies.(PNS)
Nissle substance

White matter- bundles of parallel axons

with their myelin sheath.

Nerve tracts- which propagate

action potential from one area of CNS
to another(conduction pathway of
CNS)
Nerves- bundles of axon and
associated tissue.

Continuous conduction- unmyelinated

axon. Action potential is conducted along the
entire axon cell membrane.
Salutatory Conduction- myelinated axon.
Action potential jump from one node of
Ranvier to the next along the length of the
axon.
The SYNANPSE
Synapse- is a junction where the axon of
one neurons interacts with another neuron or
with cell of an effector organ, such as a
muscle or gland.

Presynaptic terminal- form at the

end of the axon.
Postsynaptic terminal- membrane
of the dendrite or effector cell.
Synaptic cleft- space separating the
presynaptic cell and postsynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitter- chemical
substance. They are being broken
down by enzyme within the synaptic

cleft or being transmitted by to

presynaptic terminal.
Acetycholinesterase- an enzyme
that breaks down acetycholine.
Acetylcholine best
neurotransmitter.
Norepinephrine- best
neurotransmitter.
Dopamine
Serotonin
Gamma- aminobutyric acid
Glycine
Endorphine

Synaptic vesicle- where

neurotransmitter are stored in the
presynaptic terminal.
Hyperpolarized- K+ and Cl- channel
open, the inside of the postsynaptic
terminal cells tend to become more
negative.
Action potential is inhibited
from occurring.