2003, P.

Joyce

Composite Materials,
Manufacturing, and Mechanics
(An Introduction)

Overview
Definition and description
Advantages over traditional
materials
History
Challenges and problems
Recent developments
2003, P. Joyce

About the Instructor

Peter J. Joyce

Asst. Professor, Mechanical Engineering Dept., U.S. Naval Academy (1999-present)

Ph.D. Materials Science & Engineering, UT-Austin

Development of a technique for characterizing fiber waviness

Teaching Assistant, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, UT-Austin

Effects of defects in FRP laminate composites

M.S. Materials Science & Engineering, UT-Austin

Teaching: Composites, Materials Science,

Mechanics of Materials, Statics, Dynamics
Research: Resin transfer molding, Filament winding,
Experimental mechanics of composite materials,
Visco-elastic materials characterization of filled polymers. . .

Materials Processing lab

Research Assistant, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, UT-Austin

B.S. Engineering Mechanics, Univ. of Illinois

Elevated temperature fracture toughness of MMCs

Valeo Systemes DEssuyage (1991)
DTRC, Annapolis, Fatigue & Fracture branch (1987-1990)
2003, P. Joyce

General Definition
Materials system created by combining two
or more individual base materials which
provides a specific set of mechanical and
physical characteristics.

2003, P. Joyce

A Few Examples
Fiberglass (glass fibers/polymer matrix)
Carbon fiber composites (carbon fibers/polymer matrix)
Laminated plywood (wood/adhesive)
Corrugated cardboard (paper/adhesive)
Steel reinforced concrete (steel rebar/concrete)

2003, P. Joyce

What about metal alloys, ceramics?

Materials Science

A composite is a multiphase material that is artificially

made, as opposed to one that occurs or forms naturally. In
addition, the constituent phases must be chemically
dissimilar and separated by a distinct interface. Thus most
metallic alloys and many ceramics do not fit this
description because their multiple phases are formed as a
consequence of natural phenomena.
2003, P. Joyce

Say that again

METALS
Metals and alloys,
two-phased

metal-filled
polymers
Plastics,
Polyblends,
Rubber-toughened
polymers

cermets,
MMCs

GFRP
CFRP

Ceramics and
Glasses, two-phased
structures (e.g. concrete)

CMCs
PLASTICS

CERAMICS
2003, P. Joyce

Advantages of Composite Materials

over Traditional Materials
Composites have inherent properties that provide
performance benefits over metals. A wide range of fibers
and resins are available to select the optimal material
combination to meet the structural requirements.

Light Weight
Resistance to Corrosion
Resistance to Fatigue Damage
Good Damping Characteristics
Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Can Tailor the Fiber/Resin Mix to Meet Stiffness/Strength/Manufacturing
Requirements
Reduced Machining
Part Consolidation Allows Reduced Number of Assemblies and Reduced
Fastener Count
Tapered Sections and Compound Contours Easily (?) Accomplished
2003, P. Joyce

Weight Savings
Weight savings of 25 to 50% are attainable over traditional materials.
Some applications may require thicker composite sections to meet
strength/stiffness requirements, however, a weight savings will still
result.
The strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios are the primary
reasons composites are used.
Material

Density
(lb/in.3)

Steel

0.29

Aluminum

0.10

Composites

0.045-0.072
2003, P. Joyce

Improved Fatigue Resistance

The fiber reinforcements provide high resistance to fatigue.
The fracture toughness of composites is better than that of
aluminum castings. By their nature, castings basically have
built-in notches that can catastrophically fracture under
impact. The fiber reinforcement of composites alters this
failure sequence; resulting in an increased resistance to
impact.
The impact toughness of composites can be maximized by
fiber selection, length of fiber and use of tougher resin such
as thermoplastics.
2003, P. Joyce

Parts Consolidation
Consolidating many parts in an assembly into one part is a major benefit
gained by using composite materials. It enables the designer to go
beyond mere material substitution and produce true composite structures.
The attachment areas of parts are where the majority of failures occur;
due to high point loads and stress concentrations.
Complex shapes can be produced with composite materials.
Fiber reinforcement across the former interfaces ensures adequate strength.
Elimination of these interfaces improves the reliability of the structure.

Part consolidation reduces part count, fasteners and assembly time. This
reduces weight due to fewer fasteners and thinner parts.

2003, P. Joyce

What about Cost?

Low cost, high volume manufacturing methods are used to
make composites cost competitive with metals.
Tooling costs for high volume production of metals and
composites parts are similar.
The production labor time is similar.
The higher cost of composite parts is mostly due to high raw
material costs.
Selection of the optimal material for the part, not the best material,
will control these costs.
Judicious selection of suppliers can minimize the cost penalty.
2003, P. Joyce

History
WWII
Sandwich construction used on Mosquito
First fiberglass boat molded, no parting agent used (1942)
Laminates of cloth-filed phenolic used in bomb tubes and bazooka barrels (1943)

Post War developments

Epoxy introduced commercially in the U.S. as an adhesive (1947)

Honeycomb fuel cell support panels used in B-36 bomber (1949)
First metal-to-metal adhesives used in aircraft primary structures (UK)
Experimental Spitfire fuselage fabricated of flax fiber and phenolic resin (UK)
Full scale wing spar constructed of flax fiber and phenolic resin for a Bristol
"Blenheim" bomber (UK) (
High-strength and high modulus, S-glass and boron fibers developed (1960)
Graphite fibers become available for research (1964)
First application of FRP in high temperature aircraft structure, F-111 (1965)
First advanced composite part designed and produced, F-14 (1969)
2003, P. Joyce

History

Commercial introduction of prepreg materials (1970)

Carbon fibers first incorporated by golf club manufacturers (early 1970s)
Composite materials widely used in recreational marine craft (1970s)
Introduction of first all-composite sandwich panels
First sold to Boeing for use in 747 (1974)

Carbon fibers first introduced in rocket motor industry (late 1970s)

First used for the space shuttle solid rocket motor and Trident II (D5) missile PMCs
based on epoxy resin used in space applications (1970s and 80s).

Int. modulus carbon fibers standard on Delta II, III, IV, Pegasus and Titan IV (late
1980s)

Thermoplastics evaluated for composites applications (early 1980s)

Cyanate ester resin introduced in 1990s.

For higher temperature applications Bismaleimide (BMI) resin systems are

increasingly being used (1990s).
Mercedes-Benz do Brasil introduces headrest reinforced with coconut fibers.
DaimlerChrysler adding flax, sisal, coconut, cotton, and hemp to upholstery, door
paneling, and rear panel shelf of Mercedes-Benz C-Class.
2003, P. Joyce

Horten Nurflugel, 1936

(Nothing But Wing)
Experimental two-seater fighter
Wings constructed entirely
from synthetic materials
(Mipolan and Astralon
developed by Dynamit AG),
consisted mainly of phenol
resins with paper filler.

Plagued by
problems with CTE
mismatch,
glue would dissolve varnish,
insufficient stiffness of
molded parts.

Ultimately synthetic materials

abandoned b/c manufacture too
time intensive
2003, P. Joyce

Horten Nurflugel, 1936

(Nothing But Wing)
Experimental two-seater fighter
Wings constructed entirely
from synthetic materials
(Mipolan and Astralon
developed by Dynamit AG),
consisted mainly of phenol
resins with paper filler.

Plagued by
problems with CTE
mismatch,
glue would dissolve varnish,
insufficient stiffness of
molded parts.

Ultimately synthetic materials

abandoned b/c manufacture too
time intensive

Ho V a
Photo from Nurflgel, by P. F. Selinger and Dr. R. Horten
2003, P. Joyce

Horten Nurflugel, 1936

Ho V b (steel and wood construction),

photo from Nurflgel, by Peter F. Selinger and Dr. Reimar Horten
2003, P. Joyce

F-111 Aardvark
(the original Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX))
F-111: multipurpose tactical bomber capable of
supersonic speeds.
F-111A first flown 1964, operational aircraft first delivered, 1967,
used for tactical bombing in SE Asia.
F-111B (Navy mod) canceled prior to production.
F-111C flown by Royal Australian Air Force.
F-111D, improved avionics, newer turbofan engines
F-111E, modified air intake capable of speeds up to Mach 2.2
Used by RAF in Operation Desert Storm.
F-111F, improved Turbofan engines (35% more thrust, Mach 2.5),
Also improved weapons targeting system (Pave Tack)
Flown in combat over Libya (1986).
Used for night bombing in Iraq (1991).
F-111G, converted FB-111A, used for training only.
2003, P. Joyce

F-111 and the Boron/Epoxy BandAid

Crashes in early production aircraft,
attributed to fatigue cracks in the
forged-steel wing-pivot fitting.
Instead of thickening the plate,
Northrop Grumman used a
boron/epoxy doubler (BandAid).
Achieved a 21% cost savings vs.
redesign (1968)
First cost effective application of
advanced composite materials.
2003, P. Joyce

Photo courtesy of Specialty Materials

Fighter Aircraft

AV/8B Harrier II Plus (McDonnell Douglas)

2003, P. Joyce

F/A-18E Materials Utilization

2003, P. Joyce

Eurofighter Typhoon
Wings, front fuselage and tail section fabricated from Hexcel 8552
prepreg
Bismaleimide (BMI) used for high temperature components
Film adhesive used to bond all composite parts.

2003, P. Joyce

Fighter Aircraft - Composites

Utilization

213 -10Fuselage
Radar
Foreplane
Transparent
46--Panel
Leading
Canard
Sections:
Wings:
Edge
Devices:
Epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy
carbon
carbon
Epoxy
or BMI
prepregs.
prepregs
carbon
prepreg
and
Non-metallic
glass
or
RTM
prepregs
resins
honeycomb
and
- Flying
Control
Wing
5 - Fin
Skins
Surfaces:
9Radome:
Fairings:
78---Fin:
Fin
Rudder:
and
Tip:
Epoxy
Ribs:
Epoxy/quartz
Epoxy
Epoxy
carbon/glass
carbon
glass
carbon
carbon
and
and
prepregs
carbon
prepreg
prepreg
glass
and
glass
prepregs.
prepregs
prepregs
Honeycomb
woven
core
and
preforms
Redux adhesives
(socks)
core material and Redux adhesives
This drawing is generic, to allow the maximum number of potential composite applications
to be identified. The drawing is not intended to represent a specific aircraft.
2003, P. Joyce
(http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/Markets/Markets/Aerospace/Defense.htm)

Fighter Aircraft Composites

Utilization
1 Radar Transparent Radome: Epoxy or BMI prepreg or RTM resins and woven
preforms (socks)
2 Foreplane Canard Wings: Epoxy carbon prepregs
3 Fuselage Panel Sections: Epoxy carbon prepregs. Non-metallic honeycomb core
and Redux adhesives
4 Leading Edge Devices: Epoxy carbon and glass prepregs
5 Fin Fairings: Epoxy glass and carbon prepregs
6 Wing Skins and Ribs: Epoxy carbon and glass prepregs
7 Fin Tip: Epoxy/quartz prepregs
8 Rudder: Epoxy carbon prepreg
9 Fin: Epoxy carbon/glass prepreg
10 Flying Control Surfaces: Epoxy carbon and glass prepregs. Honeycomb core
material and Redux adhesives
2003, P. Joyce

Experimental Aircraft

X-29 (1984-1992) first aircraft to take advantage of

aeroelastic tailoring using composite materials.
2003, P. Joyce

Civil Aircraft
Composites accounted for about 5% of the dry
weight of the original model of the Boeing 737.
This figure has risen to almost 20% of the dry
weight of the new Airbus A340.
Virtually all that can be seen externally of a modern
civil aero-engine is composite, and composite
materials represent some 10% of an engines total
weight.
The newest application for composites in civil
aircraft primary structures is the Airbus keel beam,
made from carbon fiber prepreg.
2003, P. Joyce

Civil Aircraft Composites

Utilization

This drawing is generic, to allow the maximum number of potential composite applications
to be identified. The drawing is not intended to represent a specific aircraft.
2003, P. Joyce
(http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/Markets/Markets/Aerospace/Civil.htm)

Civil Aircraft Composites

Utilization
1 Radome: Specialized glass prepregs. Flexcore honeycomb
2 Landing Gear Doors and Leg Fairings: Glass/carbon prepregs,honeycomb and
Redux bonded assembly. Special process honeycomb.
3 Galley, Wardrobes, Toilets: Fabricated Fibrelam panels
4 Partitions: Fibrelam panel materials
5 Wing to Body Fairing: Carbon/glass/aramid prepregs. Honeycombs. Redux
adhesive.
6 Wing Assembly: (Trailing Edge Shroud Box) Carbon/glass prepregs. Nomex
honeycomb. Redux bonded assembly
7 Flying Control Surfaces - Ailerons, Spoilers, Vanes, Flaps:
Glass/carbon/aramid prepregs. Honeycomb. Redux adhesive
8 Passenger Flooring: Fibrelam panels
9 Engine Nacelles and Thrust Reversers: Carbon/glass prepregs. Nomex
honeycomb. Special process parts.
10 Pylon Fairings: Carbon/glass prepregs. Bonded assembly. Redux adhesives
2003, P. Joyce

Civil aircraft composites

utilization
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Winglets: Carbon/glass prepregs

Keel Beam: Carbon prepregs
Cargo Flooring: Fibrelam panels
Flaptrack Fairings: Carbon/glass prepregs. Special process parts
Overhead Storage Bins: prepregs/fabricated Fibrelam panels
Ceiling and Side Wall Panels: Glass prepregs
Airstairs: Fabricated Fibrelam panels
Pressure Bulkhead: Carbon prepregs
Vertical Stabilizer: Carbon/glass/aramid prepregs
Rudder: Carbon/glass prepregs. Honeycomb bonded assembly
Horizontal Stabilizer: Carbon/glass prepregs
Elevator: Carbon/glass prepregs. Honeycomb bonded assembly
Tail Cone: Carbon/glass prepregs
2003, P. Joyce

Airbus A380 Composites Utilization

(More examples)
2003, P. Joyce

Aero-engines
Rolls-Royce RB108 was one of the first aero-engines to be manufactured
using composites technology (early 1950s).
glass fiber compressor rotor blades and casings

Modern engine nacelles and thrust reversers include so many major

composite components (50% by volume carbon fiber epoxy prepreg)

The GE90 developed for the 777 is the first large commercial turbofan to use
epoxy/carbon composite first stage compressor blades (1990s)
Other components within the engine, such as guide vanes and fairings, are
also converting to composites (1990s).
2003, P. Joyce

Aero-engines composites
utilization

25310
16---9Electronic
8Acoustic
Nose
-Fan
7---Engine
Guide
-Bypass
Compressor
4Thrust
Blades:
- Cowl:
Nose
Vanes:
Access
Lining
Control
Duct:
Reverser
Cone:
Epoxy
Epoxy
Fairing:
Epoxy
Panels:
Doors:
Unit
Epoxy
glass
carbon
Buckets:
Casing:
carbon
BMI/epoxy
Woven
Carbon/glass
prepreg
glass
Prepregs
Epoxy
prepreg,
RFI/RTM
prepreg,
Epoxy
and
or carbon
RTM
UD
or
woven
Prepregs,
carbon
Resin
non-metallic
or
carbon/glass
construction
construction
RTM
prepreg.
carbon
Transfer
Prepregs
high temperature
prepregs
prepregs,
Molding
Honeycomb
honeycomb
or
adhesives,
RTM
honeycomb
(RTM)
materials,
and
aluminum
andconstruction
adhesives
adhesives
andand
adhesives
honeycomb
adhesives
2003, P. Joyce

Polaris A2
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile
Polaris A2 (1962)
achieved a 50%
increase in range
through
Development of an
improved propellant
Lightweighting of
components (Hercules)
2nd stage - Glass
filament wound motor
chamber

2003, P. Joyce

Polaris A3
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile
Third generation Polaris A3
(1964) first SLBM to achieve
2500 nm range.
All composite construction
1st stage -Fiberglass motor case
2nd stage Fiber glass motor case

Improved propellant

2003, P. Joyce

Trident II D-5
Three-stage, solid
propellant, inertially guided
FBM with a range of more
than 4,000 nautical miles
All three stages of the
Trident II are made of
lighter, stronger, stiffer
graphite epoxy, whose
integrated structure mean
considerable weight
savings .
First deployed in 1990.
2003, P. Joyce

Space Shuttle
In 1974, NASA choose ATK
Thiokol to design and build the solid
rocket motors that would boost the
fleet of orbiters from the launch pad
to the edge of space.
Maiden flight of in 1981 (Columbia)
Space Shuttle reusable solid rocket
motor (RSRM) is the largest solid
rocket motor to ever fly, also the first
designed for reuse, and the only one
rated for human flight.
2003, P. Joyce

Delta II - Medium Launch Vehicle

Intermediate modulus
carbon fibers standard
on rocket motor cases
used on expendable
launch vehicles late
1980s.

2003, P. Joyce

Delta II

Titan IV
Intermediate modulus
carbon fibers standard
on rocket motor cases
used on expendable
launch vehicles late
1980s.

2003, P. Joyce

Rotorcraft
NH 90 and Tiger
complete composite
structures with carbon/glass
hybrid prepreg engine fairings,
glass prepreg blades and a
structure (fuselage, cockpit and
tail boom) built in 180C
curing carbon prepreg.

2003, P. Joyce

Rotorcraft
Eurocopter EC 135
fully shrouded fan and tail boom
(fenestron) built with Hexcels
180C self-adhesive, selfextinguishing prepreg with a
carbon/glass hybrid woven
reinforcement.
Rotor blades for the EH 101, Lynx
and Sea King helicopters contain a
specially machined honeycomb core
for low weight and superior stiffness.

2003, P. Joyce

Super Lynx Firing Sea Skua

UH1-Y Twin Huey (4BN) Materials

Breakdown
(PRELIMINARY)
PERCENT OF STRUCTURAL WEIGHT
ALUMINUM

33.9%

STEEL

22.8%

TITANIUM

1.6%

S2 Glass/8552 Toughened Epoxy

Used in Rotor Blades and Yokes
S2 Glass/IM-7 Carbon/8552 Toughened Epoxy
Used in Rotor Blades and Yokes

CARBON/EPOXY 0.8%
GLASS/EPOXY

13.9%

OTHER

27.0%

TOTAL

100%

Prepared by BHTI Materials & Processes

Dept. 81, Group 25 - 10/24/97

AS-4 Carbon/3501-6 Epoxy

Used in Fuselage Panels

2003, P. Joyce

AH-1Z Cobra (4BW) Materials

Breakdown
PERCENT OF STRUCTURAL WEIGHT
ALUMINUM

32.9%

STEEL

25.5%

TITANIUM

3.0%

(PRELIMINARY)
S2 Glass/8552 Toughened Epoxy
Used in Rotor Blades and Yokes
S2 Glass/IM-7 Carbon/8552
Toughened Epoxy Hybrid
Used in Rotor Blades and Yokes

CARBON/EPOXY 1.9%
GLASS/EPOXY

16.3%

OTHER

20.4%

TOTAL

100%

Prepared by BHTI Materials & Processes

Dept. 81, Group 25 - 10/24/97

AS-4 Carbon/3501-6 Epoxy

Used
in Fuselage
Panels
2003,
P. Joyce

V-22

2003, P. Joyce

V-22 EMD/LRIP Materials

Breakdown

IM7/8552 Towpreg
Aluminum
Other
Hybrid of IM6/3501-6 Tape & AS4/3501-6 PW Fabric Laminate

IM7/8552 Slit Tape Grip w/ S-2 & IM7/8552 Tape & Towpreg
S-2/8552 Tape & Towpreg and IM7/8552 Tape
IM6/3501-6 Tape & AS4/3501-6 CSW Fabric Hybrid
Laminate
2003, P.
AS4/3501-6 PW Fabric Laminate

Hand Placed AS4/3501-6 CSW Fabric Laminate

Joyce

Fiber-Placed IM6/3501-6 Towpreg Laminate

Fiber-Placed IM7/8552 Towpreg Sandwich

Unmanned Aircraft

X-45A UCAV (Boeing Phantom Works)

Global Hawk UAV (Northrop Grumman)

2003, P. Joyce

Unmanned Aircraft

Helios UAV (NASA Dryden)

2003, P. Joyce

Unmanned Aircraft

X-50 Canard Rotor Wing UAV (Boeing)

2003, P. Joyce

Satellite hardware composite

utilization

2 - Reflectors Antennae : Epoxy/aramid prepreg, cyanate carbon prepreg,

13 - Solar
Satellite
Panels
Structures
: Epoxy: Carbon
carbon prepregs,
prepreg, aluminum
aluminum honeycomb,
honeycomb, film
film adhesive
adhesive
aramid/aluminum honeycomb
2003, P. Joyce

Performance sailboats composite

utilization

5 - Hull & Deck: Carbon/glass prepreg.

72--Mast
Rudders:
8 - 6Interior
and
- 43Keel:
1-Spars:
-Carbon
Hardware:
Sail
Sails:
fittings
Carbon/glass
Battens:
UD
Carbon
Glass,
and
carbon
Carbon
Glass/carbon
bulkheads:
Woven/UD.
fiber
Prepregs
tape,
fiber
towWoven
composites.
for
Hexlite
(monolithic).
Nomex*
prepregs.
stiffening.
carbon,
Panels.
honeycomb.
Prepreg.
Nomex* honeycomb,
film adhesive.
2003, P. Joyce

 2003, P. Joyce

Naval Applications (Marine)

2003, P. Joyce

Wind energy industry

Wind power is the worlds fastest
growing energy source. The
latest wind turbines are designed
with rotors up to 110m in
diameter and are capable of
generating up to 5MW of power.
Operating at this level of efficiency
requires materials that combine
light weight with great stiffness,
strength and durability. These
requirements are met with sandwich
composite materials, increasingly
carbon fiber composites.
2003, P. Joyce

Automotive Applications

2003, P. Joyce

Trek bicycle frames composites

utilization

1 - Honeycomb made with Aramid Paper: The strong, shapable

2 - Carbon Prepreg
material that
makes the Y frame possible.
2003, P. Joyce

Trek bicycle frames composites

utilization

Unique direction-specific strength

Allows spot-tuning for extra rigidity in some parts - shock-dampening flex in others.
Maximum strength-to weight ratio
Frames made with carbon prepreg weigh just 2.44 lbs. (1.11 kg), but are incredibly strong..
2003, P. Joyce

Consumer Products Composites

Utilization

2003, P. Joyce

Where Do We Go From Here?

Opportunities
JSF
UAV, UCAV
Marine Apps

Disasters
NASA X-34 Reusable Launch Vehicle
American Airlines A300, Jamaica Bay, NY
NASA SST TPS
2003, P. Joyce

Further Reading
Hexcel website, www.hexcelcomposites.com
Reinforced Plastics website, www.reinforcedplastics.com
Wright Brothers legacy flying high, Reinforced Plastics, April,
2003, pp. 18-24.
The Evolving Nature of Aerospace Composites, Griffith, J.M., in
Proceeding of the 34th International SAMPE Technical Conference
2002 M&P - Ideas to Reality, Vol. 34, 2002, pp. 1-11.
A Brief History of Composites in the U.S. The Dream and the
Success, Scala, E.P., Journal of Materials, February, 1996, pp. 4548.
Innovation in Aircraft Structures Fifty Years Ago and Today,
Hoff, N.J., AIAA Paper No. 84-0840, 1984.
Composite Materials in Aircraft Structures, Hoff, N.J. in Progress
in Science and Engineering of Composites, Proceeding of ICCM-IV,
Tokyo, 1982, pp. 49-61.
2003, P. Joyce
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Jones, R.M., 1999, pp. 37-52.