Environmental Archaeology

The Journal of Human Palaeoecology

ISSN: 1461-4103 (Print) 1749-6314 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/yenv20

New evidence on the introduction, cultivation

and processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in
southern Sweden
Mikael Larsson & Per Lagers
To cite this article: Mikael Larsson & Per Lagers (2015) New evidence on the introduction,
cultivation and processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in southern Sweden, Environmental
Archaeology, 20:2, 111-119, DOI: 10.1179/1749631414Y.0000000029
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1749631414Y.0000000029

Published online: 11 Jul 2014.

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New evidence on the introduction, cultivation

and processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.)
in southern Sweden
Mikael Larsson 1, Per Lagers2
Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Lund, Sweden, 2The Swedish National Heritage
Bord, Lund, Sweden

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Subfossil remains of Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) have been found at Lindngelund in the region of Malm,
southern Sweden. These represent the earliest robust evidence so far for hemp retting in Scandinavia.
Finds of seeds, stems and pollen of C. sativa from a waterlogged context on a settlement dating to the
Roman Iron Age demonstrate that the plant was locally cultivated and processed during the 1st2nd
centuries AD. An introductory phase in Scandinavia is proposed (c. AD 1400) during which the
cultivation of hemp was apparently small scale and processing was probably carried out within
settlements. In the succeeding centuries, c. AD 400550 (the Migration Period), remains of hemp are
mostly found in pollen records from lake sediments, and less frequently in the archaeological record. This
could indicate that the process of hemp retting relocated from settlements to lakes shores where activity
became larger in scale and more integrated with the prevailing agricultural system.
Keywords: Cannabis sativa, Hemp, Retting, Roman Iron Age, Sweden, Scandinavia

Introduction
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an important cultural
plant used for a variety of products and purposes. In
the past, hemp fibre was particularly valued for its
strength and durability, being coarser than fibres
from flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). Its fruits have
chiefly been used for food and to make hempseed
oil, while a psychotomimetic resin secreted by epidermal glands has medicinal and narcotic properties. The
latter is difficult to prove based on the archaeological
and palaeoecological record and therefore the discussion of its early use has focused upon fibre and food
production.
Textiles and ropes made from hemp are highly perishable and consequently material evidence for the use
of hemp fibre is limited in the archaeological record.
The earliest finds in northern Europe are represented
by products of rope dating to 800 BC in Scotland
and textiles dating to 500 BC in southwestern
Germany (Krber-Grohne 1988; Ryder 1999). These
hemp products demonstrate the early use of the
plant in these areas, but cannot provide evidence
regarding their provenance. Palynological records of

Correspondence to: Mikael Larsson, Department of Archaeology and

Ancient History, University of Lund, Sandgatan 1, 223 50 Lund, Sweden.
Email: mikael.larsson@ark.lu.se

Association for Environmental Archaeology 2015

DOI 10.1179/1749631414Y.0000000029

Cannabis pollen are, on the contrary, good indicators

for the local growing of hemp. They may indicate cultivation near the sampling point or, if the pollen percentages are high, they may reflect the retting of the
stems. Also macroscopic plant remains provide good
evidence of local handling of the plant. Such remains
may be charred or subfossil fruits uncovered from
archaeological contexts or fragments of stems originating from retting or fibre processing.
Based on previous evidence, hemp cultivation is
generally presumed to have begun in Scandinavia
sometime after the mid-1st millennium AD, as indicated by pollen records (Phlsson 1981; Drfler
1990; Fleming and Clarke 1998). It is not until the
end of the first millennium AD and the succeeding
Middle Ages that hemp (seeds and pollen) becomes
well represented on sites across Scandinavia (Fries
1962; Gaillard and Gransson 1991; Lempiinen
1995, 1999; Moltsen 2000; Hall and Kenward 2003;
Karg 2007, 2012).
The recently discovered Cannabis plant remains
(stem fragments, fruits and pollen) presented in this
paper provide strong evidence of hemp cultivation as
well as fibre processing in southern Scandinavia had
already begun during the second century AD, and
possibly slightly earlier. The new results will be discussed within a wider agrarian perspective.

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New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp

Background
Plant Physiology and Taxonomy

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Cannabis are dioecious annual herbaceous plants in a

family (Cannabaceae) which contains only one other
genus Humulus. Male plants bear staminate flowers
arranged in panicles and produce large quantities of
pollen; the female flowers grow in leafy spikes in the
leaf axils. All known strains of Cannabis are wind pollinated and pistillate flowers of the female plant can
produce hundreds of fruits (Clarke 1993; Van der
Werf 1994, 34; Barron et al. 2003).
On a morphological basis, Cannabis is divided into
three species: C. sativa L., C. indica Lam. and C.
ruderalis Janisch (Schultes et al. 1974). Hemp, C.
sativa L., is grown for its fibre to produce textiles
and originates from central Asia. C. indica Lam. is cultivated for its pharmaceutical properties and is indigenous to Central and Eastern Asia, whereas C.
ruderalis (syn. C. sativa var. spontanea) is a hardier
species originating in central Russia.

Early Cultivation and Use of Hemp in

Scandinavia
The domestication, early use and spread of hemp from
Asia to Europe have been discussed by several authors
(Godwin 1967b; Li 1974a, 1974b, Lu and Clarke 1995;
Mercuri et al. 2002). Its introduction to Scandinavia is,
however, still unclear due to scarce finds. In
Scandinavia most evidence of the cultivation and processing of hemp comes from the palynological record.
The pollen grains are usually identified as Cannabis
type, which includes both Cannabis and Humulus,
since pollen of these two genera are very difficult to
distinguish (Moore et al. 1991).
Several diagrams show single pollen grains of
Cannabis type from the Early Holocene onwards.
Such very low frequencies (below 1%) from early
periods are usually interpreted as originating from
native wild-growing hops (Humulus sativa) (e.g.
Berglund 1991). According to macrofossil finds and
written documents, the cultivation of hops (to be
used as beer additive) was introduced to Scandinavia
around AD 1000 (Behre 1999), but because hops are
poor pollen producers, the cultivation of hops is
believed to contribute very little to the pollen record.
In contrast to these scattered and sometimes very
early appearances, some pollen diagrams show very
high frequencies of Cannabis type in the Late
Holocene, which are interpreted as reflecting the
growing and retting of hemp (C. sativa). Cannabis
type may reach 40% or more of the total pollen sum
(Regnll 1989; Gaillard and Gransson 1991). In at
least one case also the occurrence of black sulphite
gyttja at the same levels as high Cannabis-type percentages was used as an indication of retting (Regnll
1989).

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The identification of high pollen percentages (>5%)

of Cannabis type is probably a reliable indication of
the processing or nearby cultivation of hemp.
However, dating is more problematic. Today it is
well known that radiocarbon dates performed on
bulk gyttja samples give erroneously old dates due to
the so-called reservoir effect (Olsson 1986, 1991).
The error may vary from one hundred to several
hundred years (Lagers 1996). To avoid this
problem, modern pollen studies use terrestrial macrofossils found in the sediment or bulk peat samples
for radiocarbon dating. High frequencies of
Cannabis-type pollen have been dated to approximately AD 4001000 at several sites (Fries 1962;
Phlsson 1981; Regnll 1989; Gaillard and
Gransson 1991; Robertsson 1992; Rasmussen and
Anderson 2005), but because the chronologies are
based on radiocarbon dating of bulk gyttja or by
cross correlation with other sites, it is often difficult
to establishan exact date for the introduction of
hemp cultivation. For the same reason, the very
early pollen records of hemp (300 BC) from the Oslo
Fjord area published by Godwin (1967a) have to be
regarded as tentative. In cases where detailed chronologies have been established based on AMS dating of
terrestrial macrofossils or peat, high pollen percentages of Cannabis type have been recorded in the
11th century or later (Gransson 1989; Rasmussen
2005; Lagers 2007; Skld et al. 2010). To sum up
the evidence from the pollen record: hemp was cultivated in Scandinavia possibly from the 5th century
onwards and certainly from the 11th century onwards.
Cannabis fruits are rare on archaeological sites in
Scandinavia and finds from before AD 1000 are very
scarce. The earliest records are from Denmark at
Kragehavegrd (AD 375550), followed by Strandby
Gammeltoft (AD 6501000) and Ns (AD 750900;
Andresen and Karg 2011). A few fruits were recovered
from the Oseberg ship (found in a 9th century AD
burial mound in southern Norway; Holmboe 1927),
whilst the earliest seed dates to AD 8001000 in
Finland from Hmeenlinna (Lempiinen 1999). An
imprint of a Cannabis fruit on a ceramic vessel from
a Viking Age grave at Karby, Vendel is the earliest
in Sweden (Hansson 1998). During the Middle Ages
(AD 10501500) plant remains from Cannabis
become widely represented in the archaeological
record across Scandinavia (Fries 1962; Gaillard and
Gransson 1991; Lempiinen 1999; Hall and
Kenward 2003; Karg 2012), in both rural and urban
contexts (Lempiinen 1995; Moltsen 2000;
Engelmark 2002; Karg 2007).
Relatively few commodities made from hemp have
been discovered in Scandinavia date to the Iron Age,
i.e. from before AD 1050. The remains of the Oseberg
ship include coarse textiles that have been tentatively

Larsson and Lagers

interpreted as the remains of sail cloth made from hemp

(Holmboe 1927). Pliny the Elder had earlier prized the
great sail cloths made from flax and used by seafarers
on the Mediterranean Sea, and acknowledged that
flax sail cloths were made in all of the Gallic provinces
(Naturalis Historia, 19.1.1215). The point at which
sails started to be made from hemp is, however,
unclear. The extent to which sail cloths in Scandinavia
were made from flax or hemp is unknown, although
wool was largely used for this purpose during the first
millennium AD (Andersson 2003: 4954).

New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp

were taken from dwelling areas and waterlogged contexts. In focus for this paper is the analysis of two
small pits (labelled A74494 and A74539; Fig. 3)
which were discovered at the bottom of a larger waterlogged feature (A152645). The sediment fill was highly
organic and was sampled for both macrofossil and
pollen analysis. Archaeological finds from the two
pits consisted mainly of shards of Early Iron Age
pottery and bone fragments from domestic animals
(cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse and dog).

Method

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Excavation Site
The archaeological site Lindngelund in the region of
Malm, southern Sweden, was subject to excavation in
2010 (Fig. 1 & 2). The site revealed settlement remains
from two different occupation periods the Early
Roman Iron Age (AD 1200) and the transition
between the Viking Period and the beginning of the
Middle Ages (AD 9001100) both represented by
small farms. Adjacent to the settlements was a waterlogged area with several wells and pit features. Most
of these correspond with the settlement phase of the
Roman Iron Age and the Viking Period/Early
Middle Ages. The waterlogged features revealed an
abundance of artefacts and household waste, reflecting
both ordinary settlement activities and ritual deposits
(Carlie and Lagergren 2014).

Sample Context
From the excavation site a total of 18 soil samples were
analysed for macrofossils and 5 for pollen
(Supplementary materials 1 and 2). The samples

Figure 1

Bulk soil samples, ranging in volume from 01 to 20 l,

collected during the excavation were processed with
running water and sieved over a 04-mm mesh.
Macrofossils caught in sieve residues consisted of
both charred and uncarbonised material and were
identified using a microscope (6363), a reference
collection of modern seeds, and the relevant literature
(Cappers et al. 2006; Jacomet 2006). Pollen samples
were prepared using standard methods (Berglund
and Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1986) and mounted in
glycerine. Pollen grains were identified using a light
microscope (4001000), a pollen reference collection,
and identification keys (Moore et al. 1991).

Results
Dating
A fruit of C. sativa from A74494 was radiocarbon
dated to cal. AD 20220 (2), and seeds of
Ranunculus and Chenopodium from A74539 were
dated to cal. 160 BCAD 80 (Table 1). The calibrated
2 sigma intervals of the two dates overlap AD 2080,

Location of Lindngelund in southwestern Scania, Sweden. (Inset) The study area (boxed) within northern Europe.

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New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp

Figure 2 Plan of the Roman Iron Age settlement at Lindngelund, showing wetland north of the dwelling area, including
excavated and analysed waterlogged feature (A152645), and excavated houses (AD 1200) to the south.

represent the Early Roman Iron Age, but their age

could be much earlier: Ua-29841 may be as old 160
BC. The dates correspond with pottery from the
same contexts, dated by typology, as well as to the
dating of house remains situated close by (Carlie and
Lagergren 2014).

Macrofossil Analysis
Feature A152645, with sub-features A74494 and
A74539, was located in a wetland area that today is
largely absent of standing water, but its former waterlogged nature is evident from saturated layers of mud
and gyttja. Two samples from the bottom of A74494

and A74539 were analysed for macrofossils and the

results are presented in Table 2.
Sample PM75759 from A74494 contained 146 subfossil fruits of C. sativa and some fruit capsules
(Fig. 4). In addition, a substantial amount of stem
fragments were present in the sample. The stems
were lacking any dark flecking from fungi (Fig. 5).
Sample PM78033 from A74539 contained no macro
remains of Cannabis, whereas samples from both
A74494 and A74539 revealed Cannabis-type pollen
(see below).
Fruits of the aquatic plants common water-crowfoot
(Ranunculus aquatilis) and trifid bur-marigold (Bidens

Figure 3 Plan and section of waterlogged feature A152645 showing the features and contexts sampled.

Table 1

114

OxCal v4.2.3 Bronk Ramsey and Lee (2013); IntCal 13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013)

Lab no.

Feature

Sample

Ua-30444
Ua-29841

A74494
A74539

PM75759
PM78033

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Material

14

C yr BP

Cal. 2 range

Cannabis sativa (fruit)

Ranunculus, Chenopodium (fruits)

1907 35
2013 39

AD 20220
160 BCAD 80

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New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp

Table 2 Result of macrofossil analysis (A74494 and A74539)

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Feature 74494
PM7575906
(lit.)
Cultivated plants
Linum usitatissimum
Cannabis sativa
Other plants
Urtica urens
Rumex acetosella
Rumex crispus
Rumex crispus
Polygonum aviculare
Persicaria lapathifolia
Fallopia convolvulus
Chenopodium sp.
Chenopodium album
type
Chenopodium rubrum
Arenaria serpyllifolia
Stellaria sp.
Stellaria media
Stellaria graminea
Ranunculus sp.
Ranunculus aquatilis
type
Brassicaceae undiff.
Lepidium sp.
Potenilla anserina
Linum catharticum
Hypericum perforatum
Solanum nigrum
Plantago major
Bidens cf. tripartita
Cirsium cf. palustre
Potamogeton sp.
Juncus sp.
Luzula
Carex

Feature 74539
PM7803301
(lit.)

1
146
16
1
9
7
12
9
2
22
46

14

132
1
5

51
2

11
5
2
4
1
6
7
10
9

93
6

7
1
5
9

1
2
1
5

2
2

3
10
1
2
116
6
2

tripartita) were identified in the macrofossil samples.

These suggest the feature formerly contained standing
water. Large numbers of rush (Juncus) fruits with
some sedge (Carex) further demonstrate the saturated
nature of the local environment.
Dry soil samples from the contemporary Roman
Iron Age houses were dominated by charred grains
of hulled barley along with some emmer wheat,

Figure 5 Cannabis sativa stem fragments, together with

some capsules and fruits, recovered from feature A74494.
Photo by Staffan Hyll.

which is a typical combination of cereals from this

time period in southern Sweden.

Pollen Analysis
The results of the pollen analysis of PM75759 and
PM78033 are presented in Table 3 ( pollen sums: 515
and 449, respectively). Both samples contained
pollen of Cannabis type (315% in PM75759 and
73% in PM78033). No other pollen samples from
the site revealed this taxon. Other anthropochores
identified in PM75759 and PM78033 were Cerealia
undiff., Hordeum-type and a single pollen grain of L.
usitatissimum. In addition to these cultivated taxa,
both samples were dominated by open-ground taxa
that thrive in agricultural landscapes affected by
grazing, cultivation and trampling. For instance high
percentages of Poaceae undiff. and Plantago lanceolata together with the occurrence of Rhinanthus type
and some other herb pollen indicate pastures, while
high percentages of Polygonum aviculare type,
Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae reflect weeds and
ruderal plants growing in arable fields or on the settlement site. Because most trees are strong pollen producers, the relatively low tree-pollen percentages indicate
an almost tree-less landscape.

Discussion
Early Evidence for Hemp Retting

Figure 4 Cannabis sativa fruits recovered from feature

A74494. Photo by Staffan Hyll.

The analysis of two adjacent waterlogged pits from

Lindngelund revealed that one contained fruits,
fruit capsules and stem fragments of C. sativa.
Furthermore, pollen analysis of the same two pits
revealed that both contained pollen grains of
Cannabis-type. This category includes pollen of both
C. sativa and Humulus lupulus (Moore et al. 1991)
but given that macrofossils of C. sativa were found in
the same context, it is likely that the pollen recorded
here reflects only this species.

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Table 3

New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp

Results of pollen analysis (PM75759 and PM 78033)

PM75759
%

Counts

3
12

06
23

17
7
1
2
3

33
14
02
04
06

7
19
1
20
7
1
2

16
42
02
45
16
02
04

14

3
2
2

07
04
04

4
18
162

08
35
315

1
4
33
1

02
09
73
02

02

8
6
3

16
12
06

3
22
8

07
49
18

1
3
3
3

02
07
07
07

4
3
3
1
1

09
07
07
02
02

2
3
6
2
20

04
07
13
04
45

1
2
20
2
8

02
04
45
04
18

44
16
138
27
449

98
36
307
6

4
4

09
09

Trees, shrubs and dwarf

shrubs
Betula
Pinus
Populus
Alnus
Quercus
Ulmus
Fagus
Picea
Myrica gale
Corylus
Calluna vulgaris
Cultivated plants
Cerealia undiff.
Hordeum type
Cannabis type
Linum usitatissimum
Other herbs
Fallopia convolvulus type
Persicaria maculosa type
Polygonum aviculare type
Rumex acetosa/acetosella
Rumex obtusifolius type
Caryophyllaceae
Ranunculaceae undiff.
Ranunculus type
Hornungia type
Sinapis type
Rosaceae undiff.
Filipendula
Potentilla type
Fabaceae undiff.
Trifolium type
Vicia type
Apiaceae
Galium type
Mentha type
Rhinanthus type
Plantago lanceolata
Plantago major
Scabiosa
Jasione type
Anthemis type
Artemisia
Aster type
Centaurea scabiosa
Cirsium
Asteraceae Lactucoideae
Cyperaceae
Poaceae undiff.
Chenopodiaceae
POLLEN SUM
Spores
Equisetum
Polypodiaceae
Sphagnum

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PM78033

Counts

1
6
2
2
1
3
2

02
12
04
04
02
06
04

2
4
8
1
2
14
3
1

04
08
16
02
04
27
06
02

3
22
1
8
2
45
11
93
24
515

06
43
02
16
04
87
21
181
47

5
3
2

1
06
04

Based on information surrounding the traditional

processing of hemp in Sweden (historical documents
1764, 1774; Dahlman 1772; Frier 1960), the hemp
stems found here are interpreted as by-products from
fibre production. More specifically, they reflect the
stage when the fibre was separated from the stem, i.e.
from the beating, breaking and heckling that followed
upon retting. The fruits and capsules probably originate from the same process.

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Retting is a microbial process that breaks down cellular tissues and pectin and allows separation of the
bast fibres from the core. This involves either water
retting or dew retting (Bradshaw et al. 1981; Cox
et al. 2000). Water retting can be done in small,
shallow ponds of standing water which are warmed
by sunlight, but the same process can also take place
in lakes or streams. The stems are left to rot in the
pond for about two weeks or more, the time depending
on the type of microbes and the temperature in the
water, after which the stems are dried in the open air
before further processing.
Field or dew retting, in which hemp stems are spread
evenly over grassy fields, is a method used in areas
where water resources are limited. This is best suited
to areas which experience thick night-time dew or
warm daytime temperatures. Flecking of dark spots
on the stems, primarily representing the growth of
the fungus Cladosporium herbarum, becomes more
numerous and spreads during the retting process until
the whole stem becomes grey in colour. The fungi are
considered to be the retting agent for field retted
hemp (Fuller and Norman 1944). Depending on the
prevailing climate, the fibre can be separated after
about two to three weeks. Field-retted fibre is darker
and usually of poorer quality than water-retted fibre.
At Lindngelund, the absence of dark flecking on
the stems from fungi suggests that the hemp was not
field or dew-retted but rather placed in water. In the
absence of nearby lakes or streams, retting most
likely took place in the dug pits that were investigated.
Prior to this study, evidence of early retting of hemp
in Scandinavia was almost exclusively based on palynological records with high pollen percentage of
Cannabis type (e.g. Bradshaw et al. 1981; Peglar
et al. 1989; Gaillard and Gransson 1991;
Rasmussen 2005; Rasmussen and Anderson 2005;
Schofield and Waller 2005). The Cannabis-type
pollen found in both pits at Lindngelund may originate, in part, from pollen washed off the plant
during the retting process. C. sativa is a prolific
pollen producer and wind dispersal from nearby
hemp fields may also have contributed to the pollen
record. A possible interpretation would be that hemp
retting, after an introductory phase, was moved from
settlements to lake shores as it became a more substantial activity from the Migration Period (AD 400550)
onwards. One reason could be the need for more
water, another that larger water bodies were sought
out to handle the larger hemp stems. Edwards and
Whittington (1990) note that retting hemp creates a
foul smell, and this could be another possible reason
why people wanted to distance this activity from
their homes. A drawback would have been the colder
water of lakes in comparison to shallow pits, resulting
in a slower retting process.

Larsson and Lagers

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Growth, Production and Harvesting

Cultivation of hemp was probably a new agricultural
activity in northern Europe during the first centuries
AD. Introducing a new cultivar involved both knowledge of hemp fibre and cultivation requirements of the
plant. Careful monitoring during the harvesting
period had to be considered as male and female
flowers of hemp develop on separate plants. Male
plants begin to decay soon after anthesis, while
female plants can live from two to five weeks longer,
until the fruit is ripe (Stearn 1970). For this reason,
the time of flowering was an important factor in governing when to harvest, particularly as the stem quality
of male plants starts to decline after flowering as the
plant gradually whithers and dies. This may result in
two different harvesting times for the same field. At
Lindngelund, both male and female plants were cultivated and handled on the site, as reflected by finds of
both pollen and fruits respectively, but it is unclear if
male plants were harvested and retted prior to the
maturation of female stems, or if they were stored
before retting all stems together.
Successful cultivation of hemp would have required
access to fertile soils and a source of manure as nutrient-rich soils are needed to achieve high yields and
fibre of high quality (Broocman 1736; historical documents 1737a, 1764; Dahlman 1772; Osvald 1944,
1959; Vavilov 1992). Hemps demands for nitrogen,
calcium and phosphorus are high (Barron et al.
2003), and a lack of nitrogen especially can result in
reduced growth and smaller yields.
By the time hemp was introduced to Scandinavia in
the Early Roman Iron Age, the agrarian system was
based on self-sufficient single farms practicing mixed
farming (Engelmark and Viklund 1990). Stabling
was introduced a few centuries earlier and had
become common (Engelmark 1998; Viklund 1998),
providing ready access to manure. The demand for fertiliser suggests that farms involved in hemp cultivation
also depended heavily on animal husbandry, at least
for inland sites. But in coastal areas, seaweed was
also commonly used as a fertilizer (Whittington and
Edwards 1990). Furthermore, according to the 18thcentury literature on hemp cultivation, the plant had
additional beneficial properties, and was renowned
for producing a permeable soil for succeeding crops
and for suppressing weed growth (historical document
1764).

Conclusion
The macrofossil remains of C. sativa and pollen of
Cannabis type that were discovered at Lindngelund,
southern Sweden and dated to the Early Roman Iron
Age, provide the earliest definitive evidence for hemp
retting in Scandinavia. The retting took place within
waterlogged pits beside a dwelling area. This may

New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp

reflect an introductory phase during which hemp processing was a small-scale operation and was carried
out on settlements. Subsequently, the general scarcity
of archaeological finds of hemp, in combination with
relatively plentiful palynological records for
Cannabis from lakes, indicates that the process of
hemp retting may have moved from settlements to
lakes shores.
Results from Lindngelund indicate that hemp was
introduced to this location for production of fibre.
Although other possible uses of the plant for food,
oil or medical purposes cannot be excluded, the
general scarcity of hemp fruits from settlement contexts indicates that these were of minor importance.
This differs from flax, which was used for both fibre
and food/oil throughout the Iron Age.

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dominic Ingemark and Eva
Andersson for fruitful discussions and the two anonymous reviewers for suggesting improvements to the
manuscript.

Historical Documents
1737a. Kongl. maj:ts och riksens commercie collegii
frfattade beskrifning, p hwad stt hampe-sdet br
giras, och huru dermed skal frfaras, s at, til
underdnigst flje af kongl. maj:ts, i anledning af
riksens stnders stundan, frklarade ndige wilja,
hampan til fullkommelig wxt och lngd, m kunna
bringas. Stockholm.
1737b. Kongl. Maj:ts Ndige Kundgirelse,
Angende Hampe-Sdets befrmjande uti Riket.
Gifwen Stockholm i Rd-Cammaren then 15 Febr.
1737. Stockholm.
1752. Underrttelse om sttet, at bereda lin och
hampa. Stockholm.
1764. Underrttelse om sttet at behrigen plantera
och bereda hampa och lin, upp hans kongl. maj:ts
ndigste befallning til trycket befordrad, af desz och
riksens commerce-collegio. Stockholm.
1774. Beskrifning om hampa, des sning, sktsel
och beredning p et frdelaktigare stt, efter kongl.
Maj:ts allerndigaste befalning, upp dess rikens commerce-collegii franstaltande frfattad. Stockholm.

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