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Lab Guide - Pipes
Lab Guide - Pipes
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
I. Objectives
I-1.
To understand how to measure the pressure head, flow rate and amount fluid
passing through the pipe system.
I-2.
I-3.
Elbows
Orifice
Nipples
Unions
Entrance and Exit of the pipe
To be able to plot the Hydraulic and Energy grade line along the scaled diagram
of the pipe system.
Stop watch
Steel tape
22L Bucket
Pipes and fittings experimental set-up
pipe is determined by a schedule number which will indicated the allowable stress and pressure
inside the said pipe though it is a must to have a factor of safety in computing its allowable stress
due to the quality that it is made of. The friction factor is a dimensionless quantity used to
determine the friction loss in a pipe flow from the Darcy - Weisbach equation.
Fig. 1 shows the laminar flow in fluid dynamics occurring when a fluid flows in parallel layers
with no disruption. In laminar flow, sometimes called streamline flow, the velocity, pressure, and
other flow properties at each point in the fluid remain constant. For this condition, the friction
factor becomes:
f=
where
64
eqn .1
<2300 .
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the
pipe and laminar flow near the edges. The value of the Darcy friction factor is subject to large
uncertainties in this flow regime. Transition (neither fully laminar nor fully turbulent) flow
occurs in the range of Reynolds numbers between 2300 and 4000. Fig. 1 also shows the erratic
and unpredictable behaviour of flow that exists when
called turbulent. In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized
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by chaotic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum
convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. For this
condition, the friction factor becomes:
1
; Rough Pipes eqn . 2
12 d
1
; Smooth Pipes eqn .3
12 d
f =0.01 1+
f =0.005 1+
where d
Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity used to predict flow patterns in different situations.
=
VD
eqn .4
For both smooth and turbulent flows, the friction factor is estimated with the following equation
developed by Colebrook and white (1937).
1
2.523
=2 log
+
eqn .5
f
3.7 D f
where f
diameter, and
The Colebrook-White equation is valid for Re values ranging from 2000 to 108, and for values of
relative roughness ranging from 0.0 to 0.05. The formula is often used in pipe network
simulations. Its form is notably implicit, as the value of f appears on both sides of the equation,
and its accurate solution is often very time consuming, requiring many iterations.
Bernoullis Equation
The Bernoulli Equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation. It is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where the net frictional forces are
negligible. The key approximation of its derivation is that the viscous effects are negligibly small
compared to the inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. In general, frictional effects are
important in areas very close to the solid walls (boundary layers) and directly downstream of the
bodies (Cengel 2012). The motion of a particle and the path it follows are described by the
velocity vector as a function of time and space coordinates and the initial position of the particle.
When the flow is stead all particles pass through the same point and the velocity vectors remain
tangent to the path at every point.
In analyzing the flow of the piping system, we begin by accepting the following assumptions:
Page 4
W = K + U eqn.6
By principle of continuity, it can also be assumed that the volume through AB and AB are
equal. From the position of the fluid and its characteristics given in Fig. 2, the following
equations can be determined:
For position AB:
W AB=P 1 V =
P1 m
W A ' B ' =P 2 V =
P2 m
1
K AB= m v 12
2
1
K A ' B ' = m v 22
2
U AB=mg z 1
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where P1 and P2 are the corresponding pressures at specific locations, v1 and v2 are
the velocities at specific locations, z1 and z2 are the elevations, m is the mass of
the fluid, and is the density of the fluid.
using conservation of energy:
W = K + U
(W AB W A B )=( K A B K AB )+(U A B U AB)
'
1
mg
'
'
'
'
[( ) ( ) ] (
'
P1 m
P m
mv 22 mv 12
1
2
=[
+ ( mgz 2mgz1 ) ]
2
2
mg
z2 z1
P1 P2
v 2 2 v 12
( )=( )+
g g
2g 2 g
P 1 v 12
P v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 eqn .7
2g
2g
where
is the specific weight of the fluid equal to the product of its density
P1 v 1
P v
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 +h losses
2g
2g
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hlosses =
)(
P1 v 1
P v
+ + z 1 2 + 2 + z 2 eqn .8
2g
2g
*Considering that no other component within the system extracts energy or adds energy
in the system
Hydraulic Head
When a fluid is flowing steadily in a long straight pipe of uniform diameter, the flow
pattern as indicated by the velocity distribution across the pipe diameter, will assume a certain
characteristics form. Any impediment in the pipe which changes the direction of the whole
stream, or even part of it, will alter the characteristic flow pattern and create turbulence causing
an energy loss greater than that normally accompanying flow in straight, pipes. Because values
and fittings in a pipeline disturb the flow pattern they produce an additional pressure drop. The
wall thickness of pipe is indicated by a schedule number, which is a function of internal pressure
and allowable stress. Approximately:
P
eqn . 9
S
Table 1.
L
K Factors of Various Pipe Fittings
D
Page 8
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Head is a concept that relates the energy in a fluid to the height of an equivalent static column of
that fluid. It is useful in specifying centrifugal pumps because their pumping characteristics tend
to be independent of the fluid's density. There are different types of head used to calculate the
total head in and out of pump namely, velocity head, elevation head, and pressure head. A
velocity head represents the elevation needed for a fluid to reach the velocity V during
frictionless free fall. An elevation head represents the potential energy of the fluid. While a
pressure head represent the height of a fluid column that produces the static pressure. Hydraulic
head or piezometric head is defined as a specific measurement of liquid pressure above geodetic
datum. From the perspective of the Bernoullis equation, it is the energy comprised only of the
pressure potential and elevation potential.
let work done be dependent upon two independent parameters:
W =f ( P ,m , ) + g ( m, g , z ) eqn .10
where
gravitational acceleration,
z is the elevation.
Term 2
f =W P a mb c
f =W ma gb z c
a
g is the
0=1+ a+b+ c
b=1
0=1+ a
a=1
0=2a3 c
c=+1
0=2+ b+c
c=1
0=22 a
a=1
0=22b
b=1
f =W (
)
Pm
f=
W
mgz
W =C1
W
+ g(
( W
)
Pm
mgz )
( Pm )+C ( mgz )
Where: W =F ht =mg ht
P
ht = + z eqn .11
Within a pipe system, there are two types of losses: major losses and minor losses. Major losses
(hLmajor) is composed of losses generated by pipe components.
a) Major Losses, hLmajor
The pressure drop through pipe systems where viscous effects resulting from shear
stresses that exist due to the interaction between the pipe wall and the fluid flow is
described as follows:
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where
average velocity,
pipe,
0=f ( P , v , D , l, , , )
let
,v ,D
1= P a v b Dc
2=l a v b Dc
a
a=1
0=13 a+b+ c
0=a
c=0
0=13 a+b+ c
c=1
0=2b
1=
b=2
0=b
P
2
v
2=
3= a v b Dc
l
D
4= a v b Dc
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is the
3 a
1 b
0=1+ a
a=1
0=13 a+b+ c
c=1
0=13 a+b+ c
c=1
0=b
3=
0=1b
b=1
4=
vD
P l
, , ,
)
2
v D D vD
P=c v 2
vD
( Dl )( D )( vD ) eqn .13
combination of these parameters can be described as the friction factor, f which can be
determined through a Moody diagram.
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Let:
( D )( vD )= 2f
1 (
fl v 1
P )=(
)
g
2 D g
dividing everything by
eqn .14
h Lmajor =
1
g
fl v
2 Dg
The equation now shows the Darcy Weisbach equation used to determine the major
losses through pipes.
b) Minor Losses
Since minor losses are caused by the difference of profiling of a pipe cross section
across a certain distance, the pressure drop,
only the average velocity of the fluid, v
. That is:
P=f ( v , )
; where c , a ,b are constants
P=c v a b
P=c v a b
a
eqn .15
a=2
2=a
P=c v 2
k
2
is substituted by
; where k
is a factor associated by
v2 1
)
2 g
2
h Lminor =k
eqn .16
v
2g
The total head loss then of the pipe system will be the summation of its major and minor losses:
hlosses =h Lmajor + hLminor
eqn .17
IV. Procedure
A. Experimental Set-up
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B. Schematic Diagram
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Table 2. Symbols used in the Analysis of Flow for Pipes and Fittings
COMPONENT
SYMBOL
PIPE #1
DESCRIPTION
6 cm
, BI,
Threaded
PIPE #2
6 cm
, BI,
Threaded
PIPE #3
3.2 cm
, BI,
GATE VALVE
UNION
45o ELBOW
90o ELBOW
ORIFICE
Threaded
Brass, Threaded
Threaded, Ordinary
Threaded, Ordinary
Threaded, Ordinary
Flanged, Ordinary
NIPPLE
Threaded, Ordinary
Note: The assembly of the fittings used can be found in Figure 3 and 4.
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B. Pre-Experiment
B-1.
Safety
The area is cluttered with slipping and tripping hazards so caution is advised.
When climbing up and down the ladder hold the ladder at the horizontal supports
B-2.
blades.
It took us about 5 minutes of operation of the axial pump before the centrifugal
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B-3.
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C.
V.
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Table V-1:
Piezometric Column and Total Head at various points of pipe line 1 with variable
initial head
Location
Piezometric Column
110 cm
70 cm
45 cm
110 cm
Total Head
70 cm
45 cm
o- tank
a
b
c
d
e
f
where a is the gate valve upstream, b is the gate valve downstream, c is the union
upstream, d is the union downstream, e is the 45o elbow upstream, and f is the 45o elbow
downstream.
Table V-2:
Piezometric Column and Total Head at various points of pipe line 2 with variable
initial head
Location
Piezometric Column
110 cm
70 cm
45 cm
110 cm
Total Head
70 cm
45 cm
o- tank
a
b
c
where a is the nipple upstream, b is the nipple downstream and the 90 o elbow upstream,
and c is the 90o elbow downstream.
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Table V-3:
Piezometric Column and Total Head at various points of pipe line 3 with variable
initial head
Location
Piezometric Column
110 cm
70 cm
45 cm
110 cm
Total Head
70 cm
45 cm
o- tank
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
where a is the orifice upstream, b to e, are the orifice downstream, f is the rotameter
upstream, g is the rotameter downstream, and h is the 90o elbow upstream.
Graph V-1:
Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line of pipe line 1 with variable initial
head
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250
EGL-70cm
200
EGL-45cm
150
HGL-70cm
HGL-110cm
HEAD (cm)
HGL-45cm
100
Logarithmic (HGL-45cm)
50
0
tan
k
Graph V-2:
d
bLOCATION c(NTS)
dischar
ge
Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line of pipe line 2 with variable initial
head
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EGL-110cm
EGL-70cm
200
EGL-45cm
HEAD (cm)
HGL-110cm
150
HGL-70cm
HGL-45cm
100
50
0
tank
LOCATION
(NTS)
a
b
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c discharg
e
Graph V-3:
Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line of pipe line 3 with variable initial
head
EGL-110cm
EGL-70cm
200
EGL-45cm
HEAD (cm)
HGL-110cm
150
HGL-70cm
HGL-45cm
100
50
0
tank
a
b c
LOCATION
f (NTS) g
discharg
e
d e
VII. REFERENCES
Farzin, S., Rahman K., and Mohammad A. G. (2010). A study of friction factor formulation in
pipes using artificial intelligence techniques and explicit equations. Tabriz Iran. 123.
Crane (1991). Flow of fluids through valves, fittings, and pipe. Crane Co., Chicago, 4-5.
Della Rovere, C. A., Aquino, J. M., Ribeiro C.R., Silva, R., Alcantara, N. G., Kuri, S. E. (2014).
Corrosion behavior of radial friction welded super martensitic stainless steel pipes.
Rodovia Washington Luis.
Cengel, Y., Turner, R., and Cimbala, J. (2012). Fundamentals of Thermal Fluid Sciences. 4th
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 471 474.
Daube K. (2003). Diagrams and Nomograms for the Flowtec Handbook. E+H Flowtec AG.
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