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BlackDeath
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheBlackDeathwasoneofthemostdevastatingpandemics
inhumanhistory,resultinginthedeathsofanestimated
75to200millionpeopleandpeakinginEuropeintheyears
134653.[1][2][3]Althoughtherewereseveralcompeting
theoriesastotheetiologyoftheBlackDeath,analysisofDNA
fromvictimsinnorthernandsouthernEuropepublishedin
2010and2011indicatesthatthepathogenresponsiblewasthe
Yersiniapestisbacterium,probablycausingseveralformsof
plague.[4][5]
TheBlackDeathisthoughttohaveoriginatedinthearidplains
ofCentralAsia,whereitthentravelledalongtheSilkRoad,
reachingCrimeaby1343.[6]Fromthere,itwasmostlikely
carriedbyOrientalratfleaslivingontheblackratsthatwere
regularpassengersonmerchantships.Spreadingthroughout
theMediterraneanandEurope,theBlackDeathisestimatedto
SpreadoftheBlackDeathinEurope(134653)
[7]
havekilled3060%ofEurope'stotalpopulation. Intotal,the
plaguereducedtheworldpopulationfromanestimated
450milliondownto350375millioninthe14thcentury.Theworldpopulationasawholedidnotrecovertopre
plaguelevelsuntilthe17thcentury.[8]TheplaguerecurredoccasionallyinEuropeuntilthe19thcentury.
Theplaguecreatedaseriesofreligious,social,andeconomicupheavals,whichhadprofoundeffectsonthecourse
ofEuropeanhistory.

Contents
1 Names
2 Chronology
2.1 Originsofthedisease
2.2 Europeanoutbreak
2.3 MiddleEasternoutbreak
3 Symptoms
4 Causes
4.1 DNAevidence
4.2 Alternativeexplanations
5 Consequences
5.1 Deathtoll
5.2 Persecutions
5.3 Recurrence
5.4 Thirdplaguepandemic
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Furtherreading
9 Externallinks
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Names
The12thcenturyFrenchphysicianGillesdeCorbeil'sOntheSignsandSymptomsofDiseases(Latin:Designiset
sinthomatibusegritudinum)usesthephrase"blackdeath"(atramors)torefertoapestilentialfever(febris
pestilentialis).[9]
Writerscontemporarywiththeplaguereferredtotheeventasthe"GreatMortality"[10]orthe"GreatPlague".[11]
Thephrase"blackdeath"(morsnigra)wasusedin1350bySimondeCovinoorCouvin,aBelgianastronomer,
whowrotethepoem"OntheJudgmentoftheSunataFeastofSaturn"(DejudicioSolisinconvivioSaturni),
whichattributestheplaguetoaconjunctionofJupiterandSaturn.[12]In1908,Gasquetclaimedthatuseofthe
nameatramorsforthe14thcenturyepidemicfirstappearedina1631bookonDanishhistorybyJ.I.Pontanus:
"Commonlyandfromitseffects,theycalledittheblackdeath"(Vulgo&abeffectuatrammortemvocatibant).[13]
ThenamespreadthroughScandinaviaandthenGermany,graduallybecomingattachedtothemid14thcentury
epidemicasapropername.[14]InEngland,itwasnotuntil1823thatthemedievalepidemicwasfirstcalledthe
BlackDeath.[15]

Chronology
Originsofthedisease
Theplaguedisease,causedbyYersiniapestis,isenzootic(commonlypresent)inpopulationsoffleascarriedby
groundrodents,includingmarmots,invariousareasincludingCentralAsia,Kurdistan,WesternAsia,Northern
IndiaandUganda.[16]Nestoriangravesdatingto133839nearLakeIssykKulinKyrgyzstanhaveinscriptions
referringtoplagueandarethoughtbymanyepidemiologiststomarktheoutbreakoftheepidemic,fromwhichit
couldeasilyhavespreadtoChinaandIndia.[17]InOctober2010,medicalgeneticistssuggestedthatallthreeofthe
greatwavesoftheplagueoriginatedinChina.[18]InChina,the13thcenturyMongolconquestcausedadeclinein
farmingandtrading.However,economicrecoveryhadbeenobservedatthebeginningofthe14thcentury.Inthe
1330salargenumberofnaturaldisastersandplaguesledtowidespreadfamine,startingin1331,withadeadly
plaguearrivingsoonafter.[19]Epidemicsthatmayhaveincludedplaguekilledanestimated25millionChineseand
otherAsiansduringthe15yearsbeforeitreachedConstantinoplein1347.[20][21]
ThediseasemayhavetravelledalongtheSilkRoadwithMongolarmiesandtradersoritcouldhavecomevia
ship.[22]Bytheendof1346,reportsofplaguehadreachedtheseaportsofEurope:"Indiawasdepopulated,Tartary,
Mesopotamia,Syria,Armeniawerecoveredwithdeadbodies".[23]
PlaguewasreportedlyfirstintroducedtoEuropeviaGenoesetradersattheportcityofKaffaintheCrimeain
1347.Afteraprotractedsiege,duringwhichtheMongolarmyunderJaniBegwassufferingfromthedisease,the
armycatapultedtheinfectedcorpsesoverthecitywallsofKaffatoinfecttheinhabitants.TheGenoesetraders
fled,takingtheplaguebyshipintoSicilyandthesouthofEurope,whenceitspreadnorth.[24]Whetherornotthis
hypothesisisaccurate,itisclearthatseveralexistingconditionssuchaswar,famine,andweathercontributedto
theseverityoftheBlackDeath.

Europeanoutbreak

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ThereappeartohavebeenseveralintroductionsintoEurope.Theplague
reachedSicilyinOctober1347,carriedbytwelveGenoesegalleys,[25]and
rapidlyspreadallovertheisland.GalleysfromKaffareachedGenoaand
VeniceinJanuary1348,butitwastheoutbreakinPisaafewweekslater
thatwastheentrypointtonorthernItaly.TowardstheendofJanuary,one
ofthegalleysexpelledfromItalyarrivedinMarseille.[26]
FromItaly,thediseasespreadnorthwestacrossEurope,strikingFrance,
Spain,PortugalandEnglandbyJune1348,thenturnedandspreadeast
throughGermanyandScandinaviafrom1348to1350.Itwasintroducedin
Norwayin1349whenashiplandedatAsky,thenspreadtoBjrgvin
(modernBergen)andIceland.[27]FinallyitspreadtonorthwesternRussia
in1351.TheplaguewassomewhatlesscommoninpartsofEuropethat
hadsmallertraderelationswiththeirneighbours,includingtheKingdom
ofPoland,themajorityoftheBasqueCountry,isolatedpartsofBelgium
andtheNetherlands,andisolatedalpinevillagesthroughoutthe
continent.[28][29]

Theseventhyearafteritbegan,it
cametoEnglandandfirstbeganinthe
townsandportsjoiningonthe
seacoasts,inDorsetshire,where,asin
othercounties,itmadethecountry
quitevoidofinhabitantssothatthere
werealmostnoneleftalive.
...ButatlengthitcametoGloucester,
yeaeventoOxfordandtoLondon,
andfinallyitspreadoverallEngland
andsowastedthepeoplethatscarce
thetenthpersonofanysortwasleft
alive.
GeoffreytheBaker,Chronicon
Angliae

ModernresearchersdonotthinkthattheplagueeverbecameendemicinEuropeoritsratpopulation.Thedisease
repeatedlywipedouttherodentcarrierssothatthefleasdiedoutuntilanewoutbreakfromCentralAsiarepeated
theprocess.Theoutbreakshavebeenshowntooccurroughly15yearsafterawarmerandwetterperiodinareas
whereplagueisendemicinotherspeciessuchasgerbils.[30][31]

MiddleEasternoutbreak
TheplaguestruckvariouscountriesintheMiddleEastduringthepandemic,leadingtoseriousdepopulationand
permanentchangeinbotheconomicandsocialstructures.AsitspreadtowesternEurope,thediseaseenteredthe
regionfromsouthernRussiaalso.Byautumn1347,theplaguereachedAlexandriainEgypt,probablythroughthe
port'stradewithConstantinople,andportsontheBlackSea.During1347,thediseasetravelledeastwardtoGaza,
andnorthalongtheeasterncoasttocitiesinLebanon,SyriaandPalestine,includingAshkelon,Acre,Jerusalem,
Sidon,Damascus,Homs,andAleppo.In134849,thediseasereachedAntioch.Thecity'sresidentsfledtothe
north,mostofthemdyingduringthejourney,buttheinfectionhadbeenspreadtothepeopleofAsiaMinor.
Meccabecameinfectedin1349.Duringthesameyear,recordsshowthecityofMawsil(Mosul)suffereda
massiveepidemic,andthecityofBaghdadexperiencedasecondroundofthedisease.In1351Yemenexperienced
anoutbreakoftheplague,coincidingwiththereturnofSultanalMujahidAliofYemenfromimprisonmentin
Cairo.HispartymayhavebroughtthediseasewiththemfromEgypt.

Symptoms
Contemporaryaccountsoftheplagueareoftenvariedorimprecise.Themostcommonlynotedsymptomwasthe
appearanceofbuboes(orgavocciolos)inthegroin,theneckandarmpits,whichoozedpusandbledwhen
opened.[32]Boccaccio'sdescriptionisgraphic:

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Ahandshowinghowacralgangrene
ofthefingersduetobubonicplague
causestheskinandfleshtodieand
turnblack

Inmenandwomenalikeitfirstbetrayeditselfbythe
emergenceofcertaintumoursinthegroinorarmpits,someof
whichgrewaslargeasacommonapple,othersasan
egg...Fromthetwosaidpartsofthebodythisdeadly
gavocciolosoonbegantopropagateandspreaditselfinall
directionsindifferentlyafterwhichtheformofthemalady
begantochange,blackspotsorlividmakingtheirappearance
inmanycasesonthearmorthethighorelsewhere,nowfew
andlarge,nowminuteandnumerous.Asthegavocciolohad
beenandstillwasaninfallibletokenofapproachingdeath,
suchalsowerethesespotsonwhomsoevertheyshowed
themselves.[33]

Aninguinalbuboontheupperthigh
ofapersoninfectedwithbubonic
plague.Swollenlymphglands
(buboes)oftenoccurintheneck,
armpitandgroin(inguinal)regionsof
plaguevictims

Theonlymedicaldetailthatisquestionableistheinfallibilityof
approachingdeath,asifthebubodischarges,recoveryispossible.[34]
Thiswasfollowedbyacutefeverandvomitingofblood.Mostvictimsdiedtwotosevendaysafterinitial
infection.Frecklelikespotsandrashes,[35]whichcouldhavebeencausedbyfleabites,wereidentifiedasanother
potentialsignoftheplague.
Someaccounts,likethatofLodewijkHeyligen,whosemastertheCardinalColonnadiedoftheplaguein1348,
notedadistinctformofthediseasethatinfectedthelungsandledtorespiratoryproblems[32]andisidentifiedwith
pneumonicplague.
Itissaidthattheplaguetakesthreeforms.Inthefirstpeoplesufferaninfectionofthelungs,which
leadstobreathingdifficulties.Whoeverhasthiscorruptionorcontaminationtoanyextentcannot
escapebutwilldiewithintwodays.Anotherform...inwhichboilseruptunderthearmpits,...athird
forminwhichpeopleofbothsexesareattackedinthegroin.[36]

Causes

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Medicalknowledgehadstagnatedduringthe
MiddleAges.Themostauthoritativeaccountat
thetimecamefromthemedicalfacultyinParis
inareporttothekingofFrancethatblamedthe
heavens,intheformofaconjunctionofthree
planetsin1345thatcauseda"greatpestilence
intheair".[38]Thisreportbecamethefirstand
mostwidelycirculatedofaseriesofplague
tractsthatsoughttogiveadvicetosufferers.
Thattheplaguewascausedbybadairbecame
themostwidelyacceptedtheory.Today,thisis
knownastheMiasmatheory.Theword
'plague'hadnospecialsignificanceatthistime,
andonlytherecurrenceofoutbreaksduringthe
MiddleAgesgaveitthenamethathasbecome
themedicalterm.

TheOrientalratflea(Xenopsylla
cheopis)engorgedwithblood.This
speciesoffleaistheprimaryvector
forthetransmissionofYersinia
pestis,theorganismresponsiblefor
bubonicplagueinmostplague
epidemics.Bothmaleandfemale
fleasfeedonbloodandcantransmit
theinfection.

Theimportanceofhygienewasrecognised
onlyinthenineteenthcenturyuntilthenitwas
commonthatthestreetswerefilthy,withlive
animalsofallsortsaroundandhumanparasites
abounding.Atransmissiblediseasewillspreadeasilyinsuchconditions.
OnedevelopmentasaresultoftheBlackDeathwastheestablishmentof
theideaofquarantineinDubrovnikin1377aftercontinuingoutbreaks.[39]

Orientalratflea(Xenopsylla
cheopis)infectedwiththe
Yersiniapestisbacterium
whichappearsasadarkmass
inthegut.Theforegut
(proventriculus)ofthisfleais
blockedbyaY.pestisbiofilm
whenthefleaattemptstofeed
onanuninfectedhostY.pestis
isregurgitatedintothewound,
causinginfection.

ThedominantexplanationfortheBlackDeathistheplaguetheory,which
attributestheoutbreaktoYersiniapestis,alsoresponsibleforanepidemic
thatbeganinsouthernChinain1865,eventuallyspreadingtoIndia.The
investigationofthepathogenthatcausedthe19thcenturyplaguewas
begunbyteamsofscientistswhovisitedHongKongin1894,amongwhom
wastheFrenchSwissbacteriologistAlexandreYersin,afterwhomthe
pathogenwasnamedYersiniapestis.[40]ThemechanismbywhichY.pestis
wasusuallytransmittedwasestablishedin1898byPaulLouisSimondand
Yersiniapestis(200xmagnification).
wasfoundtoinvolvethebitesoffleaswhosemidgutshadbecome
Thebacteriumwhichcausesbubonic
obstructedbyreplicatingY.pestisseveraldaysafterfeedingonaninfected
plague. [37]
host.Thisblockageresultsinstarvationandaggressivefeedingbehaviour
bythefleas,whichrepeatedlyattempttocleartheirblockageby
regurgitation,resultinginthousandsofplaguebacteriabeingflushedintothefeedingsite,infectingthehost.The
bubonicplaguemechanismwasalsodependentontwopopulationsofrodents:oneresistanttothedisease,which
actashosts,keepingthediseaseendemic,andasecondthatlackresistance.Whenthesecondpopulationdies,the
fleasmoveontootherhosts,includingpeople,thuscreatingahumanepidemic.[40]
ThehistorianFrancisAidanGasquetwroteaboutthe'GreatPestilence'in1893[41]andsuggestedthat"itwould
appeartobesomeformoftheordinaryEasternorbubonicplague".Hewasabletoadopttheepidemiologyofthe
bubonicplaguefortheBlackDeathforthesecondeditionin1908,implicatingratsandfleasintheprocess,andhis
interpretationwaswidelyacceptedforotherancientandmedievalepidemics,suchastheJustinianplaguethatwas
prevalentintheEasternRomanEmpirefrom541to700CE.[40]

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Otherformsofplaguehavebeenimplicatedbymodernscientists.Themodernbubonicplaguehasamortalityrate
of3075%andsymptomsincludingfeverof3841C(100106F),headaches,painfulachingjoints,nauseaand
vomiting,andageneralfeelingofmalaise.Leftuntreated,ofthosethatcontractthebubonicplague,80percentdie
withineightdays.[42]Pneumonicplaguehasamortalityrateof90to95percent.Symptomsincludefever,cough,
andbloodtingedsputum.Asthediseaseprogresses,sputumbecomesfreeflowingandbrightred.Septicemic
plagueistheleastcommonofthethreeforms,withamortalityratenear100%.Symptomsarehighfeversand
purpleskinpatches(purpuraduetodisseminatedintravascularcoagulation).Incasesofpneumonicand
particularlysepticemicplague,theprogressofthediseaseissorapidthattherewouldoftenbenotimeforthe
developmentoftheenlargedlymphnodesthatwerenotedasbuboes.[43]

DNAevidence
InOctober2010,theopenaccessscientificjournalPLoSPathogens
publishedapaperbyamultinationalteamwhoundertookanew
investigationintotheroleofYersiniapestisintheBlackDeathfollowing
thedisputedidentificationbyDrancourtandRaoultin1998.Theyassessed
thepresenceofDNA/RNAwithPolymeraseChainReaction(PCR)
techniquesforY.pestisfromthetoothsocketsinhumanskeletonsfrom
massgravesinnorthern,centralandsouthernEuropethatwereassociated
archaeologicallywiththeBlackDeathandsubsequentresurgences.The
authorsconcludedthatthisnewresearch,togetherwithprioranalysesfrom
thesouthofFranceandGermany,[44]"...endsthedebateaboutthe
etiologyoftheBlackDeath,andunambiguouslydemonstratesthatY.pestis
wasthecausativeagentoftheepidemicplaguethatdevastatedEurope
duringtheMiddleAges".[45]

Skeletonsinamassgravefrom1720
1721inMartigues,France,yielded
molecularevidenceoftheorientalis
strainofYersiniapestis,theorganism
responsibleforbubonicplague.The
secondpandemicofbubonicplague
wasactiveinEuropefromAD1347,
thebeginningoftheBlackDeath,
until1750.

Thestudyalsofoundthatthereweretwopreviouslyunknownbutrelated
clades(geneticbranches)oftheY.pestisgenomeassociatedwithmedieval
massgraves.Theseclades(whicharethoughttobeextinct)werefoundto
beancestraltomodernisolatesofthemodernY.pestisstrainsY.p.
orientalisandY.p.medievalis,suggestingtheplaguemayhaveentered
Europeintwowaves.SurveysofplaguepitremainsinFranceandEngland
indicatethefirstvariantenteredEuropethroughtheportofMarseillearoundNovember1347andspreadthrough
Franceoverthenexttwoyears,eventuallyreachingEnglandinthespringof1349,whereitspreadthroughthe
countryinthreeepidemics.SurveysofplaguepitremainsfromtheDutchtownofBergenopZoomshowedtheY.
pestisgenotyperesponsibleforthepandemicthatspreadthroughtheLowCountriesfrom1350differedfromthat
foundinBritainandFrance,implyingBergenopZoom(andpossiblyotherpartsofthesouthernNetherlands)was
notdirectlyinfectedfromEnglandorFrancein1349andsuggestingasecondwaveofplague,differentfromthose
inBritainandFrance,mayhavebeencarriedtotheLowCountriesfromNorway,theHanseaticcitiesoranother
site.[45]
TheresultsoftheHaenschstudyhavesincebeenconfirmedandamended.Basedongeneticevidencederivedfrom
BlackDeathvictimsintheEastSmithfieldburialsiteinEngland,Schuenemannetal.concludedin2011"thatthe
BlackDeathinmedievalEuropewascausedbyavariantofY.pestisthatmaynolongerexist."[46]Astudy
publishedinNatureinOctober2011sequencedthegenomeofY.pestisfromplaguevictimsandindicatedthatthe
strainthatcausedtheBlackDeathisancestraltomostmodernstrainsofthedisease.[5]
DNAtakenfrom25skeletonsfromthe14thcenturyfoundinLondonhaveshowntheplagueisastrainofY.pestis
thatisalmostidenticaltothatwhichhitMadagascarin2013.[47][48]
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Alternativeexplanations
TheplaguetheorywasfirstsignificantlychallengedbytheworkofBritishbacteriologistJ.F.D.Shrewsburyin
1970,whonotedthatthereportedratesofmortalityinruralareasduringthe14thcenturypandemicwere
inconsistentwiththemodernbubonicplague,leadinghimtoconcludethatcontemporaryaccountswere
exaggerations.[40]In1984zoologistGrahamTwiggproducedthefirstmajorworktochallengethebubonicplague
theorydirectly,andhisdoubtsabouttheidentityoftheBlackDeathhavebeentakenupbyanumberofauthors,
includingSamuelK.Cohn,Jr.(2002and2013),DavidHerlihy(1997),andSusanScottandChristopherDuncan
(2001).[40]
Itisrecognisedthatanepidemiologicalaccountoftheplagueisasimportantasanidentificationofsymptoms,but
researchersarehamperedbythelackofreliablestatisticsfromthisperiod.Mostworkhasbeendoneonthespread
oftheplagueinEngland,andevenestimatesofoverallpopulationatthestartvarybyover100%asnocensuswas
undertakenbetweenthetimeofpublicationoftheDomesdayBookandtheyear1377.[49]Estimatesofplague
victimsareusuallyextrapolatedfromfiguresfromtheclergy.
Inadditiontoarguingthattheratpopulationwasinsufficienttoaccountforabubonicplaguepandemic,scepticsof
thebubonicplaguetheorypointoutthatthesymptomsoftheBlackDeatharenotunique(andarguablyinsome
accountsmaydifferfrombubonicplague)thattransferenceviafleasingoodswaslikelytobeofmarginal
significanceandthattheDNAresultsmaybeflawedandmightnothavebeenrepeatedelsewhere,despite
extensivesamplesfromothermassgraves.[40]Otherargumentsincludethelackofaccountsofthedeathofrats
beforeoutbreaksofplaguebetweenthe14thand17thcenturiestemperaturesthataretoocoldinnorthernEurope
forthesurvivaloffleasthat,despiteprimitivetransportsystems,thespreadoftheBlackDeathwasmuchfaster
thanthatofmodernbubonicplaguethatmortalityratesoftheBlackDeathappeartobeveryhighthat,while
modernbubonicplagueislargelyendemicasaruraldisease,theBlackDeathindiscriminatelystruckurbanand
ruralareasandthatthepatternoftheBlackDeath,withmajoroutbreaksinthesameareasseparatedby5to15
years,differsfrommodernbubonicplaguewhichoftenbecomesendemicfordecadeswithannualflareups.[40]
McCormickhassuggestedthatearlierarchaeologistsweresimplynotinterestedinthe"laborious"processes
neededtodiscoverratremains.[50]Wallecomplainsthatalloftheseauthors"takeitforgrantedthatSimond's
infectionmodel,blackratratfleahuman,whichwasdevelopedtoexplainthespreadofplagueinIndia,is
theonlywayanepidemicofYersiniapestisinfectioncouldspread",whilstpointingtoseveralother
possibilities.[51]Similarly,Greenhasarguedthatgreaterattentionisneededtotherangeof(especiallynon
commensal)animalsthatmightbeinvolvedinthetransmissionofplague.[52]
AvarietyofalternativestotheY.pestishavebeenputforward.Twigg
suggestedthatthecausewasaformofanthrax,andNormanCantor(2001)
thoughtitmayhavebeenacombinationofanthraxandotherpandemics.
ScottandDuncanhavearguedthatthepandemicwasaformofinfectious
diseasethatcharacteriseashemorrhagicplaguesimilartoEbola.
ArchaeologistBarneySloanehasarguedthatthereisinsufficientevidence
oftheextinctionofalargenumberofratsinthearchaeologicalrecordof
themedievalwaterfrontinLondonandthattheplaguespreadtooquickly
tosupportthethesisthattheY.pestiswasspreadfromfleasonratshe
Anthraxskinlesion
arguesthattransmissionmusthavebeenpersontoperson.[53][54]However,
nosinglealternativesolutionhasachievedwidespreadacceptance.[40]
ManyscholarsarguingfortheY.pestisasthemajoragentofthepandemicsuggestthatitsextentandsymptoms
canbeexplainedbyacombinationofbubonicplaguewithotherdiseases,includingtyphus,smallpoxand
respiratoryinfections.Inadditiontothebubonicinfection,otherspointtoadditionalsepticemic(atypeof"blood
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poisoning")andpneumonic(anairborneplaguethatattacksthelungsbeforetherestofthebody)formsofthe
plague,whichlengthenthedurationofoutbreaksthroughouttheseasonsandhelpaccountforitshighmortality
rateandadditionalrecordedsymptoms.[32]In2014,scientistswithPublicHealthEnglandannouncedtheresultsof
anexaminationof25bodiesexhumedfromtheClerkenwellareaofLondon,aswellasofwillsregisteredin
Londonduringtheperiod,whichsupportedthepneumonichypothesis.[47]

Consequences
Deathtoll
Therearenoexactfiguresforthedeathtolltheratevariedwidelyby
locality.Inurbancenters,thegreaterthepopulationbeforetheoutbreak,the
longerthedurationoftheperiodofabnormalmortality.[55]Itkilledsome
75to200millionpeopleinEurasia.[1][2][3]Accordingtomedievalhistorian
PhilipDaileaderin2007:
Thetrendofrecentresearchispointingtoafiguremorelike
4550%oftheEuropeanpopulationdyingduringafouryear
period.Thereisafairamountofgeographicvariation.In
MediterraneanEurope,areassuchasItaly,thesouthofFrance
andSpain,whereplagueranforaboutfouryears
consecutively,itwasprobablycloserto7580%ofthe
population.InGermanyandEngland...itwasprobablycloser
to20%.[56]

CitizensofTournaiburyplague
victims.

ThemostwidelyacceptedestimatefortheMiddleEast,includingIraq,IranandSyria,duringthistime,isfora
deathrateofaboutathird.[57]TheBlackDeathkilledabout40%ofEgypt'spopulation.[58]HalfofParis's
populationof100,000peopledied.InItaly,thepopulationofFlorencewasreducedfrom110120thousand
inhabitantsin1338downto50thousandin1351.Atleast60%ofthepopulationofHamburgandBremen
perished,[59]andasimilarpercentageofLondonersmayhavediedfromthediseaseaswell.[47]Interestinglywhile
contemporaryreportsaccountofmassburialpitsbeingcreatedinresponsetothelargenumbersofdead,recent
scientificinvestigationsofaburialpitinCentralLondonfoundwellpreservedindividualstobeburiedinisolated,
evenlyspacedgraves,suggestingatleastsomepreplanningandChristianburialsatthistime.[60]Before1350,
therewereabout170,000settlementsinGermany,andthiswasreducedbynearly40,000by1450.[61]In1348,the
plaguespreadsorapidlythatbeforeanyphysiciansorgovernmentauthoritieshadtimetoreflectuponitsorigins,
aboutathirdoftheEuropeanpopulationhadalreadyperished.Incrowdedcities,itwasnotuncommonforas
muchas50%ofthepopulationtodie.[40]Thediseasebypassedsomeareas,andthemostisolatedareaswereless
vulnerabletocontagion.MonksandpriestswereespeciallyhardhitsincetheycaredforvictimsoftheBlack
Death.[62]

Persecutions
RenewedreligiousfervorandfanaticismbloomedinthewakeoftheBlackDeath.SomeEuropeanstargeted
"variousgroupssuchasJews,friars,foreigners,beggars,pilgrims",[63]lepers,[63][64]andRomani,thinkingthat
theyweretoblameforthecrisis.Lepers,andotherindividualswithskindiseasessuchasacneorpsoriasis,were
singledoutandexterminatedthroughoutEurope.
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Because14thcenturyhealerswereatalosstoexplainthecause,Europeans
turnedtoastrologicalforces,earthquakes,andthepoisoningofwellsby
Jewsaspossiblereasonsfortheplague'semergence.[11]Thegovernments
ofEuropehadnoapparentresponsetothecrisisbecausenooneknewits
causeorhowitspread.Themechanismofinfectionandtransmissionof
diseaseswaslittleunderstoodinthe14thcenturymanypeoplebelieved
onlyGod'sangercouldproducesuchhorrificdisplays.
ThereweremanyattacksagainstJewishcommunities.[65]InFebruary
1349,thecitizensofStrasbourgmurdered2,000Jews.[65]InAugust1349,
theJewishcommunitiesinMainzandColognewereexterminated.By
1351,60majorand150smallerJewishcommunitieshadbeen
destroyed.[66]

Recurrence

InspiredbytheBlackDeath,The
DanceofDeathorDanseMacabre,
anallegoryontheuniversalityof
death,wasacommonpaintingmotif
inthelatemedievalperiod.

TheplaguerepeatedlyreturnedtohauntEuropeandtheMediterraneanthroughout
the14thto17thcenturies.[67]AccordingtoBiraben,theplaguewaspresent
somewhereinEuropeineveryyearbetween1346and1671.[68]TheSecond
Pandemicwasparticularlywidespreadinthefollowingyears:1360631374
14001438391456571464661481851500031518311544481563
66157388159699160211162340164454and166467.Subsequent
outbreaks,thoughsevere,markedtheretreatfrommostofEurope(18thcentury)
andnorthernAfrica(19thcentury).[69]AccordingtoGeoffreyParker,"Francealone
lostalmostamillionpeopletotheplagueintheepidemicof162831."[70]
InEngland,intheabsenceofcensusfigures,historiansproposearangeof
preincidentpopulationfiguresfromashighas7milliontoaslowas4millionin
1300,[71]andapostincidentpopulationfigureaslowas2million.[72]Bytheendof
TheGreatPlagueof
1350,theBlackDeathsubsided,butitneverreallydiedoutinEngland.Overthe
London,in1665,killedup
nextfewhundredyears,furtheroutbreaksoccurredin136162,1369,137983,
to100,000people
138993,andthroughoutthefirsthalfofthe15thcentury.[73]Anoutbreakin1471
tookasmuchas1015%ofthepopulation,whilethedeathrateoftheplagueof
147980couldhavebeenashighas20%.[74]ThemostgeneraloutbreaksinTudorandStuartEnglandseemto
havebegunin1498,1535,1543,1563,1589,1603,1625,and1636,andendedwiththeGreatPlagueofLondonin
1665.[75]
In1466,perhaps40,000peoplediedoftheplagueinParis.[76]Duringthe16thand17thcenturies,theplaguewas
presentinParisaround30percentofthetime.[77]TheBlackDeathravagedEuropeforthreeyearsbeforeit
continuedonintoRussia,wherethediseasewaspresentsomewhereinthecountry25timesbetween1350and
1490.[78]PlagueepidemicsravagedLondonin1563,1593,1603,1625,1636,and1665,[79]reducingitspopulation
by10to30%duringthoseyears.[80]Over10%ofAmsterdam'spopulationdiedin162325,andagainin163536,
1655,and1664.[81]PlagueoccurredinVenice22timesbetween1361and1528.[82]Theplagueof157677killed
50,000inVenice,almostathirdofthepopulation.[83]LateoutbreaksincentralEuropeincludedtheItalianPlague
of16291631,whichisassociatedwithtroopmovementsduringtheThirtyYears'War,andtheGreatPlagueof
Viennain1679.Over60%ofNorway'spopulationdiedin134850.[84]ThelastplagueoutbreakravagedOsloin
1654.[85]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death

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BlackDeathWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

PlagueRiotinMoscowin1771:
Duringthecourseofthecity'splague,
between50and100thousandpeople
died, 16to 13ofitspopulation.

Inthefirsthalfofthe17thcentury,aplagueclaimedsome1.7million
victimsinItaly,orabout14%ofthepopulation.[86]In1656,theplague
killedabouthalfofNaples'300,000inhabitants.[87]Morethan1.25million
deathsresultedfromtheextremeincidenceofplaguein17thcentury
Spain.[88]Theplagueof1649probablyreducedthepopulationofSevilleby
half.[89]In170913,aplagueepidemicthatfollowedtheGreatNorthern
War(170021,Swedenv.Russiaandallies)[90]killedabout100,000in
Sweden,[91]and300,000inPrussia.[89]Theplaguekilledtwothirdsofthe
inhabitantsofHelsinki,[92]andclaimedathirdofStockholm's
population.[93]Europe'slastmajorepidemicoccurredin1720in
Marseille.[84]

TheBlackDeathravagedmuchof
theIslamicworld.[94]Plaguewas
presentinatleastonelocationintheIslamicworldvirtuallyeveryyear
between1500and1850.[95]PlaguerepeatedlystruckthecitiesofNorth
Africa.Algierslost30to50thousandinhabitantstoitin162021,and
againin165457,1665,1691,and174042.[96]Plagueremainedamajor
eventinOttomansocietyuntilthesecondquarterofthe19thcentury.
Between1701and1750,thirtysevenlargerandsmallerepidemicswere
recordedinConstantinople,andanadditionalthirtyonebetween1751and
1800.[97]Baghdadhassufferedseverelyfromvisitationsoftheplague,and
sometimestwothirdsofitspopulationhasbeenwipedout.[98]

Worldwidedistributionofplague
infectedanimals1998

Thirdplaguepandemic
Thethirdplaguepandemic(18551859)startedinChinainthemid19thcentury,spreadingtoallinhabited
continentsandkilling10millionpeopleinIndiaalone.[99]TwelveplagueoutbreaksinAustraliabetween1900and
1925resultedinwellover1,000deaths,chieflyinSydney.ThisledtotheestablishmentofaPublicHealth
Departmenttherewhichundertooksomeleadingedgeresearchonplaguetransmissionfromratfleastohumans
viathebacillusYersiniapestis.[100]
ThefirstNorthAmericanplagueepidemicwastheSanFranciscoplagueof190004,followedbyanother
outbreakin190708.[101][102][103][104][105][106][107]From1944through1993,362casesofhumanplaguewere
reportedintheUnitedStatesapproximately90%occurredinfourwesternstates:Arizona,California,Colorado,
andNewMexico.[108]
Moderntreatmentmethodsincludeinsecticides,theuseofantibiotics,andaplaguevaccine.Theplaguebacterium
coulddevelopdrugresistanceandagainbecomeamajorhealththreat.Onecaseofadrugresistantformofthe
bacteriumwasfoundinMadagascarin1995.[109]AfurtheroutbreakinMadagascarwasreportedinNovember
2014.[110]

Seealso
BlackDeath(film)
BlackDeathinEngland
CCR5,ahumangenehypothesisedtobeassociatedwiththeplague
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death

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BlackDeathWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Cronacafiorentina(ChronicleofFlorence)aliteraryhistoryoftheplague,andofFlorenceupto1386,by
BaldassarreBonaiuti
CrisisoftheLateMiddleAges
DanseMacabre
Death
FourthievesvinegarapopularFrenchlegendsaysthisrecipeprovidedimmunitytotheplague.
Geisslerlieder
Globalizationanddisease
Plaguedoctor
Plaguedoctorcostume
RingaRingo'Roses
TheSeventhSeal,afilmdirectedbyIngmarBergman

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12.

Onpage22ofthe
manuscriptinGallica(htt
p://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
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14.TheGermanphysicianJustus
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AJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse)

15.Thename"BlackDeath"first
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(neCartwright)),A
HistoryofEngland...
(Edinburgh,Scotland:
ArchibaldConstable,
1823).Inthe1829edition,
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abouttheEnglishking
EdwardIII,shewrote:
"Edward'ssuccessesin
Francewereinterrupted
duringthenextsixyears
byamostterrible
pestilencesoterribleas
tobecalledtheblackdeath
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greaterscourgetothe
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Thename"BlackDeath"was
spreadmorewidelywhenin1833,
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publishedanEnglishtranslation
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schwarzeTodimvierzehnten
Jahrhundertas:J.F.C.Hecker
withBenjaminGuyBabington,
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Furtherreading
Benedictow,OleJrgen(2004).BlackDeath13461353:TheCompleteHistory.ISBN9781843832140.
Byrne,J.P.(2004).TheBlackDeath.London:GreenwoodPublishingGroup.ISBN0313324921.
Cantor,NormanF.(2001),IntheWakeofthePlague:TheBlackDeathandtheWorldItMade,NewYork,
FreePress.
Cohn,SamuelK.Jr.,(2002),TheBlackDeathTransformed:DiseaseandCultureinEarlyRenaissance
Europe,London:Arnold.
Gasquet,FrancisAidan(1893).TheGreatPestilenceAD1348to1349:NowCommonlyKnownAstheBlack
Death.ISBN9781417971138.
Hecker,J.F.C.(1859).B.G.Babington(trans),ed.EpidemicsoftheMiddleAges.London,Trbner.
Herlihy,D.,(1997),TheBlackDeathandtheTransformationoftheWest,Cambridge,Massachusetts:
HarvardUniversityPress.
McNeill,WilliamH.(1976).PlaguesandPeoples.Anchor/Doubleday.ISBN0385112564.
Scott,S.,andDuncan,C.J.,(2001),BiologyofPlagues:EvidencefromHistoricalPopulations,Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
Shrewsbury,J.F.D.,(1970),AHistoryofBubonicPlagueintheBritishIsles,London:Cambridge
UniversityPress
Twigg,G.,(1984),TheBlackDeath:ABiologicalReappraisal,London:Batsford.
Ziegler,Philip(1998).TheBlackDeath.PenguinBooks.ISBN9780140275247.1steditions1969.

Externallinks
BlackDeath(http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00bcqt8)onIn
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ole/b00bcqt8/In_Our_Time_Black_Death))
BlackDeath(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black
_01.shtml)atBBC

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