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Furen Xie Rock Stress and Earthquakes - 2010
Furen Xie Rock Stress and Earthquakes - 2010
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Table of Contents
Preface
XIII
Organization
XV
Keynote presentation
Variability of in situ rock stress
J.A. Hudson & X.T. Feng
The effect of lithology, inhomogeneity, topography, and faults, on in situ stress measurements
by hydraulic fracturing, and the importance of correct data interpretation and independent
evidence in support of results
B.C. Haimson
11
How to generate the Final Rock Stress Model (FRSM) at a site or an area
O. Stephansson & A. Zang
15
27
35
43
51
Modelling the effect of injection system compressibility and viscous fluid flow on hydraulic
fracture breakdown pressure
A.P. Bunger, A. Lakirouhani & E. Detournay
59
Utilizing observations of borehole failure in deviated wellbores to constrain the full stress
tensor in deep wells and mines: Application to two complex case studies
M.D. Zoback, P. Paul & A. Lucier
69
Determining the complete natural stress tensor from hydraulic tests: A case history in
sedimentary rocks from the French Paris Basin
F.H. Cornet
77
85
93
101
111
119
125
129
135
143
In-situ stress measurements in underground coal mines and study on stress fields
H. Kang, L. Si & X. Zhang
149
Accuracy assessment and reliability analysis in the intelligent data analysis system for the
piezomagnetic stress meter
L. Jia, C. Wang, Q. Chen & Z. Jiang
155
Impact of epoxy glue curing time on the quality of overcoring stress measurements in
low-temperature environments
F. Lahaie, Y. Gunzburger, A. Ben Ouanas, J.D. Barnichon, P. Bigarr & J.P. Piguet
161
The hydraulic fracture opening pressure multiple test for the stress state measurement in
permeable rock
V.A. Pavlov, P.A. Martynuk & S.V. Serdyukov
167
173
179
185
189
VI
195
199
205
A comparison of rock stresses measured by WASM AE with results from other techniques that
measure the complete rock stress tensor
C.R. Windsor, E. Villaescusa & L.A. Machuca
211
217
An estimation of the absolute stress value for the Landers earthquake source region
Y.G. Wan, S.Z. Sheng, T.L. Lin & Y.M. Wu
223
Stress inversion from focal mechanism solution of Bam earthquake aftershocks (Iran, 2003)
V. Fattahpour & M. Moosavi
229
235
The influence of rock anisotropy on the stress-induced velocity anisotropy around a borehole
J.Y. Tian, H.Q. Wang & Y.B. Zhao
241
245
Relationship between rock stress and failure of underground caverns wall rock at river valley
with V shape
Q. Jiang, X.T. Feng, D.P. Xu & C.P. Shi
Static vertical pendulum apparatus for in-situ relative stress measurement
L. Neumann & P. Kalenda
Calculating tectonic stress coefficient of formation with rock mechanics parameters and
fracturing work data
L. Ren, J.Z. Zhao, Y.Q. Hu & W.C. Zhang
Inversion analysis of initial stress field based on modified particle swarm optimization
Y.F. Cao, F.L. He, K.Q. Li, H.Q. Han, S.R. Xie & H. Yan
249
255
263
267
A mechanism and characteristic analysis of rock core discing in the in-situ stress survey on
deep coalmine
Y.D. Jiang, T. Wang, L.H. Hu & S.P. Tian
271
275
283
287
291
297
Natural stress tensor field at the Porce III hydroelectric project, Colombia-South America
L.O. Surez-Burgoa, A.P. Assis, A.J. Castro-Caicedo & A.A. Navarro-Montoya
305
311
VII
315
Features of in situ stress in a crystallized batholith and its influence on the rockbursts
of tunnels
J.Q. Ma
321
Inversion of marine in-situ stress of northeast Sichuan and its influence on horizontal well
completion optimization
K. Lan, M.G. Liu, Y.M. Xiong & K.X. Liu
327
Numerical simulation on in-situ rock stress of exploitation process through injection of heat
into low permeability coal seam
Y. Cheng & Y.L. Zhang & Y.L. Ma
333
Cable truss support on a large span set-up coal entry based on ground stress measurement
X.K. Zhang, F.L. He, H.Z. Yang, S.R. Xie, H.B. Li & K.Q. Li
339
Estimation of in-situ stress state at the maximum depth of the Jinping tunnels, China
C.Q. Zhang, X.T. Feng, H. Zhou, C.S. Zhang & S.Y. Wu
345
In-situ stress measurement and rockburst possibility in deep tunnel at a hydro-power station
L. Bao & S. Zhao
351
Segment pre-blasting application on 52 m sublevel caving of steep and thick coal seam under
complex conditions
S.J. Miao & X.P. Lai
355
Failure mechanism and supporting strategy of deep rock roadway under high ground stress
Z.J. Li & G. Qi
361
367
375
Floor heaving failure mechanism and stability controlling on the deep large-span tunnel
G.G. Qiao & Z.Z. Li
381
Mechanism and support measures of floor heave mainly caused by horizontal extrusion stress in
soft rock roadway
X.J. Yang, F.Q. Wang, Z.B. Guo, Q.Y. Han, Z. Zhang & L.P. Han
387
Analysis of rock burst and crustal stress measurement in a hydropowers traffic tunnel at
ganzi prefecture, Sichuan Province
L. Ding
395
Analysis on landslide catastrophe mechanism and landslip forecasting for open-pit coal mine
Y.B. Zhang, Z.J. Li & Z.Q. Kang
In-situ stress measurement and acoustic emission instrumentation for rock burst control in a
deep tunnel
B. Liu, C.J. Song, N. Tian, H. Zhong & B. Cao
401
407
Measurements and research of in-situ stress near the fault structure filed
C.H. Zhou, J.M. Yin & G.Q. Xiao
413
Investigation on the mechanism of water inrush in deep mining by in-situ stress measurement
Y.D. Jiang, Y.K. Lv, Y.X. Zhao & L.L. Zhu
419
Numerical stimulation of minimum permitted operating pressure of natural gas storage in bedded salt
T.T. Wang, X.Z. Yan, X.J. Yang & H.L. Yang
425
VIII
429
435
A method to determine the negative pressure difference and the drilling fluid density in
coal-bed methane underbalanced drilling
Q.Y. Wen, X.J. Yang, X.Z. Yan & G.S. Li
441
447
453
457
463
469
Study on relationship between deformation failure of surrounding rock and in-situ stress in
deep-buried tunnel
F. Jing, J.M. Yinn & H. Chen
475
Measurement and numerical simulation of the stress relaxation zone on the roadway face
in coal mine
B.S. Nie, S.R. Zhai, R.M. Zhang, C. Jia & J.F. Zhang
481
Measurements and application of in-situ stress and related rock mechanics parameters at a
new type of diversion hydroelectric project in Southwest China
S.X. Yang, C.H. Wang, R. Yao & Q. Mi
485
Study on the relationship between in-situ stress and the rupture of mine shaft
R.H. Sun & W.P. Li
493
Application of a new stress measurement device in underground marble quarrying, a case study
G. Iabichino & M. Cravero
499
505
513
Numerical modeling
Development of method for evaluation of three dimensional distribution of in situ
stress state and preliminary estimation of applicability
T. Tanno, T. Hirano & H. Matsui
521
Dynamic mechanisms of the 2008 MS 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, China: New insights from
numerical simulation by Finite Element Methods
S.B. Zhu
527
IX
535
539
Back regression analysis on initial geostress field of Wendeng Pumped storage power station
N. Liu & C.S. Zhang
545
549
555
561
567
573
579
585
589
595
Design of barrier pillars in Tabas underground Coal Mine (Iran) using 3D numerical modeling
M. Goodarzi, F.S. Rassouli & M. Yavari
601
607
Research on in-situ stress field simulation of coal and gas outburst mining area with
3D finite element method
J. Xu, S.J. Peng, H.W. Yang, D.D. Zhang & D. Liu
611
617
623
Application of a global interpretation model for assessment of the stress field for
engineering purposes
L.N. Lamas, J. Muralha & B. Figueiredo
631
Second fine inversion of regional in-situ stress field considering the excavation
disturbance effects of pilot tunnel
G.Q. Chen, G.S. Su, T.B. Li & H.M. Ma
637
Study on the coupling system of high prestress cable truss and surrounding rock on a
coal roadway
F.L. He, D.P. Ying, H. Yan, H.Q. Han & K.Q. Li
643
647
653
Comparison of the 1999 Chi-Chi Mw 7.6 Earthquake and the 2008 Wenchuan MS 8.0 Earthquake
Y. Liu & S.B. Zhu
659
The method of bound regression analyse of the initial geostress field and its application
S.X. Yang, Z.Y. Xu, M.Z. Bai & R. Yao
665
Prediction of the time dependent in-situ pressure of soft rock using multiple regression
approach, artificial neural network, and adaptive network-fuzzy inference system
R. Doostmohammadi & M. Moosavi
673
679
687
Recent tectonic stress field zoning in Tienshan area and its dynamic genesis
H.Y. Zhang, F.R. Xie, X.F. Cui, L.M. Hu & D. Su
695
Present-day stress state in southeast Korea with an emphasis on effects of regional-scale faults
C. Chang & T.S. Kang
701
707
The new-born fault in the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China: A case in Qingping town
J.J. Ren, C.W. Mao, S.M. Zhang, G.H. Chen & X.W. Xu
713
Active model, deformation characteristics and dynamic mechanism of the Yingxiu Nanba
segment in the MS 8.0 seismic fault
H.F. Lu, S.M. Zhang, B.Q. Ma, Z.H. Hou, Z.T. He, J.X. Zhao & J.Y. Wang
719
The research of the cumulative vertical slip of the faults which caused the
MS 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake
L. Wang, Q.J. Tian, K. Hao, B.Q. Ma, S.M. Zhang & J.Q. Yu
727
735
3D Mohr diagram to explain reactivation of pre-existing planes due to changes in applied stresses
S.-S. Xu, A.F. Nieto-Samaniego & S.A. Alaniz-lvarez
739
747
751
XI
757
761
769
777
781
785
789
Static vertical pendulum observations of anomalous tilt before earthquakes (case study)
P. Kalenda & L. Neumann
795
805
809
815
819
823
Confined well water level: An approach to measure seismic induced strain changes on site
F.Q. Huang, Y. Zhang, G.J. Lai & R. Yan
829
833
839
845
851
857
Incoherent hydro-frac results & its implications in design of crude oil storage caverns
M.R. Saharan, A. Sinha, K. Srinivasan, V.V. Nagada, S. Panda, H.S. Mitri, F. Rummel & U. Weber
863
Influence of high horizontal stress regime on the shape of LPG caverns A case study
M.R. Saharan, A. Sinha & H.S. Mitri
869
Author index
875
XII
Preface
The fifth International Symposium on In-situ Rock Stress (ISRSV) has been sponsored by the International
Society for Rock Mechanics to encourage discussion about advanced measuring techniques, numerical modeling,
and geophysical methods of rock stress. It was held in Beijing, China, organized by Institute of Crustal Dynamics
from China Earthquake Administration (ICD, CEA), Chinese Society for Rock Mechanics and Engineering
(CSRME), Seismological Society of China (SSC).
The evaluation of in-situ rock stress is not only important in the exploration and engineering involving
rock masses for mining, hydropower, tunneling, oil and gas production, and stone quarrying, but also in the
geodynamics and earthquake prediction. The methods of determining these stresses for shallow crust in the
engineering practice, including hydraulic fracture method, stress relief method, and acoustic emission method,
have not developed substantially to satisfy the increasing utilization of rock masses. The geophysical methods
for stresses determination of deep crust only determine the stress fields of deep crust qualitatively. Contributed
by a group of leading experts from engineering and geophysical community, this symposium addresses new
developments in numerical modeling and advanced measuring techniques in engineering practices, and build
new connections between traditional and geophysical methods, which will both benefit earthquake prediction
based on the concept of the crustal stresses.
I would like to acknowledge the partial financial support from the Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
41010304002) and China Earthquake Administration for the keynote speakers, including Prof. Hudson, Prof.
Haimson, Prof. Stephansson, Prof. Lu, Prof. Shi, Prof. Ito, Prof. Zoback, and Prof. Cornet. I would also like
to thank the sponsors for providing such generous support and thereby contributing to a rewarding conference
experience for the delegates.
Furen Xie
The General Secretary of ISRSV and Editor
XIII
Organization
Sponsored by
International Society for Rock Mechanics
Organized by
Institute of Crustal Dynamics (ICD), China Earthquake Administration (CEA)
Chinese Society for Rock Mechanics and Engineering (CSRME)
Seismological Society of China (SSC)
Co-organized by
SINTEF Rock Engineering, Norway
National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (Institute of Rock and Soil
Mechanics, CAS)
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (IG, CAGS)
Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute (YRSRI)
China Coal Research Institute (CCRI)
Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
State Key Laboratory for GeoMechancis and Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining &
Technology in Beijing
Committee of Chinese Continental Dynamics, Chinese Geophysical Society
Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering (CJRME)
Advisory committee
President
Yaolin Shi (China)
Vice President
Qihu Qian (China), Rong Chen (China)
Members
Guoyu Ding (China), Zhongjin Ma (China), Zhenqi Song (China), Yuntai Chen (China), Tingdong Li (China),
Shijing Wang (China), Xiurun Ge (China), Zhiqin Xu (China), Jin Ma (China), Jiwen Teng (China), Wenjin Zhao
(China), Qidong Deng (China), Lizhou Pan (China), Weiyuan Zhou (China), Xinlian Chen (China), Zhonghuai
Xu (China), Shunliang Liang (China), Meifeng Cai (China), Chunting Liao (China), Yunfang Liu (China),
Lianjie Wang (China), Rongyu Tang (China), Ronghui Wu (China), Guangxun Liu (China), Kaizhi Su (China),
Fangquan Li (China), Zuxi Ouyang (China), Yuanzhong Lu (China), Enfu Wang (China), Zhonxian Huang
(China), Xiangning Huang (China), P. Molnar (USA), P.Tapponnier (France), B.C. Burchfiel (USA), L.H. Royden
(USA)
Organizing committee
President
LIU Yuchen, Deputy Director General, CEA
Vice President
Xiating Feng (China), Guomin Zhang (China), ShengYu (China), Changxing Long (China), Mancao He (China),
Hongpu Kang (China), Zhijun Niu (China), Ke Li (China), Chunfeng Hu (China), Ming Zhao (China), Ming Li
(China)
XV
Members
Faquan Wu (China), Jichuan Hao (China), Ming Lu (China), Hong Chen (China), Qian Sheng (China), Jianmin
Yin (China), Qunche Chen (China), Dongning Zhang (China), Shigang Yu (China), Yaowei Liu (China), Shimin
Zhang (China), Shoubiao Zhu (China), Zehua Qiu (China)
Secretary General
Furen Xie (China)
Vice Secretary General
ShunxinYang (China), Hong Li (China), Qiliang Guo (China), Zhizhong Xu (China), Liu Tian (China), Shuming
Yu (China)
Secretary
Jiayong Tian (China), Li Liu (China), Yuejun Zheng (China), Baohong Zhang (China), Chenghu Wang (China),
Xiaogang Cai (China)
Scientific committee
President
Furen Xie (China)
Vice President
Xiating Feng (China)
John Hudson (UK)
Members
Ming Lu (Norway), Bezalel Haimson (USA), Katsuhiko Sugawara (Japan), F.H. Cornet (France), Ove
Stephansson (Germany), Derek. Martin (Canada), M.D. Zoback (USA), K. Shin (Japan), Hiroshi ISHII (Japan),
Rolf Christiansson (Sweden), Kern Shin Yoon (Korea), Peter Molnar (USA), Paul Tapponnier (France), B. Clark
Burchfiel (USA), Leigh H. Royden (USA), M.K. Clark (USA), Tom Parsons (USA), Judith Hubbard (USA),
Shuwen Dong (China), Zhongliang Wu (China), Shengli Ma (China), Yun Wu (China), Kelin Wang (China),
Dapeng Zhao (China), An Yin (China), Mian Liu (China), Aiming Lin (China), Zhongqi Yue (China), Zaisheng
Jiang (China), Qingliang Wang (China), Zhenkang Shen (China), Yongen Cai (China), Xiaofei Chen (China),
Sidao Ni (China), Yongge Wan (China), Ye Zhao (China), Ju Wang (China), Aiqing Wu (China), Baoping Shi
(China), Hua Peng (China)
Acknowledgements
The full paper publications of keynote presentations, Prof. Ito, Prof. Haimson, Prof. Zoback, and Prof. Cornet
are supported by Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41010304002).
XVI
Keynote presentation
X.T. Feng
Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiaohongshan,
Wuchang, Wuhan, P. R. China
ABSTRACT: The variability of in situ rock stress is discussed in relation to different scales: the tectonic/regional
scale, site scale, excavation scale, borehole/measurement scale, and microscopic scale. The factors causing the
stress variability are rock inhomogeneity, rock anisotropy, discontinuities and free faces. A computer simulation
of inhomogeneity-induced stress variation is included. The variation of stress with depth is made clearer through
the use of the first stress invariant. Rock discing in boreholes at the JinPing II site is illustrated. Computer
modeling of the rock mass is recommended as an enhancement to stress measurements.
1 INTRODUCTION
The magnitude and orientation of the in situ rock stress
components are required for the design of underground
rock engineering projects. In recent years, there has
been a move to use numerical modeling/simulation
methods in conjunction with rock mass classification
as the main support for rock engineering design. All
these numerical methods require information concerning the in situ stress at the project site as boundary
condition information. Thus, there has also been an
increased requirement to establish the local site stress
conditions during the site investigation process.
However, many in situ stress estimation campaigns
encounter problemsnot only in the actual measurement procedures but because the in situ stress can
vary significantly within and between boreholes at the
same site. This then raises questions about the stress
measurement techniques and indeed which values to
assume for the in situ stress field parameters for the
numerical modeling.
In this paper, we discuss the reasons for such
in situ stress variability in relation to the tectonic/regional scale, site scale, excavation scale, borehole/measurement scale, and microscopic scale and
and we review the factors causing the variability: rock
inhomogeneity, rock anisotropy, discontinuities and
free faces. This will lead to a recommended approach
to the subject through an understanding of the host
geology and associated numerical modeling, providing
guidance on the degree of stress variation that would be
expected at a particular site and hence how to approach
a stress estimation campaign.
The fundamental problem associated with the estimation of the in situ principal stress magnitudes and
directions is that the stress, being a point property,
is not uniform throughout a rock mass because of
the perturbations introduced by the geological heterogeneities on a variety of scales.
The origin of in situ rock stress is the movement of
the Earths tectonic plates and the presence of any overburden. There can be additional causes of stress, such
as water pressure and heat. Perturbations to the in situ
stress are induced by a variety of factors, especially the
pre-existing discontinuities in the rock mass and factors such as inhomogeneity, anisotropy and inelasticity.
These perturbations can occur on different scales, so
it is necessary to consider the spectrum of scales, e.g.
the tectonic scale, regional scale, site scale, excavation
scale, measurement scale and microscopic scale.
3 DIFFERENT SCALES
3.1 Tectonic scale and regional stresses
In most cases, the main factor in generating an in situ
stress state in rock masses is the movement of the
Earths tectonic plates. This will result in the application of a stress field across large areas of a particular
land mass and hence create a regional stress. Studies of
the World Stress Map (Heidbach et al., 2008) confirm
the association between the tectonic plate movement
Site scale
Figure 1. The probability density distribution, f(x) as a function of x for different values of the shape parameter, m, in the
Weibull statistical distribution (from Tang & Hudson, 2010).
Excavation scale
Borehole/measurement scale
The majority of in situ stress measurements are undertaken using overcoring or hydraulic methods in boreholes. Thus, we also have to consider the variability of
the in situ stress on scales of the order of 0.1 m. Are
there significant perturbations to the regional stress
on the borehole scale? If so, we need some method
of understanding these and being able to upscale the
values to the excavation and site scale, as required.
3.5
Figure 2a. Numerical simulation model of an inhomogeneous rock blockwith the grayscale indicating the variation
in elastic moduli of the individual elements following the
Weibull distribution shown in Figure 1.
Microscopic scale
On all the scales highlighted in the previous Section, the rock mass can be inhomogeneous. Hence,
along
the
5.1
5.2
Table 1.
Australia
Chile
Finland
U.K.
2 /3
1 /3
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.4
2.3
2.6
3.0
2.4
the ratios between the principal stresses are now evident: 1 /2 = 1.5; 2 /3 = 1.5; 1 /3 = 2.3. Lee et al.
(2006) also collated the data for Eastern Australia and
found the same principal stress ratios.
The existence of these ratios stimulated Harrison et
al. (2007) to plot stress measurement data from the
UK, Chile and Finland the same way and to establish
the principal stress ratiosshown in Table 1.
There is a remarkable consistency in the values in
Table 1, given that they are from different countries
and geological environments, indicating that the rock
stresses are in fact more constrained than is indicated
just by plots of the principal stresses versus depth. The
reason for this (which is not that the ratios arise simply because the principal stresses are ordered triples)
is that fractured rock masses can only sustain certain
principal stress ratios. The mechanical basis for this is
explored in Harrison et al., (2007).
As a general rule, the higher the rock stress components, the more difficulty will be experienced during rock engineering construction work. Such high
stresses may be caused by high tectonic stresses, e.g.
near a subduction zone, or by a large overburden. In
the case of the JinPing II site in China, there is a significant overburden above the seven tunnels which are
being driven below a mountain range with a maximum
overburden of 2500 m, Figure 9a.
If we assume that 1 MPa is generated for every
40 m of overburden, this means that there is potentially over 60 MPa vertical stress at its highest valuea
value which is then concentrated around the access and
headrace tunnels
6.3
Rock discing
Figure 11b. Cross-sectional view of the experimental horizontal boreholes drilled to investigate core discing and the in
situ stress at the Jin Ping II site in China.
There is currently considerable effort being allocated to the development of extended numerical codes
which are able to incorporate more variables and more
couplings, e.g. thermo-hydro-mechanical- chemical
codes (Environmental Geology, 2009); and, for the
case of non-1:1 mapping methods in design, a similar initiative is being directed at extended systems
approaches using the internet for virtual laboratories,
etc. All the current approaches to rock engineering
design require a knowledge of the in situ rock stress
but the estimation of the rock stress can itself be
supported by computer simulation.
In the type of numerical modeling illustrated in
Figure 5, it is possible to obtain a histogram of the
complete principal stress variation across the site,
to incorporate the stress perturbation factors of rock
inhomogeneity, anisotropy, the presence of major and
minor discontinuities, to introduce free surfaces, and
to explore the effect of variations in these factors, i.e.
the sensitivity of the simulation of a particular site to
the input variables. Moreover, virtual boreholes can
be driven in the numerical models to compare with
experimental data and even to calibrate the numerical
model.
7.2
10
ABSTRACT: This is not a scientific paper in the normal sense. It is more like a lecture in which I try to point
out that in conducting in situ stress measurements by hydraulic fracturing the exception is often the rule. Results
of measurements can often be bewildering, requiring thorough investigation of the reasons for the unexpected
stress conditions. I focus on effects of lithology, inhomogeneity, topography, and fault zones on stress regimes,
and emphasize the importance of field experience and correct interpretation of test data.
INTRODUCTION
11
12
between 50 and 300 m, indicating a reverse faulting regime. Between 300 m and 400 m, however,
the two horizontal stresses increased with depth at
a much faster rate, followed by an equally rapid
decrease between 400 m and 500 m such that below
that depth the stress regime became one favoring
normal faulting. This surprising stress-depth behavior has never been explained satisfactorily, but it
appears to be a consequence of the inhomogeneity of
the rock.
8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Presently there is no way to prove that what we measure in the field are the actual crustal stresses. Only
by verification through different stress measurement
methods, stress indicators, or geological observations,
can we gain confidence in the test results. The above
examples are meant to illustrate the importance of
understanding the local structural geology, and lithology of the site selected for in situ stress measurements.
Above all, experience is crucial to successful measurements and interpretation. Supporting measured
stresses with independent evidence as a means of
13
REFERENCES
Haimson, B. C. 1973. Earthquake related stresses at Rangely,
Colorado, in New Horizons in Rock Mechanics, (eds.)
H. R. Hardy and R. Stefanko, Am. Soc. of Civil Engr.,
689708.
Haimson, B.C. 1999. Six hydraulic fracturing campaigns
at the URL, Manitoba, in Proceedings of the 9th Intl.
Congress on Rock Mech., Eds.: G. Vouille and P. Berest,
Balkema, Rotterdam, vol. 2, p. 11431147.
Haimson, B. 2004. Hydraulic fracturing and rock characterization, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. vol. 41, No. 3, p. 391
and CD-ROM, 2004 Elsevier.
14
ABSTRACT: A strategy and a flow sheet for establishing the Final Rock Stress Model (FRSM) is proposed and
described, see Figure 1. The development of FRSM consists of four major steps. In the first step one is defining
the classes of rock stress and extracting existing data from databases. Together with geological and morphological
information and borehole and drillcore data one establish the Best Estimate Stress Model (BESM). In the next
step, called Stress Measurement Methods (SSM), new stress data from borehole methods and core-based methods
are recorded and evaluated. Thereafter, data from direct and indirect stress measurements are combined in an
Integrated Stress Determination (ISD) with or without support from numerical stress modeling. The combination
of available information will generate the Final Rock Stress Model at a site or an area. Examples include the
European stress map, stress decoupling in the North German Basin, stress perturbation from faults in Sweden
of importance for radioactive waste disposal.
1
INTRODUCTION
of a site or an area it is worth the efforts to try to ascertain the stress state from the bulk knowledge of the
site morphology, topography and geology and if possible to verify these information with additional data
from boreholes and drillcores. Sometimes numerical
models can be of assistance in estimating the effect of
geological parameter variations in the established 3-D
stress model for a site.
In this contribution a strategy and flow chart is
presented to establish the Final Rock Stress Model
(FRSM) from a combination of available stress data
from the Best Estimated Stress Model (BESM), new
stress data from stress measurement methods on site
(SMM) and integrated stress determination (ISD)
using previous data plus numerical modeling.
15
Figure 2. Rock stress scheme and terminology at three hierarchical levels. Level 1 separates solid (AC) from excavated
rock mass (BD). Level 2 separates in-situ stress according to
their origin forces. Level 3 separates tectonic stresses according to their coherent domains. After Zang & Stephansson
(2010).
Figure 1. Generation of the Final Rock Stress Model
(FRSM) by combination of the Best Estimate Stress Model
(BESM), new stress data from Stress Measurement Methods
(SMM) and Integrated Stress Determination (ISD). After
Zang and Stephansson (2010).
Data Extraction
Morphological/Geological Data
Borehole and Drillcore Data
16
stress with depth have also demonstrated stress decoupling (Haimson, 1980; Stephansson, 1993; Martin &
Chandler, 1993; Roth & Fleckenstein, 2001; Ask &
Stephansson, 2003 and Heidbach et al., 2007) where
stresses at shallow depth might be entirely different
from stresses at great depth. Stress decoupling is valid
for both stress magnitude and orientation.
The World Stress Map (WSM) is the global database
for contemporary tectonic stress data from the Earths
crust. It was originally compiled by a research group
headed by Mary Lou Zoback as part of the International Lithosphere Programme; see Zoback et al.
(1989). During the time period 19952008 the WSM
Project was a research project of the Heidelberg
Academy of Science and Humanities, Germany and
run by the Institute of Geophysics at Karlsruhe University (Reinecker et al., 2003). Since 2009 the World
Stress Map Project is located at GFZ German Research
Center for Geosciences, Potsdam.
Various academic and industrial institutions working in different disciplines of Earth sciences such
as geodynamics, hydrocarbon exploitations and rock
engineering use the World Stress Map. The main
operational areas for stress in application are:
3.2
Basin modeling
Tectonic modeling
Reservoir management
Stability of mines, tunnels and boreholes
Fault slip tendency
Seismic risk assessment
The uniformity and quality of the WSM is guaranteed through a) quality ranking of the data according to
international standards, b) standardized regime assignment and c) guidelines for borehole breakout analysis
and other methods.
To determine the tectonic stress orientation, different types of stress indicators are used in the World
Stress Map. The 2008 release of WSM contains 21,750
data points and they are grouped into four major
categories with the following percentage:
Earthquake focal mechanisms (72%)
Wellbore breakouts and drilling induced fractures
(20%)
In-situ stress measurements (overcoring, hydraulic
fracturing, borehole slotter (4%)
Young geologic data (from fault slip analysis and
volcanic vent alignments (4%).
The seismologists and their analysis of the focal
plane mechanisms related to large earthquakes provide
the majority of data to the WSM. The relatively small
percentage of in-situ stress measurements is due to the
demanding quality ranking and the fact that many of
the data are company owned.
At the very first stage of estimating the state of stress
at a site or a region or at the planning of a stress measurement campaign, consultation of the World Stress
Map is appropriate and often worth wile. A detail map
of the area of interest can be provided free by WSM.
The delivered map contains a legend of the most likely
17
and cannot solve the stress state for more complicated topography. Amadei and coworkers (e.g. Pan &
Amadei, 1994) developed a new analytical technique
to determine the stress field in homogeneous, general
anisotropic and elastic half-spaces subjected to different loadings and boundary conditions. The stresses
are expressed in terms of three analytical functions
that can be determined from conformal mapping and
integral equations. A summary of the developments
and their application to different topography and gravity and tectonic loadings and rock mass anisotropy is
presented in Amadei & Stephansson (1997). All the
derived analytical expressions predict tensile stress in
the valley bottom and this is supported by the observations from the field in terms of a zone of fractured
and loose rock masses and tendencies of up-warping
phenomena in the bottom of valleys.
In steep mountainous areas the gravity loading
alone cause high stress concentrations parallel with the
surface of the slope. In rock engineering, these slopes
have a tendency to cause spalling in the walls of a tunnel (Myrvang 1993). Spalling is common phenomena
in valley tunnels across the fjords in Norway and in valleys of young mountainous areas where topography is
steep and rough.
The simplifying assumption that the principal rock
stresses are vertical and horizontal with depth and that
the vertical stress is equal to the weight of the overburden is not valid for areas with gentle to strong
topography.The influence of morphology and topography has to be included in establishing the best-estimate
stress model, BESM.
Glacial effects, uplift and subsidence very often
cause a more intense fracturing and faulting in the
uppermost parts of the Earths crust. This disturbs the
stress field so that for example in glaciated terrains
like Scandinavia and Canada one often finds an excess
of horizontal stresses and thrust faulting conditions in
the uppermost couple of hundred meters of the rock
(Stephansson, 1993).
3.3
The issue of morphology and topography on estimating in situ stress is of particular interest when
conducting rock engineering projects and related stress
estimation and measurements in mountainous area,
near valley slopes and at the top of high mountains and for mining projects e.g., at the slopes of
open pit mines. The slopes and valley sides can create unbalanced stress concentrations of underground
excavations located at the toe of the slopes and valleys
and cause rock burst and spalling and other types of
rock failure.
It is a difficult task to determine analytically the
in situ stress field in a rock mass or a region with an
irregular surface using the theory of linear elasticity.
Bipolar coordinate transformation, exact conformal
mapping and perturbation method are three different analytical methods that have been applied to
study the effect of topography on the stress state
for a site. or a region. The methods have limitations
18
Figure 5. Homogeneous (a), anisotropic (b), and heterogeneous (c) material effect principal stress orientation and
magnitude. After Zang & Stephansson (2010).
19
20
21
22
and wave velocity analysis (WVA). Cracking phenomena in drillcores and monitoring of related acoustic
emissions by means of the Kaiser effect also belongs
to this category.
Category (4) mechanisms, also called borehole
seismic logging or indirect methods, combine the
variation of physical rock properties with stress. Shearwave polarization, shear wave splitting and analysis
of Stonely waves are examples of wave propagation
methods for stress analysis.
Finally, Category (5) for stress estimates is concerned with physical properties of pre-existing fault
zones in the Earths crust and related earthquakes. The
end members are fault plane solutions (FPS). Focal
mechanisms of earthquakes provide the orientation
of principal stresses and this information dominates
the overall entries of stress data in the World Stress
Map described in Section 3.2. Stress inversion from
focal mechanisms can be separated into natural seismicity (NS) and induced seismicity (IS). In contrast to
NS, the term IS refers to typically minor earthquakes
and tremors that are caused by human activities that
perturb the crustal stress field. Zang and Stephansson
2010 refine IS into mining-induced seismicity (MIS)
and fluid-induced seismicity (FIS). MIS includes seismic events and related rock bursts arising from stress
changes associated with mining activities. FIS are
caused by injection of fluids in liquid waste disposal or
fracturing of hydrocarbon and geothermal reservoirs.
Impoundment of large water reservoirs can generate
FIS.
Stress inversions from induced seismic events,
together with stress inversions from background natural seismicity, are useful tools to identify stress
perturbations triggered by human activity.
23
estimation of the standard deviation (SD) of the measured parameters. The inversion is performed using
a method developed by Cornet (1993), based on the
least squares criterion by Tarantola & Valette (1982).
In this method, a priori knowledge of the unknown
model parameters is assumed to exist, which can be
formulated in terms of expected value, variance and
covariance. Before the stress calculations were made,
existing data were sub-divided with respect to the NE-2
Fracture Zone into the Northwest and Southeast
domains (Fig. 8). The depth interval considered was
between 220 and 480 m depth.
The results of the case study at the sp HRL
show that the overcoring and hydraulic fracturing
applications of the ISDM significantly improved the
knowledge of the prevailing stress field. The resolution of the unknown model parameters is in general
satisfactory and the results thus reliable. It is estimated
that the SDs of the calculated stress magnitudes and
orientations for the overcoring and combined solutions generally are less than 2 MPa and 10 degrees,
respectively, for the investigated depth intervals. The
application to stress data at the sp HRL points to
that the NE-2 Fracture Zone influences the regional
stress field, and divides the available data into a NW
and a SE stress domain. Close to the NE-2 Fracture
Zone, the stresses are rotated so that the orientation of
1 is nearly perpendicular to, and the orientation of 2
and 3 are approximately parallel to the strike of the
zone. The principal stress magnitudes are fairly linear with depth, and appear little affected by the NE-2
Fracture Zone.
5.1
Numerical modeling
Figure 11. Numerical stress modeling with distinct element
code 3DEC. a) The model shows the orientation of the major
fracture zones and orientation of the maximum NW-SE horizontal stress at the Forsmark site, Sweden. b) Overview of
stresses at the site. c) Principal stresses above and below a
major shallow inclined deformation zone overlaying the rock
mass for a future repository. After H. Hakami 2006.
Numerical analyses with a variety of numerical techniques (FEM, BEM, DEM etc.) have been used in an
attempt to predict or explain the in-situ stress field
and in illustrating the effect of topography (Sturgul
et al., 1976), stress distribution in a blocky rock mass
subjected to a 2-D stress field (Stephansson et al,
1991) (see Fig. 10), influence of changes of tectonic
history over time for a coal mining district in Southern France, estimation of regional stress, separation of
gravitational and tectonic and comparison with stress
measurement results (Te Kamp et al., 1999) and 3DEC
modeling of the influence of large scale structures on
the in situ stress (Stephansson et al 1991). Figure 10
shows a distinct element modeling of faulted rock in
2D. Notice the orientation of principal stresses near the
fault. The range of reorientation of stresses diminishes
with the increase of the friction angle of the fault.
Inside and in the vicinity of faults and major fractures zones, both the magnitude and stress orientation
will vary from point to point. Stress prediction in these
areas is more uncertain and the variations of stresses
will be larger, if it is ever possible to perform any stress
measurements in these areas due to poor rock quality.
The numerical stress modeling shall help in obtaining an overall understanding of the state of stress
between measurements. The modeling results shall
also contribute to the estimation of the variability support in predicting the stresses in points or regions and
uncertainty in presenting the final rock stress model.
An example of stress modeling from the completed
site investigations for the final repository of spent
nuclear fuel at Forsmark, Sweden is illustrated in Figure 11 (Hakami 2006). The 3DEC model consists of
blocks with the same rock properties within a block
surrounded by major deformation zones (faults). The
regional NW-SE oriented maximum horizontal stress
is indicated Fig. 11a. When equilibrium is obtained in
the 3DEC model the stress distribution is presented
as a result, Figure 11b. A detail of the orientation and
magnitude of the maximum and minimum principal
stresses for a region at a slightly inclined major deformation zone, called ZFMA2, is presented in Fig. 11c.
Notice the rotation of the principal stresses in the
hanging wall of the deformation zone.
24
6 CONCLUSION
Cooling, C.M., Hudson, J.A. & Tunbridge, L.W. 1988. Insitu rock stresses and their measurement in the UK Part
II. Site experiments and site experiments and stress field
interpretation. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech.
Abstr. 25: 371382.
Cornet, F.H. 1993. The HTPF and the integrated stress determination method. In J.A. Hudson (ed.) Comprehensive
Rock Engineering: Vol. 3: 413432. Oxford: Pergamon
Press.
Cornet F.H. & Valette B. 1984. In situ stress determination
from hydraulic injection test data. Journal of Geophysical
Research 89: 1152711537.
Haimson, B.C. 1980. Near surface and deep hydrofracturing
stress measurements in the Waterloo quartzite. Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci & Geomech. Abstr. 17: 8188.
Haimson, B.C. & Lee, C.F. 1995. Estimating in situ stress
conditions from borehole breakouts and core disking.
In Proc. Int. Workshop on Rock Stress Measurement at
Great Depth, Tokyo, Japan, 8th ISRM Congress, 1924.
Rotterdam: Balkema
Hakami, H. 2006. Numerical studies on spatial variation
of the in situ stress field at Forsmark a further step.
Site descriptive modeling Forsmark stage 2.1. SKB R06-124, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management
Company, Stockholm, Sweden.
Hakami, E., Hakami H. & Cosgrove J. 2002. Strategy for a
Rock Mechanics Site Descriptive Model Development
and testing of an approach to modeling the state of stress.
SKB Research Report, R-02-03. Swedish Nuclear Fuel
and Waste Management Co., Stockholm.
Hayashi, K. & Masuoka, M. 1995. Estimation of tectonic
stress from slip data from fractures in core samples.
In Proc. Int. Workshop on Rock Stress Measurement at
Great Depth, Tokyo, Japan, 8th ISRM Congress, 3539.
Rotterdam:Balkema
Heidbach O. Reinecker J. Tingay M. Mller B. Sperner B.
Fuchs K. & Wenzel F.2007 Plate boundary forces are
not enough: Second- and third-order stress patterns highlighted in the World stress Map database. Tectonics 26,
TC6014, doi: 10.1029/2007TC002133.
Herget, G. 1974. Ground stress conditions in Canada. Rock.
Mech. 6:5374.
Hickman S. H. & Zoback M.D. 2004 Stress orientations and magnitudes in the SAFOD pilot hole.
Geophysical Research Letters Vol. 31, L15S12, doi
10.1029/2004GL020043
Jaeger J.C, Cook N.G.W. 1979 Fundamentals of rock mechan
ics. 3rd edition London: Chapman & Hall.
Kutter, H.K. 1993. Influence of drilling method on borehole breakouts and core disking. In Proc. 7th Congress
Int. Soc. Rock Mech. (ISRM), Aachen, Vol. 3: 16591664.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Ljunggren C. Chang Y, Janson T. & Christiansson R. 2003.
An overview of rock stress measurement methods. Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 40: 975989.
Lund, B. & Zoback M.D. 1999 Orientation and magnitude of
in situ stress to 6.5 km depth in the Baltic Shield, Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 36, 169190.
Martin, C.D. & Chandler, N.A. 1993. Stress heterogeneity
and geological structures. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci &
Geomech. Abstr. 30: 993999.
Mller, B., M.L. Zoback, K. Fuchs, L. Mastin, S. Gregersen,
N. Pavoni, Stephansson O. & Ljunggren C. 1992. Regional
patterns of tectonic stress in Europe. J. Geophys. Res. 97:
1178311803.
Myrvang, A. Rock stress and rock stress problem in Norway.
In J.A. Hudson (ed) Comprehensive Rock Engineering:
Vol.3: 461471. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
25
26
ABSTRACT: Stability and potential failure mode of tunnels and underground rock caverns is directly related
to the magnitude and orientation of the in-situ rock stress. In some cases, the high horizontal in-situ stress is
essential in maintaining cavern stability, whilst in other cases the high rock stress may bring forth additional
difficulties in rock support design. It is crucial to take into account the in-situ rock stress in designing of the shape
and orientation of underground works and selecting of excavation methods and rock support. With a number of
examples of real projects the paper describes the impact of the in-situ rock stress on the tunnel/cavern stability
and corresponding rock support design. The hazardous effects resulting from spalling and rock burst associated
with very high in-situ rock stress are addressed with an example of the world longest road tunnel the Lrdal
tunnel.
INTRODUCTION
27
Value
5055 GPa
7077 MPa
70 (mean)
130 mean 12
4575 mean 66
28
a moderate horizontal stress, h = v , shows no yielding around the cavern and more uniform distribution
of the displacement of the cavern periphery. The actual
measured cavern roof subsidence is about 8 mm.
2.2
29
horizontal in-situ stress is not favourable to reach stable cavern walls. The optimized rock support design
may be reached when a moderate in-situ stress regime
exists.
3
3.1
The parameter SRF is Eqn (1) is the Stress Reduction Factor, describing in general the relation between
stress and the rock strength around a cavern/tunnel.
According to NGI (1997) for the competent rock with
stress problems that with very high stresses spalling
and rock burst may occur in a tunnel, and SRF-value up
to 400 may be used in some situations. This implies
that a rock mass categorized as very good with a
stress-free Q-value of 50 may fall into the category
very poor simply due to the high in-situ rock stress.
The magnitude of the reduction may be discussed, but
anyhow this is a clear demonstration of the importance
of the in-situ rock stress.
3.2
30
Table 2.
Hazard
Effects or
potential
consequences
Warning
signals
Preventive
actions
Water under
pressure
Un-consolidated
zones
Flooding
Immediate
Cave-in
cave-in
Dangerous
Cannot be
drill rod
controlled
changing
at face
Water in probe Water, mud,
or blast holes
sand in probe
Inflow through
or blast holes
joints in the face
Karstic
features
Probe drill
to localise
potential inflow
Pre-grouting
and/or drainage
Do not blast
until treatment
is done
As for Water
under
pressure
Ground
Freezing
ahead of face
Crushed or
blocky rock
mass
High rock
stress
Poor
confinement
Rock
spalling
or bursting
Slab or block
falls
Drilling
problems in
stress release
cracks
Noises;
crackling
shots
Visible
deformations
Scaling,
bolting,
sprayed
concrete
Drill stress
release holes
Block falls
Block falls
Cave-in
Drilling
problems in
open joints
Drilling
Bubbles in
problems in
seepage
crushed rock
water
Drizzling
Rotten
continues
smell of
with time
associated
gas
Pre-bolting
For intact
spiling
contour:
Scaling,
sprayed
bolting,
concrete
sprayed
and bolting
concrete ribs For lost
contour,
water
present:
cast-in-place
concrete
lining
Gas, methane
Explosion
Delay of
work
activities
Probe drill
Increased
ventilation
for dilution
and
circulation
Measurements
and
monitoring
31
ROCK SUPPORT
Rock support for tunnels under high stress
32
rock failure occurs. This may be in the form of timedependent deformation (creeping) in weak and soft
rocks, or in the form of dynamic (rock burst) or quasidynamic (slabbing) ejection in hard rocks. The failure
mode of rock has a direct impact on the design of
ground support systems.
Li carefully studied the field observations in deep
cut-and-fill mines in Sweden, Canada and Australia.
In this mining method stopes are mined in 35 m high
slices and afterwards backfilled with waste rock and
tailing. The roof rock of the previous slice cut will
be exposed on the advance face of the current slice
cut such providing a unique opportunity to observe
the interaction between bolts and the rock in situ. Figure 12 (a) and (b) show the failure of rock bolts in a
creeping rock mass, Sweden, and failed split sets in a
weak rock mass, Australia, respectively. Both failures
took place in a short distance 0.30.4 m from the face
plate. Figure 13 shows the responses of the rock bolts
in a collapsed roof after a rock burst event occurred
in a Canadian metal mine at a depth of 1650 m. As
4.2
33
can be seen from the figure the rebar bolts are failed
whilst the cone bolts survived even though they did
not prohibit the roof rock from falling. This is resulted
from the capacity of the cone bolts in accommodating large deformations. The observation indicates that
fully bounded rebar bolts are also too stiff to accommodate the static deformation and to respond to the
burst-induced dynamic loading.
Based on analysis of the field observations Li found
that in high stress rock conditions rock bolts should
not only have a high load-bearing capacity, but also
should be able to accommodate large rock dilations.
In other words, they should be able to absorb a large
amount of energy prior to failure. The major shortcoming of the conventional fully bonded rebar bolt is its
small deformation capacity.A small amount of fracture
opening would result in premature failure of the bolt
because the deformation capacity of the bolt material
is mobilized only in a small bolt segment overriding
the fracture. An attempt to developing a new type of
rock bolts is being undertaken in order to overcome
the shortcomings.
5
REFERENCES
Blindheim, O.T. 2003. Learning from the Lrdal Tunnel.
Tunnels & Tunnelling International October 2003: 2426
Blindheim, O.T. 2004. Geological hazards causes, effects
and prevention. In Publication No 13 Norwegian Tunnelling Society.
Grimstad, E. & Bhasin, R. 1997. Rock support in hard
rock tunnels under high stress. In Einar Broch etc (eds),
Proc. Int. Symp. On Rock Support Applied Solutions
for Underground Structures, Lillehammer, 2527 June
1997.
Grv, E. 2006. The importance of in-situ rock stress in design
and construction of sub-surface opening. In M.E.Abdel
Salam (ed), Proc. Int. Symp. On utilization of underground space in urban areas, Sharm El-Sheikh, 67 Nov.
2006.
Huang, Z.P., Broch, E. & Lu, M. 2004. Stability study of the
Xiaolangdi powerhouse cavern by UDEC and DIANA. In
Heinz Konietzky (ed.), Numerical Modeling of Discrete
Materials; Proc.1st Int. UDEC/3DEC Symp., Bochum, 29
Sep. 1 Oct. 2004. Leiden: Balkema.
Li, C.C. 2009. Field observations of rock bolts in high stress
rock masses. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering
Lu, M., Dahle, H., Grv, E., Qiao, H.Y., Zhao, Q.L. &
Wen, B.H. 2006. Design of rock caverns in high in-situ
stress rock mass. In C.F. Leung & Y.X. Zhou (eds) Rock
Mechanics in Underground Construction; Proc. 4th Asian
Rock Mechanics Symposium, Singapore, 810 Nov. 2006.
Singapore: World Scientific.
Myrvang, A.M. 2006. Rock stress measurements as a practical rock engineering tool. In Ming Lu etc (eds), In-situ
Rock Stress Measurement, interpretation and application; Proc. Int.Symp. on In-situ Rock Stress, Trondheim,
1921 June 2006. London: Balkema.
NGI. 1997. Practical use of the Q-system. NGI report, No.
592046-4.
Nilsen, B. & Thidemann, A. 1993. Rock Engineering.
Hydropower Development Vol. 9 Published by Norwegian
Institute of Technology.
Wang, M.L, Li, J.B & Zhang, H. 2008. Discussion on
Mechism of Rockburst and Prevatiom Based on Energy
Principles. China Sciencepaper Online. http://www.
paper.edu.cn/en/pa per.php?serial_number=200812-949
CONCLUSIONS
The importance of the in-situ rock stress for the underground tunnels and caverns has been recognized in
Norway since a long time ago. Reasonably high horizontal stress plays a crucial role in maintaining the
roof stability of shallowly seated large caverns by arch
forming mechanism. However, for the silos and caverns with high walls a high horizontal in-situ stress
may have negative effect on the stability of the walls.
It is generally accepted a moderate stress regime is
preferred for most underground works.
High rock stresses may appear in great depth or can
be caused by the tectonic process, which may become
hazardous to the environment of underground construction with potential for spalling and rock burst.
In particular the rock burst with its violent nature
threatens the safety of the personnel working at the
site. Special engineering measures have to be taken in
preventing, reducing and/or handling the rock burst.
Great caution is needed in rock support in high
stress rock. In general attempt to prevent rock deformation by using of heavy and stiff support should
34
ABSTRACT: According to the stress state and force source character, the recent tectonic stress field of China is
preliminary divided into four classes. Among them, there are two first order districts, four second order districts,
five third order districts and twenty-six fourth order districts. By analyzing those tectonic stress districts and
strong earthquakes, the close relation between them is mainly summarized as follows: (1) The boundary of stress
districts especially the first or second order boundary controlled by the interaction of tectonic plates has strong
earthquakes very easily and frequently. (2) Stress districts with stress direction, regime type and stress value
transformation are concentrative zones of strong earthquakes. (3) Stress districts with local stress differentiation
but in the homogeneous stress background are the places where strong earthquakes are relatively concentrated.
On the basis of these research work, we discuss the present dynamic environment in China from force source
and plates movement.
1
INTRODUCTION
The The research of lithosphere stress is a very important branch of earth science. In the late 1980s, international lithosphere plan leaded by Mary Lou Zoback
(1992) began the plan of compling the world stress
map and this project attracted many scientists from
different countries. They collected various kinds of
stress data, analyzed related results of recent tectonic
stress, established the database of global tectonic stress
and compiled the global stress map. The map reflects
the global and regional characteristics of lithospheric
stress field and explains the situation of force action
in the lithosphere. One of the important results is that
tectonic stress field has the uniform characteristics
in a large scale inside some plates. It shows that the
large scale force source of tectonic movement exists
on the Earth. The other important result is to recognize that there are first order and second order stress
fields inside the plate and the first order stress field
is related to plate movement but second order stress
field is only a regional stress field influenced by horizontal difference density in the lithosphere or local
thermal activity. Recent years, Chinese researchers
also have done a lot of research work about tectonic
stress field and get a great deal of achievement in the
related research fields, especially in regionalizing tectonic stress field (Deng Q.D. et al. 1979, Xu Z.H. et al.
1989, Kan R.J. et al. 1977, Xue H.Y. et al. 1984, Wang
S.Y. et al. 1991, 1993, Xie F.R. et al. 1993, 1999, 2003,
Cui X.F. et al. 1999, Xu Z.H. 2001). Besides that, large
quantities of researches indicate that crustal stress state
has a very close relation to the earthquake activities.
35
First order
Second order
Third order
Xinjiang (B1)
Tibet (B2)
36
Forth order
Figure 2. The distribution of strong earthquakes and tectonic stress districts in China and its adjacent area.
Figure 3. Inversion result from fault Slip data in Longmenshan fault.
easily and frequently. In mainland China, the two firstorder stress districts controlled by the dynamic action
of plates is eastern China stress district and western
China stress district, and the boundary of them is north
south seismotectonic belt (Fig. 2). On 12th May 2008,
Wenchuan earthquake shocked all the world happened
on Longmenshan fault belonged to the north south
seismotectonic belt which is the first-order boundary
of stress districts. Figure 3 is the inversion result from
fault slip data in Longmenshan fault after Wenchuan
earthquake. We can see clearly from figure 3 that the
principal compressional stress in this region is about
in east-west direction and the stress regime is reverse
slip. From the point of view of force source, the source
of eastern China stress district comes mainly from the
united action produced by Pacific plate subduction
beneath Eurasia continent towards west and Philippine
plate subduction beneath Eurasia continent towards
northwest. And the source of western China stress
district comes mainly from the India plate colliding
with Eurasia continent towards north. Therefore, at the
united action of above three plates, the primary characteristic of recent tectonic stress field in Longmenshan
region is in nearly east-west direction.
Another good example is Yushu earthquake. On
14th April 2010, Qinghai Yushu earthquake happened
on Ganzi-Yushu fault which is one of the branches
of Jinshajiang-xianshuihe fault zone. From the view
of global plate movement, this earthquake happened
at the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau formed by the India
plate pushing Eurasia continent towards north. The
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau gradually becomes shortening
under the action of pushing and at the same time
the interior blocks begin to slip in the lateral direction along some important faults at the boundary of
stress districts, it makes the main block of QinghaiTibet Plateau move towards east and some strike-slip
fault system and extrusion blocks of different scale
form inside or at the edge of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
From the point of view of fault zone,Yushu earthquake
happened on Jinshajiang-xianshuihe fault zone which
37
38
39
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Wang Suyun & Gao Ajia & Xu Zhonghuai. 1993. The Characteristics of focal mechanism solutions in China and
Adjacent area. In: Department of seismic hazard prevention and mitigation. State Seismological Bureau. Copus
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Wang Suyun & James Ni & Ma Zongjin, et al. 1991. The
characteristics of fault plane solutions and focal depths of
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Xie Furen & Chen Qunce & Cui Xiaofeng, et al. 2003.
Research on crustal stress state in China and adjacent area.
Beijing: Geological Press, 1026 (in Chinese).
Xie Furen & Zhang Shimin & Dou Suqin, et al. 1999. Evolution characteristics of Quaternary tectonic stress field
in the north and east margin of Qinghai-Xizang plateau.
Acta Seismologica Sinica, 12(5): 550561 (in Chinese).
Xie Furen & Zhu Jingzhong & Liang Hai-qing, et al. 1993.
The Basic Characteristics of Recent Tectonic Stress Field
in Southwest Region of China. Acta Seismologica Sinica,
15(4):407417 (in Chinese).
Xu Zhonghuai. 2001. A present-day tecto nic stress map
for Eastern Asia region. Acta Seismologica Sinica, 23(5):
492501 (in Chinese).
Xu Zhonghuai & Wang Suyun & Huang Yurui, et al. 1989.
The tectonic stress field of chines continent deduced from
a great number of earthquake. Chinese J. Geophys. (Acta
Seismologica Sinica), 32(6): 636647 (in Chinese).
Xue Hongyun & Yan Jiaquan. 1984. The contemporary stress
field around the Ordos Block. Chinese J. Geophys. (Acta
Seismologica Sinica), 27(2):144152 (in Chinese).
Zoback M L. 1992. First- and second-order patterns of
stress in the lithosphere: the world stress map project.
J. Geophys. Res., 97(B8): 1170311728.
Department of Seismic Hazard Prevention and Mitigation,
China Earthquake Adminstration. 1999. Recent earthquake catalog in China (1912-1990 A.D.), Beijing: The
Science Press of China.
40
T. Satoh
National Institute of Advance Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan
H. Kato
Akema Boring Co. Ltd., Japan
ABSTRACT: For the effective measurement of the reopening pressure in hydraulic fracturing, it is necessary
to use the testing equipment with sufficiently small compliance. If not, there is no way to estimate the maximum
stress in a plane perpendicular to a borehole, i.e. the maximum horizontal stress assuming a vertical borehole,
from the reopening pressure. It may be very hard to reduce the system compliance drastically by just replacing
any components of the hydraulic fracturing system. If the flow meter is emplaced as close as possible to a
test section of a borehole isolated by straddle packers, the system compliance can be reduced drastically. To
accomplish this idea, we have been developing a testing system with a downhole flow meter. We demonstrated
the developed system in a field test successfully. Furthermore, we presented a new method which will allow us
to do stress measurement at depths greater than a few km.
INTRODUCTION
43
Figure 1. Illustration of a typical hydraulic fracturing system showing the volume, Veff , between a flow meter and
fracture mouths which gives rise to wellbore storage both
through fluid compressibility and volume change. The fracture volume is denoted as Vc .
where R is borehole radius, H is height of test interval, is fluid compressibility and V is fluid volume
between the flow meter and fracture mouths. This
compliance leads to a noticeable error in detection
of fracture opening. The reopening pressure is usually detected as the borehole pressure P at which the
P-t curve is seen to deviate from linearity (Fig. 2).
Assuming negligible fluid leakage into a surrounding
rock and negligible pressure gradient in the fracture,
the effect of the fracture opening on the borehole pressure variation can be expressed as follows (Ito et al.
1999):
44
the system compliance C are constant, Eq. (5) indicates that deviations of the P-t curve from linearity
are governed by changes in the value of dVc /dP and
its relative value with respect to C. That is, prior to
the fracture opening, dVc /dP is zero and the borehole pressure P increases linearly with t. After the
fracture opening, dVc /dP becomes greater than zero,
and the P-t curve will deviate from linearity to some
degree. However, the system compliance C of typical
hydraulic fracturing systems is hundreds of cc/MPa
or more, and that value is far larger than the value
of dVc /dP at the initial stage of fracture opening. As
a result, at the early stage of the fracture opening,
no detectable change occurs on the P-t curve and
P increases continuously as is schematically shown
in Fig. 2. When P finally reaches a level of Sh , the
stress acting normally to the fracture surface becomes
almost equal to or less than the value of Sh anywhere.
Such a balanced stress condition leads to the critical
state where the fracture aperture increases abruptly
with small increment of borehole pressure, where the
detailed discussion on fracture opening behavior can
be found in Ito et al. (1999, 2006). As a result, dVc /
dP becomes considerably large compared with C, and
finally the P-t curve begins to deviate from the initial
linear trend. The same process occurs regardless of
the SH value. This explains why incidences where the
measured (or apparent) reopening pressure coincides
with Ps in other words the minimum stress Sh are so
common as described above. We will denote hereafter
(a)
the apparent reopening pressure as Pr .
3
45
Figure 4. (a) The developed downhole tool and (b) its structure. A flow meter is installed in the measurement module.
46
47
Figure 7. Plots of pressure vs accumulated volume of injection Vacc for the fracture reopening cycle of Fig. 6b. The Vacc
is estimated from flow rate measured by (a) the flow meter at
the pump outlet and (b) that at downhole.
CONCLUSIONS
48
Figure 8. The proposed new strategy, BABHY, to achieve stress measurements by hydraulic fracturing at depths more than
1 km, and its procedures. The procedure consists of three parts as follows; (iiv): drilling the baby hole, (vviii): in-situ test
of hydraulic fracturing, and (ix): extending the mother hole to get the big core and retrieving.
Ito, T., Igarashi, A., Ito, H. & Sano, O. 2005. Problem for the
,maximum stress estimation by hydrofracturing method
and its potential solution. Proc. US Rock Mech. Symp.,
Anchorage: ARMA/USRMS 05-862 (CD-ROM).
Ito, T., Igarashi, A., Ito, H. & Sano, O. 2006. Crucial effect
of system compliance on the maximum stress estimation in hydrofracturing method: Theoretical consideration
and field test verification. Earth Planet and Space 58:
963971.
Ito, T., Omura, K. & Ito, H. 2007. BABHY A new strategy of
hydrofracturing for deep stress measurements. Scientific
Drilling, Special Issue No.1: 113116.
Ito, T., Omura, K.,Yamamoto, K., Ito, H., Tanaka, H., Harumi,
K. & Karino, Y. 2008. A new strategy of hydrofracturing
for deep stress measurements, BABHY, and its application
to a field test. Proc. of the 42nd US Rock Mech. Symp.,
San Francisco: ARMA 08-294 (CD-ROM).
Lee, M.Y. & Haimson, B.C. 1989. Statistical evaluation of
hydraulic fracturing stress measurement parameters. Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 26: 447456.
REFERENCES
Evans, K.F., Engelder, T. & Plumb, R.A. 1989. Appalachian
stress study 1. A detailed description of in-situ stress variations in Devonian shales of the Appalachian plateau.
J. Geophys. Res. 94: 71297154.
Hayashi, K. & Haimson, B.C. 1991. Characteristics of shutin curves in hydraulic fracturing stress measurements
and determination from hydraulic injection test data.
J. Geophys Res. 96: 1831118321.
Ito, T., Evans, K., Kawai, K. & Hayashi, K. 1999. Hydraulic
fracture reopening pressure and the estimation of maximum horizontal stress. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr. 36: 811826.
49
ABSTRACT: A hybrid method for constraining all three principal in situ stresses and their directions around
vertical boreholes at great depths is described. It involves hydraulic fracturing tests for estimating the minimum
horizontal stress and its direction. The vertical stress is computed from the weight of the overlying strata. In order
to estimate the maximum horizontal stress additional field and laboratory efforts are employed. Geophysical
logging using such tools as the Borehole Televiewer or the Formation Micro Imager captures oriented images of
borehole breakouts, from which breakout span as it varies with depth is obtained. Laboratory tests of core samples
in a polyaxial cell render the true triaxial strength criterion of the rock. Using the condition of limit equilibrium
between the local state of stress at the edges of breakout-borehole wall intersections and the strength criterion, a
non linear equation emerges from which the maximum horizontal principal stress is derived, thus completing the
estimation of the prevailing state of stress. Two field case histories are described in which the hybrid method was
used: the KTB, Germany scientific ultra deep hole, and the Taiwan Chelungpu Fault Drilling Project (TCDP).
1
INTRODUCTION
2 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
where is the average mass density of the superincumbent rock, g is gravitational acceleration, and D is
the depth of the measurement in meters.
The principal horizontal stress components, however, can only be reliably estimated through testing.
The most common method for depths exceeding several tens of meters is hydraulic fracturing
(Haimson & Fairhurst, 1970, Haimson & Cornet,
2003). Haimson & Cornet describe in detail the HF
test procedure, and will not be repeated here. The HF
test yields two critical pressures: breakdown (Pb ) and
shut-in (Ps ). The first relates to the critical pressure
when the fracture is induced. The fracture is tensile,
and provided the rock is approximately isotropic, will
initiate and extend along a path of least resistance, i.e.
perpendicular to the minimum horizontal in situ stress
(h ) direction. The shut-in pressure is that recorded
upon the closure of the hydraulic fracture. The shut-in
51
52
where = 2(h H ) cos 2b , and 2b is the breakout angular span on the borehole wall (Figure 1). The
angle 2b is obtained from geophysical logs (Brudy
et al, 1997); the Poissons ratio comes from laboratory index tests. The magnitude of H can be computed
as it varies throughout the range of depths in the
borehole where breakouts are detected and logged.
In some cases an even better fitting strength criterion is obtained by modifying Nadais to (Mogi,
1971):
53
As displayed in that Figure the computed maximum horizontal stress indicates a strike-slip regime
throughout the amphibolite region, and supports previous findings by Brudy et al (1997). In the interval
6000-6800 m the breakout spans were very large giving rise to large H magnitudes, probably a result of
borehole wall partial collapse.
5 THE TCDP HOLE
The Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project (TCDP)
was undertaken in order to conduct extensive studies of the thrust fault zone that hosted the disastrous
1999 Chi-Chi earthquake. Two vertical boreholes were
drilled during 20042005 (holes A and B) in westcentral Taiwan, north of the epicenter of the earthquake, and in an area where up to 10 m surface slip
had occurred. The two holes, 40 m apart and continuously cored, penetrated the fault at approximately
1111 m in hole A, and at 1136 m in hole B, and reached
final depths of 2003 m and 1350 m, respectively. A
major objective of the TCDP was to determine the
post-earthquake state of stress across the fault.
The vertical stress was calculated from the average
density of the overlying rock (Hung et al, 2007):
54
2007). Four tests were carried out but only two were
considered successful, at 1085 and 1279 m depth, both
in the Chinshui Formation and straddling the subhorizontal fault at 1136 m (Haimson et al, 2010). The
signature of the pressure-time records for these two
tests were typical of those corresponding to horizontal
hydraulic fractures. Such fractures are expected when
the least principal stress is vertical, as in the case of
the Chelungpu thrust fault. The actual shut-in pressure
magnitudes were estimated at:
which is in accord with regional tectonic stress directions (Heidbach et al, 2008).
The only unknown stress component was the maximum in situ horizontal stress (H ). As in the case of
KTB, the hybrid method relating the stress condition
at the extremities of the logged breakout to the true
triaxial strength criterion was employed in order to
constrain H .
True triaxial compressive tests simulating stress
conditions at the borehole wall on core made available
from 1251.31252.5 m in hole A, were conducted in
the University of Wisconsin polyaxial cell. The emerging criterion of failure was represented in the Nadai
domain as:
55
DISCUSSION
Assuming that the state of stress at the breakoutborehole intersection point B or B is at the failure
initiation level, it is equal to the siltstone true triaxial
strength criterion. The stress condition at = b on
the borehole perimeter in terms of the far-field in situ
stresses is given in eqs. 3, and it remains unchanged
whether total or effective stresses are involved. Thus,
by substituting , z , and r in eq. 21 with their expressions in eqs. 3, a relationship is derived in terms of the
far-field principal stresses in which the only unknown
is H :
CONCLUSIONS
56
for the purpose of estimating the maximum horizontal stress. The method is recommended for major
scientific deep-drilling projects, where an alternative
way of determining the maximum horizontal stress is
required.
Haimson, B, Lin, W., Oku, H., Hung, J-H, Song S-R. 2010.
Integrating borehole-breakout dimensions, strength criteria, and leak-off test results, to constrain the state of stress
across the Chelungpu Fault, Taiwan, Tectonophysics, 482:
6572.
Heidbach, O., Tingay, M., Barth, A., Reinecker, J., Kurfe, D.,
& Mller, B. 2008.: The release 2008 of the World Stress
Map (available online at www.world-stress-map.org)
Hirschmann G. 1994. The KTB location and models of the
crustal structure, KTB Rep. 94-2, pp. A35-A44, Niederschsisches Landesamt fr Bodenforschung, Hannover,
Germany..
Hoffman, J.D. 1992. Numerical Methods for Engineers and
Scientists, McGraw-Hill, New York, 825 pp.
Hung, J.H., Ma, K.F., Wang, C.Y., Ito, H., Lin, W., &
Yeh, E.C. 2007, Subsurface structure, physical properties,
fault zone characteristics and stress state in the scientific
drill holes of Taiwan Chelungpu Fault Drilling Project,
Tectonophysics (online).
Ito, T., Kato, H., Karino, Y., Hayashi, K., 2002, Hydrofrac
stress measurements: On true reopening pressure and
development a system for the measurements at depths up
to 1000 m, in S.-Y. Choi, et al. (eds.), Rock Engineering
Problems and Approaches in Underground Construction,
Korean Society for Rock Mechanics, p. 93100.
Lin, W., Yeh, E-C., Hung, G-H, Haimson, B. & Hirono T.
2010. Localized rotation of principal stress around faults
and fractures determined from borehole breakouts in hole
B of the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project (TCDP).
Testonophysics, 482: 8291.
Mogi, K. 1971. Fracture and flow of rocks under high triaxial
compression, J. Geophys. Res., 76: 12551269.
Nadai, A., 1950. Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, vol.
1, McGraw-Hill, New York, 572 pp.
Rutqvist, J.,Tsang, C.-F., Stephansson, O. 2000, Uncertainty in the maximum principal stress estimated from
hydraulic fracturing measurements due to the presence
of the induced fracture, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 37:
107120.
Vernik, L., & Zoback, M.D. 1992. Estimation of maximum
horizontal principal stress magnitude from stress-induced
well bore breakouts in the Cajon Pass Scientific Research
Borehole, J. Geophys. Res., 97:51095119.
Wiebols, G.A., & Cook, N.G.W. 1968. An energy criterion
for the strength of rock in polyaxial compression, Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 5: 529549.
Zoback, M.D., & Harjes, H.-P. 1997. .Injection-induced
earthquakes and crustal stress at 9 km depth at the
KTB deep drilling site, Germany, J. Geophys. Res., 102:
1847718491.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The development of the true triaxial cell and of the
hybrid method of in situ stress measurements was supported by a National Science Foundation grant no.
EAR-9418738. Graduate students Chandong Chang
and Haruyuki Oku performed the laboratory experiments reported here.
REFERENCES
Baumgrtner, J., F. Rummel, & Zoback, M.D. 1990.
Hydraulic fracturing in situ stress measurements to 3 km
depth in the KTB pilot hole Vb, Ktb Rep. 90-6a,
pp. 353399, Niederschsisches Landesamt Fr Bodenforschung, Hannover, Germany.
Brudy, M., M.D. Zoback, K. Fuchs, F. Rummel, & Baumgrtner, J..1997. Estimation of the complete stress tensor to 8
km depth in the KTB scientific drill holes: implications
for crustal strength, J. Geophys. Res., 102: 1845318475.
Engeser, B., Huenges, E. Kessels, W. Kck, J. &. Wohlgemuth, L. 1993. The 6000 m hydrofrac test in the KTB
main borehole design: implementation and preliminary
results, KTB Rep. 93-1, pp. 301336, Niederschsisches
Landesamt fr Bodenforschung, Hannover, Germany.
Haimson, B. C. 1978. The hydrofracturing stress measuring
method and recent field results, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. and Geomech, Abstr., 15: 167178.
Haimson, B.C. & Fairhurst, C. 1970. In situ stress determination at great depth by means of hydraulic fracturing, in W.
H. Somerton (ed.),Rock Mechanics Theory and Practice,
Am. Inst. Mining Engrg., 559584.
Haimson B, & Chang, . 2002. True triaxial strength of the
KTB amphibolite under borehole wall conditions and its
use to estimate the maximum horizontal in situ stress, J.
Geophys. Res., 107: (B10) 22572271.
Haimson B.C & Cornet, F.H. 2003. ISRM Suggested Method
for Rock Stress Estimation: Hydraulic Fracturing and
Hydraulic Testing of Pre-Existing Fractures, Intl. J. Rock
Mech. and Mining Sci., 40:10111020.
57
A. Lakirouhani
Zanjan University, Zanjan, Iran
E. Detournay
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
ABSTRACT: Estimating the maximum stress in a rock mass based on hydraulic fracturing data typically
depends on identification of the breakdown and/or secondary breakdown (reopening) pressure. Errors in this
estimate can be attributed to injection system compressibility, coupled viscous fluid flow in the hydraulic fracture,
and crack growth through the varying stress field surrounding a wellbore. The role of these mechanisms has not
been well-quantified. Here, a coupled numerical model that includes the compressibility of the injection system
and the flow of a viscous fluid in a plane-strain hydraulic fracture extending from a wellbore in the presence of a
non-isotropic in situ stress field provides a basic tool for estimating the order of the error associated with analysis
of the breakdown pressure under non-ideal conditions. The result is model-based guidelines on the values of
relevant dimensionless parameter groups to ensure sufficient accuracy, and when these guidelines cannot be
met under field conditions, the model can be further applied to obtain first order corrections that account for
compressibility, viscosity, and near-wellbore effects.
INTRODUCTION
59
2
2.1
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
We consider the plane strain propagation of two symmetrical fractures transverse to a wellbore with radius
60
dimensionless parameters (-Theorem, e.g. Barenblatt (1996)). Here we choose a particular scaling of
the problem that is convenient for the numerical solution method. In particular, we look for a scaling with
a fixed spatial coordinate, as opposed to a moving or
stretching coordinate system, i.e. a stretching coordinate system would result if x were to be scaled by
(t). We also seek to put time dependence in a single
dimensionless evolution parameter. Finally, it is best
if this scaling has some properties that intuitively aid
interpretation of the results.
To this end, let L be a characteristic length, i.e.
= /L for dimensionless length . We choose it as
the length at which the volume of the crack Vcrack is
similar to the volume of fluid stored in the compressible injection system Vcomp . For a crack with a uniform
net pressure pw h , Vcrack (pw h )L2 /E . As discussed in Section 2.1, Vcomp = (pw h )U . Equating
the two we find
Application of scaling methods to produce a dimensionless form of the governing equations allows one to
reduce the dimensionality of the problems parametric
space by considering only independent dimensionless
parameter groups. In this problem, assuming that the
initial small pressure ps does not affect the results
provided that is it sufficiently small, we have 3 independent dimensions (i.e. Force, Length, Time) and 10
independent variables (x, t, a, U , K , , E , d , h , o ).
Hence we need consider at most 7 independent
61
and where
Numerical solution
The numerical solution is calculated using an algorithm based on the displacement discontinuity (DD)
method (Crouch & Starfield 1983) for discretizing the
elasticity equation and on an implicit finite difference
method for solving the lubrication equation. The algorithm uses a fixed grid with constant discretization
size and is based on DD elements with uniform
displacement jumps. At each step, the length of the
fracture is increased by a fixed increment of size
corresponding to an initially unknown time step .
Therefore, the unknown is not the length of the crack,
62
the crack length grows instantaneously upon initiation as jumps from the lower to the upper branch of
this solution. Figure 2 shows cases with M = 0.001
and M = 0.1. For M = 0.001, does indeed increase
nearly instantaneously upon initiation while the wellbore pressure drops nearly instantaneously. In contrast,
when M = 0.1 the increase in is much more gradual,
as is the decrease in the wellbore pressure.
Figures 34 show a similar story of initial pressurization, crack initiation, and an initial tendency for the
crack length to instantaneously increase that is mitigated by the viscosity M. In these cases, results for
different values of the dimensionless wellbore radius
A and deviatoric stress D are shown, and it is clear
that increasing the value of either of these parameters
has the effect of decreasing the time to initiation and
the initiation wellbore pressure for a fixed value of the
initial notch length o .
63
sometimes referred to as secondary breakdown pressure and sometimes as reopening pressure, has a
different meaning as illustrated by the following hypothetical example. Consider the situation illustrated in
Figure 2, where o = 0.08, M = 0.001 and A = 0.4.
At breakdown, corresponding to 0.35, the crack
quasi-instantaneously propagates to 0.25 with the
pressure w dropping to about 0.24. Assume now
that this first injection phase proceeds until the crack
reaches a length = 0.32 corresponding to w 0.22,
when a flow back is instantaneously established that
causes depressurization of the crack without further
propagation. Upon return to equilibrium ( 0), a
new injection is then initiated.The associated pressuretime record is characterized by a quasilinear variation
of w with until 0.22 when crack propagation
following the stable branch resumes.
Two implications are worth closer examination.
Firstly, the peak pressure observed in this example is
not associated with a jump of the solution from the
unstable to the stable branch, as in the first injection phase. In fact, it is apparent from Figure 2 that
the pressure peak becomes progressively blurry with
increasing initial crack length, due to the combined
effect of an increase in the hydraulic compliance of
the system and a decrease of the propagation net
pressure with . Hence, the existence of an easily
distinguishable, sharp peak in the pressure time for
a secondary injection phase depends strongly on the
length the crack has reached at the conclusion of
the initial pressurization/depressurization cycle. Furthermore, the ability to distinguish a peak in the
experimental pressure-time record will further lessen
with increasing compliance U of the injection system,
as the real time axis stretches the dimensionless time
axis, by a factor proportional to U 3/4 .
Secondly, the model predicts that the reopening
pressure will be nearly the same as the shut-in pressure.
In the case of reopening, with initial crack length o
expected to be significantly larger than for breakdown,
we expect differences arise only due to the difference
between the initiation and breakdown pressure and to
vanish as M 0, as discussed above and illustrated
previously by Figure 5. The near equivalence of the
The breakdown pressure observed on the initial injection phase reflects a situation where the initial flaw
becomes strongly unstable. If the viscosity M 1,
the crack length jumps quasi-instantaneously from its
initial value o to a new value given by the unstable
branch of the inviscid fluid solution, see Figure 2. As
discussed earlier, the transition from the unstable to the
stable branch of the solution becomes more gradual
with increasing viscosity. The breakdown instability
takes place, however, only if o is smaller than ,
the critical flaw length at which both branches of the
inviscid solution merge ( corresponds to the vertical
tangent of the inviscid solution shown in Figure 2, for
example). The critical flaw length depends essentially on A and D, as the unstable branch of the solution
is only weakly influenced by M. Variation of with
D, for A = 0.2, 0.4 is shown in Figure 6.
Following the initial injection/shut-in cycle, any
new injection that leads to further crack propagation is, in principle, characterized by a peak in the
pressure-time record. However, the peak pressure,
64
The model results can be used to evaluate the conditions under which a classical, tensile strength based
model, such as Equations 1 or 2, is expected to give a
good estimate of the breakdown pressure. Of course,
these are the conditions under which evaluation of the
measured breakdown pressure in a field application
is expected to yield an accurate estimate of H . The
model deals with conditions where the fluid penetrates the initial notch, with complete penetration and
uniform pressure corresponding to the zero viscosity
case, M 0. Because we are limited to consideration
of M 0.1 on account of the propagation condition
that is used, as discussed by Lakirouhani et al. (2010),
the comparison will focus on the full penetration H-F
criterion (Equation 2).
First, the tensile strength t must be related to the
fracture toughness KIc and the initial flaw length o . As
pointed out by Garagash & Detournay (1997), when
o /a 1 the notched wellbore can be approximated
by an edge crack. The tensile strength breakdown pressure models take t as the presumed-uniform tensile
effective stress acting across an infinitesimally small
flaw at the moment that flaw begins to grow. Hence,
from a fracture mechanics perspective, considering a
65
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Rob Jeffrey and Xi Zhang
for their helpful discussions. The numerical model was
developed by AL during an extended visit to CSIRO
as a part of his PhD research. Financial support from
the CSIRO is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Barenblatt, G., 1996. Scaling, Self-Similarity, and Intermediate Asymptotics, volume 14 of Cambridge Texts in
Applied Mathematics. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bredehoeft, J., Wolf, R., Keys, W. & Shutter, E., 1976.
Hydraulic fracturing to determine regional in situ stress
filed, in the Piceance Basin, Colorado. Geol. Soc. Amer.
Bull. 87: 250258.
Cornet, F.H., 1993. Comprehensive Rock Engineering, volume 3, chapter 15: The HTPF and the integrated stress
determination methods.
Crouch, S. & Starfield, A., 1983. Boundary Element Methods
in Solid Mechanics. London: Unwin Hyman.
Detournay, E. & Carbonell, R., 1997. Fracture-mechanics
analysis of the breakdown process in minifracture or
66
67
Pijush Paul
Conoco-Phillips, Houston, Texas
Amie Lucier
Shell International Exploration and Production, Houston, Texas
ABSTRACT: Over the past fifteen years, my colleagues and I have developed a suite of techniques for determination of the full stress tensor in arbitrarily-oriented wells and boreholes utilizing observations of non-catastrophic
failures of the wellbore wall - compressive failures, drilling-induced tensile fractures and stress perturbations
associated with slip on faults cutting through the wellbore. While these techniques have had extensive application
in the petroleum industry, they have also been used in core holes drilled from excavations in mines to yield information about the state of stress within, and beyond, the area affected by the stress concentration surrounding the
excavation. When possible, hydraulic fracturing is used to provide independent information about the magnitude
of the least principal stress, but is not used to estimate the maximum horizontal principal stress. In this paper we
review both the conceptual elements of this methodology and two challenging case studies. The first involves
determination of the state of stress following the drilling of the first phase of the SAFOD project, a scientific
borehole drilled through the San Andreas Fault in central California. The second involves determination of the
state of stress in the crust surrounding a very deep mine is South Africa. These case studies document how observations of wellbore failure in deviated wells yield consistent stress orientations and magnitudes over appreciable
depth ranges.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Background
69
70
71
magnitude of Shmin was obtained from extended leakoff (hydrofrac) tests. Rock strength measurements
were available from core studies. This allowed observations of breakout width (45 degrees, in this case) and
drilling-induced tensile fractures to constrain SHmax to
be between 72 and 75 MPa. Note that the higher value
is consistent with the upper bound of allowable stress
stated for a strike-slip faulting regime (i.e., the value
is at the periphery of the stress polygon) indicating
that the state of stress in the crust surrounding the
wellbore is in equilibrium with its frictional strength.
Moreover, it would have been possible to constrain
the upper bound of SHmax from the frictional strength
of the crust and the lower bound from the occurrence
of drilling-induced tensile fractures. Hence, the information provided by the analysis of breakouts was not
needed in the analysis, but do provide additional confirmation of the limits on SHmax yielded by the analysis
of the tensile fractures. Had knowledge of Shmin not
been available from hydraulic fracturing, the occurrence of both breakouts and tensile fractures in this
well would have permitted estimation of both Shmin
and SHmax .
CASE STUDIES
72
73
Figure 11. Optical camera data from short vertical boreholes at sites 10 (left) and 13 (right) illustrate tensile fractures,
breakouts and incipient breakouts (from Lucier et al., 2009).
2.2
(Lucier et al., 2009) describe modeling of observations of compressive and tensile failures in a series
of boreholes drilled from tunnels in the TauTona gold
mine in South Africa. The TauTona mine is part of the
Western Deep Levels of the Witwatersrand Basin of
South Africa and is one of the deepest operating mines
in the world. The great majority of the measurements
described were made in tunnels at an approximate
depth of 3650 m.
The purpose of the modeling was to determine the
stress field surrounding the mine that is unaffected by
the stress perturbations caused by the mining activities. The purpose of the stress measurement program
was to be able to better predict how the stress concentrations caused by mining-induced slip on pre-existing
faults in an effort to help mitigate the threat of induced
earthquakes which represent a major threat to workers
and facilities.
Figure 10 shows the distribution of a number
of the relatively short borehole used for observing
compressive and tensile borehole failures.
Because nearly all the observations were made in
boreholes that were within the region affected by mining activities, it was necessary to combine modeling of
borehole failures (as described above) with boundaryelement modeling of the stress perturbation caused
by the mine in an iterative manner. Of particular note
are the observations in hole LIC 118 which extended
sub-horizontally to the east for 418 m.
Figure 11 show some of the optical camera data
utilized in the analysis from short boreholes at sites 10
and 13. In the hole at site 10 (left), there are drilling
induced tensile fractures and incipient breakouts. Only
breakouts are present in the borehole at site 13. As the
two boreholes extend only a few meters from a tunnel,
the stress state responsible for the borehole failures
is obviously affected by mining operations. Breakout
orientations in hole LIC 118 are shown in Figure 12
(left).
74
Figure 13. Orientation and magnitude of the stress state surrounding the TauTona mine. Note that this is a normal faulting
stress field (Lucier et al., 2009).
LIC118, outside the area affected by the stress perturbation caused by the mine. Following the procedure
outlined by (Barton & Zoback 1994), (Lucier et al.,
2009) were able to replicate the perturbation associated
with slip on this fault (Figure 15). Thus, well-oriented
normal faults are slipping in the vicinity of the mine.
The perturbation of the stress field caused by slip on
the fault, when superimposed on the stress field shown
in Figure 13, does an excellent job of replicating the
variation of breakout orientations in the vicinity of the
fault (Figure 15). This provides additional affirmation
of the stress magnitudes determined by modeling the
observed borehole failures.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
75
Peska, P. and M. D. Zoback (1995). Compressive and tensile failure of inclined wellbores and determination of
in situ stress and rock strength. Journal of Geophysical
Research 100(B7): 1279112811.
Rice, J. R., Ed. (1992). Fault stress states, pore pressure distributions, and the weakness of the San Andreas fault. Fault
Mechanics and Transport Properties of Rocks. San Diego,
Calif., Academic.
Wiprut, D., M. Zoback, et al. (2000). Constraining the full
stress tensor from observations of drilling-induced tensile
fractures and leak-off tests: Application to borehole stability and sand production on the Norwegian margin. Int.
J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci 37: 317336.
Zoback, M. D. (2007). Reservoir Geomechanics. Cambridge,
England, Cambridge University.
Zoback, M. D., C. B. Barton, et al. (2003). Determination
of stress orientation and magnitude in deep wells. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences
40: 10491076.
Zoback, M. D., S. H. Hickman, et al. (2010). Scientific
drilling into the San Andreas Fault zone. EOS, Trans.
Amer. Geophys. Union: in press.
Zoback, M. D., L. Mastin, et al. (1987). In situ stress measurements in deep boreholes using hydraulic fracturing,
wellbore breakouts and Stonely wave polarization. In
Rock Stress and Rock Stress Measurements,, Stockholm,
Sweden, Centrek Publ., Lulea.
Zoback, M. D., J. Townend, et al. (2002). Steady-state failure
equilibrium and deformation of intraplate lithosphere.
International Geology Review 44: 383401.
REFERENCES
Barton, C. A. and M. D. Zoback (1994). Stress perturbations associated with active faults penetrated by boreholes: Possible evidence for near-complete stress drop
and a new technique for stress magnitude measurements.
J. Geophys. Res 99: 93739390.
Boness, N. and M. D. Zoback (2006). A multi-scale study of
the mechanisms controlling shear velocity anisotropy in
the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth. Geophysics
7(5): F131F146.
Chery, J., M. D. Zoback, et al. (2004). A mechanical model
of the San Andreas fault and SAFOD pilot hole stress
measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31(15): L15S13.
Hickman, S. and M. D. Zoback (2004). Stress measurements
in the SAFOD pilot hole: Implications for the frictional
strength of the San Andreas fault. Geophysical Research
Letters 31: L15S12.
Lucier, A. M., M. D. Zoback, et al. (2009). Constraining
the far-field in situ stress state near a deep South African
gold mine. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Science 46: 555567.
Moos, D. and M. D. Zoback (1990). Utilization of Observations of Well Bore Failure to Constrain the Orientation and
Magnitude of Crustal Stresses: Application to Continental Deep Sea Drilling Project and Ocean Drilling Program
Boreholes. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 93059325.
Paul, P. and M. D. Zoback (2008). Wellbore-stability study
for the SAFOD borehole through the San Andreas Fault,
SPE 192781. SPE Drilling and Completion (Dec.):
394408.
76
ABSTRACT: Hydraulic Fracturing, Hydraulic Tests on Pre-existing Fractures, sleeve reopening tests and the
analysis of en echelon fractures developed in wells inclined to the principal stress directions, have helped
determine the vertical profile of the complete stress tensor in a sedimentary formation of the eastern Paris Basin.
This stress profile outlines the relaxation of shear stress in a 190 m thick clayey formation that results in a
strongly non linear stress variation with depth. It demonstrates that todays stress field at this location does not
depend on tectonic stresses but on active deformation processes that likely involve fluid-rock interactions.
INTRODUCTION
When a sufficiently large pressure is applied in a borehole, the axis of which is approximately perpendicular
to the natural minimum principal stress direction, an
axial fracture is generated. It is well established that
in the absence of any default in the rock matrix,
77
longer than the straddled pressurized interval, a feature essential for a more accurate interpretation of
interval pressure records produced by hydraulic fracturing tests. Further, geophysical borehole imaging
prevents any risk of creating new fractures as opposed
to impressions taken after hydraulic tests, in particular
for tests run at shallow depths.
However, it should be kept in mind that borehole
imaging offers little, if no, depth penetration. Hence
some uncertainty still remains about fracture orientations away from the well when they are inclined to the
borehole axis.
Today, techniques exist for mapping in situ
hydraulic fractures away from the wells by locating
microseismic events induced by the fracturing process
(e.g. Philips et al., 1998; Rutledge et al., 2004, Syleny
et al., 2009). But these have been applied only to large
scale fracturing jobs (injected volumes in the 10 m3
to 1000 m3 range) and no solution exists yet for small
scale hydraulic tests run for stress determination.
78
which is precisely the value derived from the reopening pressure as proposed by Bredehoeft et al. for
impervious rocks.
3.2
Sleeve fracturing
In order to remove uncertainty with the rock tensile strength determination, Bredehoeft et al., (1976)
proposed to exploit equation (2) with T = 0 for the
pressure required to reopen a hydraulic fracture after
it had closed back and the interstitial pressure had
returned to its original value. For impervious rocks,
the pore pressure value is simply subtracted from the
tangential stress.
However many authors have shown that this procedure is not reliable, either because of fluid penetration
into the fracture before its reopening (Cornet and
Valette, 1984) or because of the low stiffness of the
testing system (Ito et al., 1999). In fact it is most often
observed that the reopening pressure is very close to
the shut-in pressure and its use is not recommended.
Only when very viscous fluid with high flow rate
are pumped with a very stiff system may reopening
pressure be measured effectively, and this leaves unresolved the difficulty raised by the fact that fractures
may intersect one of the packers.
In order to avoid questions with fluid penetration, Stephansson (1983) proposed to conduct sleeve
fracturing tests, namely to fracture the rock directly
with a packer. For such tests, Desroches and Kurkjian
(1999) proposed to interpret the reopening pressure
79
3.4
So that the minimum principal stress m at the borehole wall makes the angle with the borehole axis
direction:
80
81
82
ACKOWLEDGEMENTS
I express here my sincere gratitude to ANDRA for
letting me use these excellent results.
REFERENCES
Ask, D. 2006. New developments in the Integrated Stress
Determination Method and their application to rock stress
data at the sp HRL, Sweden; Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sc., 43, pp 107126.
Baumgartner, J., Carvalho, J. & Mc Lennan, J. 1989. Fracturing deviated boreholes : An experimental laboratory
approach; in V. Maury & D. Fourmaintraux (eds.) Rock at
Great depth proc. Int. ISRM symp., Pau, vol. 2, 929938,
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Bell J.S. & Gough, D.I. 1979. Northeast-Southwest compressive stress in Alberta: evidence from oil wells; Earth and
Plant Sc. Let., 45, pp 475482.
Berard, Th. & Cornet, F.H. 2003. Evidence of thermallyinduced borehole elongation: a case study at Soultz,
France; Int. Jou. Rock Mech. Min. Sc., 40, pp 11211140.
Bredehoeft, J. D., Wolff, R. G., Keys, W. S., Shuter, E.,
1976. Hydraulic fracturing to determine the regional in
situ stress field, Piceance Basin, Colorado. Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull. 87, 250258.
Brudy, M. & Zoback, M.D. 1993. Compressive and tensile
failure of boreholes arbitrarily inclined to principal stress
axes: application to the KTB boreholes, Germany, Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sc. Geomech. Abst, 30, pp 10351038.
Brudy, M., Zoback, M.D., Fuchs, K., Rummel F., & Baumgartner, J. 1997. Estimation of the Complete stress tensor
to 8 km depth in KTB scientific drill holes: Implications
for crustal strength. J. Gophys. Res. 102, pp 1845318476.
Cornet, F.H. 1993. The HTPF and the Integrated Stress Determination methods; in J. Hudson (ed.) Comprehensive Rock
Engineering Vol 3, ch. 15, pp 413432, Pergammon Press,
Oxford.
Cornet, F.H. 1996. A complete 3D stress determination for
the design of an underground power station; in Aubertin,
Hassani and Mitri (ed.) Rock Mechanics, Tools and Technics proc. 2nd North Am. Rock Mech. Symp. pp 755767,
Rotterdam, Balkema.
Cornet, F.H. & Valette, B. 1984. In-situ Stress Determination
from Hydraulic Injection Test Data; J. Geophys. Res. 89,
pp 1152711537.
Cornet, F.H., Doan M.L. & Fontbonne F. 2003a; Electrical
imaging and hydraulic testing for a complete stress determination; Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sc.; 40, pp 12251243.
Cornet, F.H., Li L., Hulin J.P., Ippolito I. & Kurowski P. 2003b.
The hydromechanical behaviour of a single fracture: an in
situ experimental case study; Int. Ju. Rock. Mech. Min. Sc.
40, pp 12571270.
Daneshi, A. A. 1971. True and Apparent Direction of
Hydraulic Fractures; SPE paper 3226; proc. 103rd ann..
Meeting, Austin, Texas. Am. Inst. Min. Metall. & Pet. Eng.
Evans, K. 1989. Appalachian stress study 3. Regional scale
stress variations and their relation to structure and contemporary tectonics; J. Geophys. Res. 94, pp 1761917645.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The combination of hydraulic tests in boreholes and
geophysical imaging logs provides efficient ways to
determine the complete stress profile at depth. When
preexisting fractures are not available, analysis of
sleeve fracturing, en echelon fractures in inclined wells
and HF tests in vertical wells provide reliable complete
stress evaluations.
Results from the eastern Paris Basin have demonstrated efficiency of the method and its consistency
with borehole beakouts in vertical and inclined wells.
They demonstrate that the stress field in sedimentary formation does not vary linearly with depth
but is controlled by the rheological properties of the
83
84
F. Fontbonne
Go-nergies, Clermont-Ferrand, France
C. Brunet
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Paris, France
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1. Map of the Olkiluoto site, showing the underground lab Onkalo in the center and the location of borehole
OL-KR40 in the lower right corner.
85
EQUIPMENT
Mobilization
Reconnaissance logging
Selection of test sections
Injection testing
Post-logging after each completed injection test,
including packer positions.
radial compression as a result of inflating the packers and pressurization of the section between them.
Subsequently, the borehole wall failed prior to reopening of the chosen pre-existing fracture (Fig. 2). In
addition, two HTPF sections failed as a result of shortcircuiting around the packers, and two tests involve too
large uncertainties in fracture orientation to be useful,
reducing the number of data to 21 (Table 1).
The failure to execute several of the HTPF tests
also implies another difficulty; namely that two fractures exist in the test section. Hence, the test cannot
be judged unambiguous as it may involve simultaneous pumping in two non-parallel fractures, giving an
erroneous normal stress estimate.
In addition to these problems, several of the HF tests
display slightly varying shut-in or normal stress values
for a series of cycles, implying that the fracture trace
observed at the borehole wall may not persist away
from the borehole. This is a result of that the principal
RESULTS
Injection testing
Early on in the testing, it became clear that the preexisting fractures do not easily open because of a
relatively strong fracture sealing combined with the
stress situation in relation to the strength of the rock.
With strength, we refer to the special loading condition that prevails when exposing the borehole wall to
86
plane. However, because the traces on the diametrically opposed sides are not always on the same level
with respect to the axis of the borehole, there may be
a slight mismatch (Figs. 34). Hence, fracture planes
resulting from propagated en echelon traces are, compared to planar pre-existing fractures, associated with
larger uncertainties in orientation. Indeed, this is one
of the problems associated with the collected data in
borehole OL-KR40 (Fig. 3).
4.2
En echelon fracturing
STRESS DETERMINATION
87
depth, plus their orientation. No rotation of the horizontal stresses is assumed to take place throughout the
investigated volume and the vertical stress was set to
correspond to density measures on cores. Hence, the
model involves 5 unknown parameters.
The normal stress for the mth measurement point
can be described as:
Azimuth
Inclination
Horiz.
1
2
3
4
138.2
121.7
145.8
205.1
16.0
19.0
17.0
17.0
192.6
280.5
264.9
16.5
20.0
12.9
321.7
336.4
384.7
422.3
399.6
11.9
12.8
20.5
23.5
20.2
440.4
453.4
480.5
493.7
501.7
645.6
648.5
800.0
17.0
21.1
20.0
23.0
19.9
23.5
22.5
27.7
58.5
229.0
130.5
160.0
122.5
134.0
96.5
27.0
14.5
344.0
7.5
330.5
162.0
115.0
42.0
26.0
53.0
163.5
144.0
140.5
162.0
90.0
172.5
167.5
116.5
42.0
38.5
43.0
47.0
48.5
28.0
28.0
21.5
57.0
55.5
59.5
58.0
68.0
27.0
39.0
37.5
35.5
35.5
34.5
18.0
31.0
23.0
12.5
20.5
16.0
6
7
8
9
10
12
13
14
16
17
19
21
22
23
24
25
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
HTPF
HTPF
HTPF
HTPF
HTPF
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
where n = normal stress; m = azimuth of the normal of the mth fracture plane; m = inclination of
the normal of the mth fracture plane with respect
to the vertical direction; z m = vertical depth of the
mth test; Si = maximum and minimum horizontal
stresses; i = stress gradients with respect to the vertical direction for horizontal and vertical stresses; and
= orientation of maximum horizontal stress (S1 ).
The solution of the inverse problem is defined by the
minimum of:
where i = is a priori and a posteriori vectors including data and model parameters; and Co = is the a priori
covariance matrix.
The problem is a conditional least square, i.e. the
minimum of equation (2) is sought as to satisfy the condition f () = 0 (Eq. (1)). Tarantola & Valette (1982)
demonstrated that this could be solved using the
iterative algorithm based on the fixed-point method:
ambiguous. With respect to conventional stress inversion, all en echelon fractures are judged ambiguous.
Note that, when using the approach described hereafter
in Sections 5.2 to 5.4, en echelon data are generally
completely unambiguous.
The number and distribution of completely unambiguous data implies that the stress field cannot be
reliably determined, even if model parameters are kept
at a minimum. Hence, we are forced to include partly
unambiguous and ambiguous data to derive a solution. However, given that this may yield a solution
with considerable errors, the calculations were made
in a few steps: (1) conventional inversion; (2) attempts
to verify the solution using en echelon theory looking at individual tests; and (3) joint inversion of all
unambiguous normal stress data and all interpreted en
echelon features.
5.1
=
=
=
=
This solution involves quite significant uncertainties, in addition to those arising with the use of not
only completely unambiguous data. Firstly, the confidence intervals at smaller depths overlap. Secondly,
the uncertainties of the magnitudes at the lower part of
the interval are large. Finally, stress gradients are unrealistic, especially for the maximum horizontal stress.
Hence, this result is regarded as crude at this stage.
The inversion was made using a methodology developed by Cornet (1993), which is based on the leastsquares criterion (Tarantola & Valette 1982). In this
method, a priori knowledge of the unknown parameters is assumed to exist, in this case assumed to
equal two horizontal stresses and their variation with
88
5.2
89
H is oriented more NE than ENE (39 ). In addition, there is considerable inconsistency for the data
set as a whole. The overall results of the tensile analysis suggest that the stress gradients are even larger
than the inversion solution and of the order 0.04 and
0.10 MPa/m for h and H , respectively (Fig. 5), and
the orientation of H 78+/51 N, i.e. with a pronounced scatter. Hence, given the unrealistic stress
gradients, and inconsistency within the results, it is
concluded that the observed en echelon traces are not
a result of tensile failure.
5.4 Application of en echelon shear criterion
For the shear analysis, each individual test was analyzed for model parameters in the vicinity of the
inversion solution; +/15 MPa for horizontal stress
magnitudes and +/40 for orientation of maximum
horizontal stress. Again, we use Test 4 to illustrate the
results, and it is observed that the shear failure criterion is also nearly satisfied with the inversion result
(Fig. 7, upper image). However, the correction to fulfill
requirements is much smaller compared to the tensile case; for this tentative solution 1 MPa reduction of
h -magnitude and 15 degrees clockwise rotation of H
(from 78 to 60 N, Fig. 7, lower image).
Also for more deeply located tests, the inversion
solution seems relatively fair, and most importantly,
the corresponding stress gradients for the evaluated
tests are realistic (of the order 0.020.03 MPa/m for
both h and H ). Hence, shear failure of the borehole
wall seems to be the most likely criterion, and by that
conclusion, we proceed with the global inversion.
5.5 Joint inversion of hydraulic and en
echelon data
Also for the joint inversion, a Monte Carlo scheme was
developed that simultaneously evaluates the hydraulic
data and the en echelon data. The model with the maximum amount of fitting tests according to a few criteria
was thus determined:
Figure 6. Resulting stresses in the borehole frame of reference for Test 4 (fracture alternative 1) using inversion solution
(upper image) and using tentative solution satisfying tensile
failure (lower image). Smin is minimum principal stress, Sn
and Tau are the normal and shear stress acting on the fracture plane, respectively, and angular coordinate represents the
location of expected failure.
90
Figure 7. Resulting stresses in the borehole frame of reference for inversion solution (upper image) and tentative
solution satisfying shear failure (lower image). Tau is the
effective shear stress, Coulomb is the effective Coulomb
strength, and angular coordinate represents the location of
expected failure.
=
=
=
=
DISCUSSION
91
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Ask, D. 2006. New developments of the Integrated Stress
Determination Method and application to rock stress data
at the sp HRL, Sweden. International Journal of Rock
mechanics 43: 107126.
Ask, D. Cornet, F.H. Fontbonne, F. Brunet, C. 2007.
Forsmark site investigation. Stress measurements with
hydraulic methods in boreholes KFM07A, KFM07C,
KFM08A, KFM09A, and KFM09B. SKB P-report
P-07-206. Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co.
Ask, D. 2010. Semi-integration of overcoring, hydraulic fracturing, convergence, and acoustic emission rock stress
measurement data and analysis of measurements using
long strain gauges, LVDTs, and core discing at the
Olkiluoto site. Posiva report in prep.
92
O. Sano
The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT: For the practical measurement of crustal stresses at great depths more than 1,000 m from the
ground surface, we have been promoting research and development of borehole-jack fracturing technique.
The principle of this technique is described with the relations between jack pressure and stress-state around
the borehole. Specifically, when a borehole wall is loaded by a borehole-jack, a pair of new fractures will be
induced oppositely in parallel to the borehole axis. After unloading, if the same place on the borehole wall is
loaded again by a jack, the pair of fractures will be opened again. Two principal stresses and the orientation of
crustal stress in the plane perpendicular to the borehole axis are determined by the re-opening pressures and
the orientation of the fractures respectively. This technique is similar to hydraulic fracturing from the viewpoint
of analyzing principle. Hence, there is no theoretical limit to the depth of measurement. The features of this
technique are that it is possible to produce a pair of axial fractures in arbitrarily direction, possible to measure
a displacement of the fracture opening, and, as a result, it is possible to determine the re-opening pressure
accurately. On this field tests, the fractures induced with hydraulic fracturing method were re-opened by the
borehole-jack in the range of pressure value similar to hydraulic fracturing. This paper describes our results of
numerical analyses, laboratory experiments, and field tests.
INTRODUCTION
(3.4%). Among these methods, focal mechanism solutions provide us an orientation of principal stress
and a variation of stress associated with earthquake.
Fault-slip and volcanic alignments can provide us only
an orientation of principal stress. These data do not
include any information related to the absolute value
of crustal stress. Borehole breakouts associated with
drilling provide us magnitude of stress as well as its
orientation. The percentages of stress relief method
and hydro fracturing method that are assumed to be
more accurate for measuring an orientation of principal stress and its absolute value are unexpectedly low.
Stress relief method is applied more at the depth less
than 50 m and hydro fracturing method is dominated
in deeper zone. However, no other method but breakouts is an only method to provide us information of
the area deeper than 3 km. These methods to utilize
borehole are quite useful since they can derive absolute value of principal stress that cannot be provided
by other methods.
Non-linearity of stress-strain relationship, anisotropy,
and heterogeneity are common characteristics in
almost of all kind of rocks. Since current stress analysis
equation is based on the assumption of homogeneous
isotropic elastic body, the final calculation result has
more error if the nature of test rock is farther from an
93
a conceptual schematic (Sano et al. 2005) of boreholejack fracturing technique. This figure indicates unique
pressure plate, pressure shell, which can overcome an
above mentioned drawback. The pressure is applied
to the borehole with a special pressure shell which
has teeth shape surface, instead of direct application of pressure with solid pressure plate. The width
of fracture opening is measured directly with a displacement sensor applied to the borehole wall surface
through observation window. Figure 2 is a picture of
borehole-jack fracturing probe.
With this technique, it is considered that the fracture
will re-open when pressure shell start to apply pressure to the borehole wall and tangential stress reaches
zero. The condition of re-opening of fracture will be
explained with following equation.
BOREHOLE-JACK FRACTURING
TECHNIQUE
Where,
k : Sensitivity coefficient by the probe design
Pj : Pressure of hydraulic jack
Sh : Minimum horizontal stress
SH : Maximum horizontal stress
: Direction of fracture on a given coordinates
: Direction of principal stress on a given coordinates
P0 : Pore pressure around fracture
SH , Sh , and are unknown. However, the equation will be solved if Pj of fracture re-opening for at
least three directions are obtained. The advantage of
borehole-jack fracturing technique is that the equation
is applicable even though the ratio of principal stress
is more than 3 since fracture can be induced in any
direction. Also, it is applicable for measuring rotated
principal stress since the device can re-open a same
fracture.
94
3 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
95
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
Figure 7. Mini-jack and rock specimen with strain gauges.
We could determine the relationship between pressure shell, coupling coefficient, and distribution of
tangential strain with numerical analysis. Then, we
studied a strain distribution around a borehole on
the model under loading with an actual borehole-jack
probe. There are three purposes for this experiment as
follows;
to verify an influences of a difference of diameters between a pressure shell and borehole on strain
distribution,
to verify sensitivity coefficient,
to observe a development of strain at fracturing and
re-opening moment.
The rock specimen for experiment is a 600 mm
600 mm 64 mm fine-grained gabbro which has a
borehole at the center of it. Three of them were prepared with borehole diameter of 96.7 mm (small),
97.2 mm (medium), and 97.7 mm (large). The diameter of borehole-jack is 97.2 mm, and we expected to be
able to observe a difference of strain distribution with a
difference of contact condition between pressure shell
and borehole wall.
96
97
Uni-axial
stress
(MPa)
Tangential stress
at borehole wall
0 (MPa)
Pressure of mini-jack
calculated from sensitivity
coefficient at re-opening
Pj (MPa)
0.35
0.70
1.05
1.40
2.10
2.80
1.05
2.10
3.15
4.20
6.30
8.40
1.75
3.50
5.25
7.00
10.50
14.00
IN SITU EXPERIMENT
98
Figure 12. Evaluation of re-opening pressure with consideration of sensitivity coefficient. Phenomenon of fractures
measured by two strain gauges installed on both side of the
rock specimen across the fracture.
Table 3.
Break down
Re-open 1st.
Re-open 2nd.
Re-open 3rd.
Pb
(MPa)
Pr
(MPa)
Ps
(MPa)
Azimuth
of fracture
13.1
2.05
2.37
2.39
7.6
7.1
7.2
7.3
TN25 W
Hydraulic fracturing was applied at 12 m deep following core sample checking and visual observation of
borehole wall surface with borehole scope to ensure no
existence of natural fractures. The impression packer
test was carried out for casting borehole surface prior
to the hydraulic fracturing. Then, few times of reopening test was conducted. Table 3 shows result of
repeated hydraulic fracturing test.
After forming fracture with hydraulic pressure, the
re-opening test was conducted with a borehole-jack
probe shown in Figure 2. As described previously, sensitivity coefficient will be stable if a coupling area
between pressure shell of probe and borehole wall is
less than 60 . Figure 13 is a picture of boreholejack probe just before installation. The displacement
measurement gauge named TSS is set at the center
of probe for measuring the displacement between two
points across the fracture. TSS measures displacement across the fracture.
Figure 14 shows a sample of result obtained by a
borehole fracturing jack probe. These curves represent the relationship between a borehole-jack pressure
and displacement across a fracture. Inflection point is
observed at around 20 MPa on all three curves. The
pressure at these inflection points is determined as a
99
Where,
Pr : Reopening pressure
Sh : Horizontal minimum compressed stress
SH : Horizontal maximum compressed stress
Pr in equation (3) is re-opening pressure measured with hydraulic fracturing. And, the re-opening
pressure of same fracture with borehole-jack fracturing corresponds to (3Sh SH ). It means that the
re-opening pressure determined with borehole-jack
fracturing is twice of Pr measured with hydraulic fracturing. Another saying, 5.0 MPa determined with the
borehole-jack fracturing corresponds to Pr = 2.5 MPa
of hydraulic fracturing. Here, we would like to take
a look at Table 3 again. The re-opening pressure
is around 2.052.39 MPa, and these are close to
Pr = 2.5 MPa of re-opening pressure with boreholejack fracturing.
6
CONCLUSION
As described at the beginning, it is not possible to evaluate the crustal stress by hydraulic fracturing method
if the ratio of principal stresses in a two dimensional
plane is more than 3. We have been working on the
development of borehole-jack fracturing technique in
order to solve this problem. One of the significant factors of the borehole-jack fracturing method is that the
method can measure reopening pressure, the tangential stress at the borehole wall, accurately. The results
of numerical analysis, laboratory and in situ tests, and
the remained assignments are as follows.
6.1 Numerical analysis
In numerical analysis, the phenomenon was described
with the variation of the length of pressure shell in tangential direction as a parameter, in order to confirm the
effect of the pressure shell. The numerical analysis was
carried out with the assumption that the pressure shell
is rigidly coupled with borehole wall, and no slipping
action between them. The sensitivity coefficient that
indicates an efficiency of the borehole-jack to form
fractures was approximately 0.45 and constant as long
as the rigid coupling area is less than 60 in both directions from the loading axis. Sensitivity coefficient
grows drastically if coupling area is increased more
than 60 . It will be 0.68 with coupling area of 80 .
Therefore, the longer pressure shells in a tangential
direction will be more effective for forming fractures,
In situ experiment
100
ABSTRACT: Downhole microseismics has gained in popularity in recent years as a way to characterize
hydraulic fracturing sources and to estimate in-situ stress state. Conventional approaches only utilize part of
the information contained in the microseismic waveforms such as the P/S amplitude ratio and/or P first motion
polarity to determine the microearthquake focal mechanisms and infer stress state. Thus, additional constraints
like double-couple assumption must be made to stabilize the inversion for conventional methods. The situation
becomes even worse for downhole monitoring where only limited azimuthal coverage is available. In this study,
we have developed a full-waveform based approach to invert for complete moment tensor. We use the discrete
wavenumber integration approach as the fast forward modeling tool to calculate the synthetic waveforms for
one-dimensional layered velocity models. By matching full three-component waveforms across the array, a stable
moment tensor solution can be obtained without imposing additional constraints. We also derive the source radius
from the far-field displacement spectrum with the Madariagas model and determine the stress drop afterwards.
We test our method on a downhole microseismic dataset from hydraulic fracturing treatments in East Texas.
The result indicates the existence of the isotropic component in some events. A clear difference is observed that
non-double-couple events tend to have smaller stress drops, which is consistent with other studies. The derived
fracture plane direction also agrees with that derived from multiple event location.
INTRODUCTION
2 METHODOLOGY
2.1 Full waveform based moment tensor inversion
The moment tensor of microseismic events can be represented by a 3 by 3 symmetric matrix mjk (Aki &
Richards 2002). To improve the inversion with a single
borehole coverage, we use all phases that are embedded in the full waveform data. Our approach starts
101
where di xrn , xs , t is the observed data, while
n
vi xr , xs , t is the synthetic data as described in Equation 1. Tn is the duration of observed waveforms at
geophone n. In this study we choose Tn to include
both P and S wave trains and is constant for all geophones. Time 0 is the origin time, which is obtained
by grid-search around its initial estimate within the
dominant signal period. The initial estimate of the
origin time can be found by cross-correlating the synthetic and observed waveforms. To further stabilize
the inversion, we band-pass filter both synthetic data
and observed data to the signal frequency band, which
we select [200, 900] Hz in this study. The moment
tensor is solved by minimizing the misfit function in
Equation 2 as:
Here Mi is the i-th component of six independent moment tensor elements: M1 = m11 , M2 = m22 ,
M3 = m33 , M4 = m12 , M5 = m13 , M6 = m23 , while Dj
has six independent elements:
SYNTHETIC STUDY
102
To evaluate the accuracy of the seismic moment estimated by our method, we conduct the Monte-Carlo
simulation. In this experiment, we fix the source location at (N,E,D) = (64.8, 77.3, 3975.3) m and a source
mechanism of (strike, dip, rake) = (85, 75, 0) degrees.
We vary the seismic moment from 103 Nm to 108 Nm.
For different seismic moment values, different realizations of 10% Gaussian noise are added to the synthetic
data to study the statistical properties of the seismic
moment estimator. For each seismic moment value, a
full-waveform moment tensor inversion as described
above is performed to retrieve the seismic moment.
Figure 3 gives the comparison between true seismic moment used to generate synthetic data and the
estimated seismic moment by full moment tensor
inversion. The estimated seismic moment values agree
well with the true seismic moment values. The mean
error is around 3.9%, while the standard deviation is
about 5.2%. This means that the true values of M0
are within the confidence region of the estimated M0
103
decomposition as described in Equation 10. In summary, for a broad range of seismic moment values, our
method gives a good estimate.
3.3
Strike estimate
104
Field setup
105
Table 1.
Event
M0
104 Nm
Mw
1*
2*
3*
4*
5
6
7
6.1
2.1
8.1
45
5.3
7.5
4.4
2.87
3.17
2.79
2.29
2.91
2.81
2.96
102
80
73
139
75
95
82
12
207
196
39
197
211
203
Strike
Event
Mw
fc
Hz
r0
m
Kpa
ISO percentage
%
1*
2*
3*
4*
5
6
7
2.87
3.17
2.79
2.29
2.91
2.81
2.96
481
561
547
564
714
736
744
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
14.9
8.3
29.2
178.0
42.7
65.8
39.6
26
29
31
30
11
10
4
CONCLUSIONS
106
107
ABSTRACT: The Downward Compact Conical-ended Borehole Overcoring (DCCBO) technique is one of the
overcoring methods. In this study, a measurement theory for application of the DCCBO technique to orthotropic
rock is proposed. Numerical experiments with the use of a 3D-FEM analysis were conducted to confirm the
applicability and efficiency of the proposed measurement theory. The results showed that the measurement
includes a non-negligible error if we do not consider the anisotropy of rock when such anisotropy is strong.
On the other hand, this measurement is both applicable and efficient if we consider the anisotropy of rock.
Finally, laboratory experiments for four kinds of orthotropic rocks using a true-triaxial compressive apparatus
were carried out to verify the efficiency of the proposed measurement theory. These experiments also verified
that the proposed method is suitable for use in orthotropic rock.
2 THEORY OF MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Here, we propose a measurement theory for application of the DCCBO technique to orthotropic rock
following Amadei (1983).
As shown in Fig. 1, we defined a global co-ordinate
system (X , Y , Z), a co-ordinate system attached to
111
112
By substituting equations (10) and (13) into equation (9) and making use of equation (14), we obtain
the constitutive relation of the material in the (x, y, z)
co-ordinate system as follows:
or
with
where
NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT
In the case of the 16-element method using an HQsize borehole with a diameter of 98 mm, the stress
concentration factors of an orthotropic rock were computed by the three-dimensional finite element method
(3D-FEM). In this orthotropic rock model, the coordinate system attached to the rectilinear anisotropy
(x , y , z ) and that attached to the borehole (x, y, z)
coincide with the global co-ordinate system (X , Y , Z).
Here, we defined Youngs moduli as Ex = 1.0 GPa,
Ey = 2.0 GPa and Ez = 1.5 GPa, and the Poissons
113
Table 1.
Applied
stress
Estimated
stress
2.000 1.996
X
Y
5.000 4.998
Z
1.000 1.008
0.000 0.000
YZ
ZX
0.000 0.000
XY 1.000 1.000
error Estimated
(%) stress
error
(%)
0.2
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
24.2
16.5
8.5
0.0
0.0
10.9
2.483
4.173
0.915
0.000
0.000
1.109
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
4.1 Specimens
To verify the applicability of the proposed measurement theory, we conducted a laboratory experiment with four kinds of rocks that were more or
less orthotropic. The rocks used in the laboratory
experiment were Inada granite (quarried at Kasama
city, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan), Aji granite (quarried
at Takamatsu city, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan) and
Oshima granite (quarried at Imabari city, Ehime Prefecture, Japan). The Oshima granite consisted of two
types: a fine-grain type and a coarse-grain type.Table 2
shows Youngs moduli as estimated by a uniaxial compressive test for each granite. Eh is Youngs modulus
for the direction perpendicular to the hardway plane
114
Inada
Aji
Oshima (coarse)
Oshima (fine)
Eh
Eg
Er
Ea
46.6
64.0
43.6
48.8
42.1
58.9
38.6
40.1
37.8
53.3
33.7
29.8
42.1
58.7
38.6
39.6
Inada
Aji
Oshima (coarse)
Oshima (fine)
h-axis
g-axis
r-axis
10.5
8.9
12.9
17.7
0.2
0.3
0.1
1.3
10.3
9.2
12.8
24.7
115
x
y
z
yz
zx
xy
Orthotropic assumption
app
meas
error (%)
meas
error (%)
10.6
4.9
2.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.1
5.0
2.5
0.4
0.3
0.1
14.2
0.9
0.9
3.8
2.8
0.9
11.1
4.7
2.4
0.4
0.3
0.1
4.7
1.9
1.9
3.8
2.8
0.9
x
y
z
yz
zx
xy
Orthotropic assumption
app
meas
error (%)
meas
error (%)
10.2
5.6
2.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
10.7
5.4
3.1
0.3
0.4
0.2
4.9
2.0
2.0
2.9
3.9
2.0
10.0
5.3
2.7
0.3
0.4
0.2
2.0
2.9
2.0
2.9
3.9
2.0
x
y
z
yz
zx
xy
Orthotropic assumption
app
meas
error (%)
meas
error (%)
10.1
5.2
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
11.3
5.1
2.4
0.0
0.3
0.0
11.9
1.0
4.0
0.0
3.0
0.0
10.4
5.2
2.6
0.0
0.3
0.0
3.0
0.0
5.9
0.0
3.0
0.0
applied stress is 12.8%. Moreover, the error of the estimation of stress is 11.9% of the maximum applied
stress in the isotropic assumption method. On the
other hand, the error is less than 3% in the orthotropic
assumption method.
In the case of fine-grain Oshima granite, the degree
of anisotropy in the direction of the maximum applied
stress is 24.7%. Moreover, the error of the estimation
of stress is 27.2% of the maximum applied stress in
the isotropic assumption method. On the other hand,
with the orthotropic assumption method the error is
less than 1%.
The error of the estimation of stress in the
orthotropic assumption method is clearly less than
that in the isotropic assumption method. Additionally,
the error-depends on the degree of anisotropy in the
direction of the maximum applied stress. Thus, the isotropic assumption method gives an error of more than
10% in the estimation of stress when the degree of
anisotropy in the direction of the maximum applied
stress exceeds 10%. Moreover, the isotropic assumption method gives an error of more than 20% in the
estimation of stress when the degree of anisotropy in
the direction of the maximum applied stress exceeds
20%. However, when the degree of anisotropy is less
than 10%, the error with the isotropic assumption
method is several percent.
The directions of stress as estimated by the two
methods and those of the applied stress are almost the
same. On the other hand, in the numerical experiment,
a non-negligible error occurs in the measurement if we
do not consider the anisotropy of the rock when such
anisotropy is strong. The discrepancy in the direction
of stress occurs because there was greater anisotropy in
the numerical experiment than in the laboratory experiment. Additionally, the fact that shear stress was not
applied in the laboratory experiment may have affected
this result.
5
Table 7. Results for Oshima granite (fine).
(x = r-axis, y = h-axis, z = g-axis)
Isotropic assumption
x
y
z
yz
zx
xy
CONCLUSIONS
Orthotropic assumption
app
meas
error (%)
meas
error (%)
10.3
5.8
2.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
13.1
6.5
2.6
0.3
0.1
0.1
27.2
6.8
0.0
2.9
1.0
1.0
10.2
6.3
2.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
1.0
4.9
1.9
2.9
1.0
1.0
of the maximum applied stress in the isotropic assumption method. On the other hand, the error is less than
2% in the orthotropic assumption method.
In the case of coarse-grain Oshima granite, the
degree of anisotropy in the direction of the maximum
116
REFERENCES
Amadei, B. 1983. Rock Anisotropy and the Theory of Stress
Measurements. Lecture Notes in Engineering Series.
New York: Springer.
Amadei, B. 1996. Importance of anisotropy when estimating
and measuring in situ stresses in rock. Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr, 33, 293325.
Sakaguchi, K., Takehara, T., Obara, Y., Nakayama, T. and
Sugawara, K. 1994. Rock stress measurement by means
of the Compact Overcoring Method. J. of MMIJ, 110,
331336.
Sakaguchi, K., Yoshida, H., Minami, M., Suzuki, Y. and
Matsuki, K. 2003(a). Development of Downward Compact Conical-ended Borehole Overcoring technique for
rock stress measurement at great depth. Proc. 10th Cong.
of the ISRM., South Africa, 812 September 2003, 2,
10071010.
Sakaguchi, K.,Yoshida, H., Minami, M., Suzuki,Y., Hara, M.
and Matsuki, K. 2003(b). Development of Downward
Compact Conical-ended Borehole Overcoring technique
for rock stress measurement. Proc. 3rd. intern. symp.,
Kumamoto, Japan, 46 November 2003., 211216.
117
ABSTRACT: In situ stress determination has always been a difficult problem to solve in rock engineering
projects. Several methods have been developed for this purpose with advantages and drawbacks for each. Undercoring technique, which is a method classified under stress relief technique, has not been used extensively due
to some of its limitations. However, in certain situations it has its own merits and can be used easily with very
low cost.
The present paper describes a laboratory investigation in which a concrete block is stressed with a
material testing system (MTS) and undercoring technique has been utilized to determine the stresses and to
compare the theoretical calculations with the actual applied stresses. In this research, a sensitivity analysis
is performed and the analytical formulations are also developed for probable deviations in performing the test
compared with the theoretical procedure and the sensitivity of the obtained results to this deviation is determined.
1
INTRODUCTION
119
120
Mechanical properties
of the block
E (MPa)
UCS (MPa)
10700
0.11
44.3
4 TESTING PROCEDURE
To make sure about the accuracy of the gauge assembly
and its measurements, a high accuracy MTS external
extensometer was attached to a cylindrical steel sample while the assembled gauge was used to measure the
displacements at the same location as the extensometer
(reference gauge). The sample was loaded axially and
two readings (from extensometer and the new gauge)
were done simultaneously. The results show an accurate match and it proved that the assembled gauge
readings are reliable (Figure 7).
Loading was uniaxial (in vertical direction and on
a surface with 45 30 cm dimensions) and no lateral
load was applied to the block. This was due to the fact
that the block was filling the whole internal space of
the MTS frame and no jack was possible to be placed
for lateral load application.
Making sure all about the required equations for
data analysis and the measurement equipments, the
121
Figure 8. The results for 3 , 1 and the difference between its angle with vertical direction.
122
Table 2.
Loading conditions
= 90, 3 = 0
1
0.72
1.08
1.47
1.82
2.22
2.59
3.08
3.64
4.23
4.80
5.43
6.07
1 + 3
0.75
1.03
1.27
1.64
2.07
2.46
3.07
3.59
4.22
4.70
5.20
6.23
0.19
0.35
0.38
0.54
0.46
0.67
0.47
0.37
0.58
0.30
0.38
0.32
82
73
80
82
83
84
85
87
85
86
88
88
0.94
1.38
1.65
2.18
2.53
3.13
3.54
3.96
4.80
5.00
5.58
6.55
load on the concrete block was increased to a minimum level to make sure the contact is set between
the steel platens and the sample. At this moment, zero
readings were performed for all six diagonals. Then
load on the block was increased stepwise. After each
load step, the load was kept constant for about 15 minutes before making a set of readings. This time was
required to make sure the load has applied completely
and the block has had enough time to respond to the
new loading condition and all of the corresponding
displacements have been occurred.
For each diagonal, three sets of readings were
performed and the repeatability of the readings was
checked. It is worth recalling that the measurements
are done on the surface of the block with 45 45 cm
dimensions. After three consecutive compatible readings were obtained, the measurements were recorded
and averaged for that diagonal. The same was done for
all six diagonals and a new loading stage was attained
and the same procedure was followed.
To obtain absolute displacements of pins as a function of stress relief from the gauge readings, there
are two corrections required. Firstly, the displacement
part associated with compaction of materials had to be
taken out from the readings. Secondly, the analytical
formulations used for this analysis assumes infinite
space while the block was limited in dimensions. To
find the amount of this type of correction a numerical
model was performed with a finite difference software
for the loaded block and it was compared with the analytical results for infinite body. The difference of these
two results was then obtained and the second required
correction was done accordingly.
For each loading stage, based on the combination of
diagonals selected, three stress components (x ,y ,xy )
were calculated and principle stresses and its directions were determined. In Figure 8, the results for 3 ,
1 and the difference between its angle with vertical
direction are shown. The invariant of 3 + 1 is also
shown on the same diagram but on the lower axis (to
save space), therefore the negative sign has no meaning
5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
During test procedure, there might happen imperfect
installations which results in deviations with basic test
assumptions.This usually includes 1) inaccuracy in pin
installation which includes installing pins out of the
defined perimeter or installation on the perimeter but
not quite at the defined angle 2) eccentric drilling of
the borehole compared to the measuring circle (TsurLavie et al. 1974). The above situations are depicted
in figure 9.
If the center of the drilled hole is displaced (O
to O ) and the pins are installed out of their predefined perimeter, the new location of the pins can be
defined as:
123
form:
in which
The present laboratory program showed that undercoring method can be an economical 2D method for stress
measurement if performed with enough care.
Using proper pins and gauge assembly and appropriate reading, good repeatability of the results from
displacement measurements can be obtained making
way for a proper stress measurement.
Using 6 diagonals for under coring test is believed to
be better than only 3 measurements and it can increase
the accuracy of the results and produce redundant
measurements in case of any faulty reading.
With 1 micron gauges (which are the best simply
available ones in the market) one can obtain low dispersed results when the level of load on the media
is more than 3 MPa. This roughly corresponds to the
depths of just more than 100 meters of any underground structure. For shallower cases, the in situ
stresses might not be high enough to return repeatable
results.
A series of modifications were made to the original
undercoring formulas so that it can account for imperfect installation problems including off center coring
or misplaced pin installations.
REFERENCES
It is worth noting that maximum errors are associated with minimum displacements (which are not
necessarily in the same direction as 3 , rather it is
depended on the h /v stress ratio. this fact is depicted
in figure 10.
124
ABSTRACT: In situ stress is important parameter in rock engineering. Lining type of water way system in
power plants is depended to minimum in situ stress which determined with several methods such as hydrojacking.
Siah Bisheh power plant was the first pumped storage project in Iran which experienced hydrojacking tests. In
order to precise steel lining limit at water way system some hydrojacking and hydrofracturing tests have done
by Solexpert Company. This paper explains preliminary work sequence in the hydrojacking and hydrofracturing
tests and presents the results of and conclusion of hydrojacking tests in Siah Bisheh project.
INTRODUCTION
One of the important point in water way system lining is minimum in-situ rock stress which depend
to overburden and geotechnical stress. When minimum in-situ rock stress is less than inner water
way pressure, steel lining is proposal for prevent
water injection to surrounding rock mass. One of
the convenience borehole methods for in-situ stress
measurement is hydrofracturing. Hydrojacking is the
simplified approach for minimum in situ stress which
is important method for precise steel and concrete lining boundary. Hydraulic testing of preexisting fracture
(HTPF) has similarity with hydrofracturing test but
they are different. The hydrofracturing test (HF) is
done in rock mass without discontinuity but HTPF is
done in more discontinuity rock mass. In HF test direction of minimum stress can be measured by impression
packer. HTPF and HF were done in Siah Bisheh Hydro
electrical power plant at the north of Iran.
HYDROJACKING TEST
125
Location
Depth(m)
Borehole
d.(mm)
Test
Number
Ver. /
Hor.
30
88
30.2
88
30.2
88
30.8
88
Rockmass situation
From 0 to11.8 collapse material from
11.8 to 28.8 good rock borehole top
Ele. 2310.34
From 3.5 to 6.5 good rock mass.
Borehole top Ele. 2329.8
From 8.8 to 19.9 good rock mass.
Borehole top Eel. 2306.4
From 8.7 to 30.8 m good rock mass.
Borehole top Ele. 2310.5
water to test location. Steel pipes transfer water pressure to packer. Pressure and water flow rate are shown
on adjacent laptop.
Main character of test set is shown in the Table 2.
2.2 Test method
Hydrofracturing test done with ASTM approach
(ASTM D4845-87) reapproved 1992 and hydrojacking
20
115
500
3 phase
test are done according ISRM proposal which presented in international journal of rock mechanics and
mining science, vol.40, No.8-7 year 2003 pp:1011
1020. Main base of hydrojacking test is similar with
hydrofracturing test. In hydrofracturing test hydraulic
pressure cause fracturing intact rock mass this called
breakdown or critical pressure. Minimum pressure
after stop water pumping in order to hold opening
fracture called shut in pressure. Kehle (1964) propose
that shut in pressure is equal with minimum in situ
stress.
Rock mass in hydrojacking location test is much
fractured thus shut in pressure for previous fracture is
critical subject. During test until reach water pumping pressure to normal pressure act on natural crack,
crack was need to more water injection to remain open
crack. Crack reopening depend to normal stiffness
of crack and effectiveness stress on fracture near to
borehole. If duration between natural stress on crack
and minimum in- situ stress is less than 10 degree,
they can be equal [SOLEXPERT report]. Distance
between packers must be more than 6 time of borehole
diameter.
The important assumptions in hydrofraturing are
linear elastic rock mass, homogeny, and isotrop Porosity, natural fracture and adjacent opening, local stress
deviation. Usually one technician and two expert workers done hydro fracturing test. After core investigation,
test depth precise and length of packers regulated
and send to its location. During test all necessary
data was monitored with ultrasonic system (SOLO).
Packer pressure, test area pressure, flow rate instantaneously show on the monitor. Borehole core of
NPS17 is shown in Figure 3 from 10.5 to 15.4 m and
126
3 DATA ANALYSIS
Following results according all hydrojacking test
data permeability and hydrojacking test are
mentioned:
I. Maximum water pressure in headrace tunnel according maximum water level in upper
dam, test locations elevation, 30% over design
for dynamic pressure is about 1.33 Mpa
[Shahverdiloo]. On the other hand average minimum rock stress recorded on the test locations are
2.2 Mpa. Therefore natural cracks will not open
by effect of water pressure in test location area.
II. High permeability of rock mass in test location
(15.6 to 4370 lugeon) and free drainage phenomena especially in horizontal borehole in direction
of Siah Bishe village and old siah bishe landslide
is important subject which affect to modification
of tender steel lining limit in headraces and surge
chambers (Fig. 5).
III. Impression packer did not reach to site test therefore minimum stress direction cannot recognize.
IV. If flow rate unlimited until 115 lit./min. it can be
possible to finalist some tests which need more
flow for shut in pressure or constant open fracture
according standard method.
V. In some hydrojacking tests neer hydro fracturing occurred but test did not done according
hydrofracturing test phenomena and did not
inference some fractures which in expected from
hydrofracturing test.
VI. If packer position isnt correct, like bottom test
at Nps17, packer is damage and test hasnt any
useful result.
VII. One of the limitation of test is stability of borehole wall this mater at 10 m of Nps15 hasnt
done (unstable borehole) and any test done and
installed steel pipe casing.
VIII. Any delay between borehole drilling and test
time may cause instability on the borehole wall.
This matter at borehole Nps16 caused to stop
test from depth over 6.5 m. Internal time between
drilling and testing in Nps15 was more than 5
month.
CONCLUSION
127
Table 3.
Borehole
Test depth(m)
Test
length
Shut in
pressure(bar)
Max.
pressure(bar)
Nps17
17.919.9
16.418.4
10.38.8
2
3
1.5
26
25.5
25
34.5
37.2
32.87
15.53
16
22.81
10.612.6
29-30.8
29.1327.13
26.428.4
8.79.7
11.112.1
14.2513.25
14.413.8
12.811.8
2
1.8
2
2
1
1
1
1.6
1
25
26.37
21.07
25
30
25.824.8
26.825.8
28.827.8
1
1
3.54.5
4.56.5
1
2
Nps18
Nps15
Nps16
Permeability
(lugeon)
22
8.72
12.24
128.4
45.21
description
Mudstone-18 to 23 bar close pressure
Mudstone-22.5 bar close pressure
Coal shale-impossible measuring
close pressure
Sandstone-18 to 20 bar close pressure
Permeability test done
Permeability test done
Permeability test done
Free drain
Free drain
Free drain
Shut in pressure=23 bar
break down pressure:54 bar- shut in
pressure:12 to 18 bar in several cycles
break down pressure:100 bar-shut in
pressure:20 bar-flow not constant
Closed pressure:20 bar
break down pressure:54 to 90 barshut in pressure:20 to 28 barPermeability test at sandstone
Permeability test at sandstone
REFERENCES
ASTM D 4845-87 (reapproved 1992), Standard Test Method
for Determination of the In-Situ Stress in Rock Using the
Hydraulic Fracturing Method.
SOLEXPERT Report A-1676, 12 sep. 2006, Siah Bishe
Pumped Storage Hydrojacking Tests.
Shahverdiloo M.R. 2007, rock engineering with special view
to water power plant, sec. 10-3-2, Moshanir Co.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I very much like to acknowledgment from Mr. mosod
daian and Mrs Zahra shahrokhi for their guidance to
paper preparation.
128
S.S. Kang
Chosun University, Gwangju, Korea
ABSTRACT: A method for measurement of stress change is developed to monitor rock stress using a borehole.
Two dimensional state of stress change within rock mass in a plane perpendicular to a borehole axis can be
measured by this method, which is named the Cross-sectional Borehole Deformation Method (CBDM). In this
paper, the theory of the CBDM is described, as well as the prototype instrument with the laser displacement
sensor. Analyzing influence factors on measurement result theoretically, it makes clear that stress change within
rock mass can be estimated by the CBDM.
1
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of rock stress is one of fundamental importance for designing and constructing rock structure,
such as underground openings, since the mechanical
behavior of rock mass around it is affected by initial
stress. Furthermore, the induced stress measurement is
performed to estimate the stability of a rock structure
under construction and confirm the design of it.
In order to measure initial stress, many methods
have been suggested. On the other hand, there are
a few methods for stress change around an opening
under construction. For example, the stress change of
an underground power house has been measured by a
vibrating wire strain gauge in Japan (Kudo et al. 1998).
However, using this gauge, only stress in one direction in a plane perpendicular to a borehole axis can
be measured. Furthermore, this gauge has a rigidity
which affects on measured results.
In this paper, a method for measurement of stress
change is developed to monitor rock stress using
a borehole. Two dimensional state of stress change
within rock mass in a plane perpendicular to a borehole axis can be measured by this method. This method
was named the Cross-sectional Borehole Deformation Method (CBDM) by Tanguchi et al. (2003) and
Obara et al. (2004). Firstly, the theory of the CBDM
is described, and the required specification of instrument for measurement is clarified by using theory
of elasticity. Secondly, the prototype instrument with
the laser displacement sensor is developed, based on
the analysis of the required specification. Furthermore, the influence factors on measurement result are
analyzed theoretically. As a result, it makes clear that
stress change within rock mass can be estimated by the
CBDM, using the instrument with a laser displacement
sensor.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CBDM
129
The coordinates of the measuring point i on the borehole wall are written in the X -Y coordinate system
defined on a borehole as follows:
130
18
0.8
5
7
27
16
10
20
11
56.5
30
30
30
6.4
1.08
0.66
4.8
8.5
6.2
4.3
5.9
7.9
4.5
12.1
9.1
19.4
0
1.07
0.46
4.7
7.6
4.6
1.7
3
5.5
3.9
5.7
8.4
6
Required specification
131
length is aluminum. The instrument is fixed in a borehole using two air pistons. The laser displacement
sensor is located near small windows, and rotated by
the stepping motor set in a head of the instrument.
Table 2.
sensor.
Reference distance
Measuring range
Resolution
Light source
Spot diameter
Linearity
Sampling cycle
Ambient temperature range
Relative humidity
Weight
Size
Table 3.
10 mm
1 mm
0.1 m
Visible red
semiconductor laser
Approx. 20 m
0.25% of F.S.
128 sec
0 to 50 C
35 to 85%
85 g
43 mm 40 mm 18 mm
0.1 degree
0.16 Nm
15 N
10 to 50 C
160 g
61 mm 28 mm 28 mm
The motor is controlled by a computer through a controller and a driver. On the other hand, the output
from the laser displacement sensor is stored in a computer through an amplifier unit and a data logger.
These are assembled into a control box as shown in
Figure 5(a).
Borehole radius
Figure 5. Devices for control of instrument and collect of data; (a) control box, (b) PC and display, (c) example of display of
program.
132
Figure 6. Influence of borehole radius on estimation of initial stress and stress change; (a) distribution of displace-ment
of borehole wall, (b) estimated initial stress, (c) esti-mated
stress change.
133
Figure 7. Measured distribution of displacement with different coordinate of axis of instrument; (a) distribution of
displacement, (b) definition of coordinate system.
Table 4.
Geometry of ellipse in mm
X
0.800
a
38.000
Y
0.400
c
37.951
b, d
1 105
y
14.97
(deg)
15.04
CONCLUSION
134
H. Peng
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: The correct knowledge of in-situ stress state is necessary for mining design, construction and
excavation, especially in 6 aspects. Stress relief by overcoring technique with hollow inclusion strain cell is
mainly used for in-situ stress measurement in Chinese mines, during which a series of new improving techniques
have been developed for increasing reliability and accuracy of the measurement. The results and applications
of in situ stress measurement in 6 metal mines are introduced. Hydraulic fracturing technique is used for stress
measurement in the early exploration stage of the mines. To solve problems caused by great measuring depth
and complicated geological condition of the mines, some improvements on hydraulic fracturing equipment have
been made and successfully used at more than 1000 m depth.
1 INTRODUCTION
In-situ stress is the basic natural force to cause deformation and failure of mining engineering. Correct
information of in-situ stress state is necessary for reliable and safe mine construction and mining excavation
(Cai M 2001, Kang et al. 2007). In every stage and
every aspect of mining design and operation, information of in-situ stress state plays important guiding
role.
During the last 20 years, the authors have completed
in-situ stress measurement in about 30 engineering
projects within China, including 20 mines in which
12 are metal mines, such as Xincheng gold mine and
Linglong gold mine in Shandong Province, Shuichang
iron mine in Hebei Province, Ekou iron mine in Shanxi
Province, Meishan iron mine in Jiangsu Province and
Jinchuan nickel mine in Gansu Province (Cai M,
Qiao & Li 2000a). The Shuichang iron mine and
Ekou iron mine are open pit mines and the other
four above mentioned are underground. The other
8 mines are coal mines which include Wanfu coal
mine in Shandong Province, Laohutai coal mine in
Liaoning Province, Pingdingshan No.8 coal mine in
Henan Province, Lingxin coal mine in Ningxia Hui
Autonomous Region, etc.
Stress relief by overcoring technique was used for
in-situ stress measurement in most of the 30 projects.
To improve reliability and accuracy of the measuring results, a series of new techniques, including
full temperature compensation technique, improved
hollow inclusion strain measurement technique and
interpretation method of rock stress state from the
measurement strain values considering the practical
behaviour of rock mass, have been developed and used
135
2.1
In primary stage of mining design, clearly understanding of in-situ stress condition is a prerequisite for
design of the overall layout of the mining engineering. In the design, the important mining facilities, such
as shafts, transport roadways should keep away the
high stressed areas. The orientation of roadways and
stopes is best to coincide with the direction of the major
principal stress, because in such layout, there are two
smaller principal stresses in the vertical section of the
roadways and stopes, which is favorable for stability
of the roadways and mining excavations.
2.2
According to the elastic theory, to minimize stress concentration around the roadways and stopes, their ideal
sectional shape is an ellipse in which the ratio of horizontal to vertical axes is best equal to the ratio of
horizontal to vertical principal stress in the section.
In such condition, the boundary of the roadway and
stope will be in an even-compressed stress state, which
means the values of the tangential compressive stress
at every points of the boundary are equal. It is also
a favorable factor for stability of the roadways and
mining excavations.
2.3
Mining is a complicated excavation procedure. Different mining methods, different stoping orders and
different excavation steps will cause different mechanical effect, i.e. the different stability status of the
mining engineering. Because the structural shapes
and excavation steps of the mining engineering are
very complicated, it is impossible to make mining
design, including selection of mining methods and
arrangement of excavation steps by quantitative theoretical calculation. Therefore, the traditional mining
design mainly relies on the mans experience and is
less reasonable and reliable. The rapid development
of computing technology with computers and numerical modeling methods provides efficient and powerful
tools for quantitative calculation and optimal design of
the mining excavations. All the calculation and design
should be performed in a condition of known stress
state in the mining engineering.
As mentioned above, stress relief by overcoring technique was used for in-situ stress measurement in the
6 Chinese metal mines: Xincheng gold mine, Linglong gold mine, Shuichang iron mine, Ekou iron mine,
Meishan iron mine and Jinchuan nickel mine during
the last 20 years. To improve reliability and accuracy
of the measuring results, a series of new techniques
have been developed and used.
3.1 Improvement of the measuring techniques
136
137
Point
No.
Depth/
(m)
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Depth/
( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
205
205
205
235
235
235
235
235
235
310
310
310
310
410
410
410
410
11.45
11.54
11.27
14.62
13.69
12.99
13.60
12.58
12.80
18.39
18.50
20.73
16.32
29.62
31.49
31.55
25.98
307.1
270.0
218.9
237.6
128.7
301.9
311.0
280.0
127.1
123.1
285.5
109.9
82.9
308.9
148.4
327.2
90.7
17.6
4.3
10.2
9.2
7.8
0.6
1.4
13.2
7.2
1.6
17.7
0.4
3.2
5.3
6.9
11.77
4.5
5.69
6.77
5.68
10.17
6.83
6.14
8.93
7.85
7.41
11.65
8.89
9.00
9.19
13.77
14.13
13.89
11.54
286.3
181.5
220.2
329.9
131.3
208.2
220.7
187.3
35.9
213.2
80.8
201.9
13
193.2
267.7
219
106.7
71.3
19.0
79.8
13.9
82.2
81.3
10.4
11.1
9.7
3.3
70.6
79.1
80.7
78.0
76.0
79.1
85.3
4.03
5.72
3.98
5.63
5.06
5.00
6.85
6.92
5.89
10.73
7.05
7.01
7.99
11.98
11.8
11.77
5.78
35.1
347.8
129
295.1
38.8
212.0
228.8
238.5
72.4
187.7
13.0
199.8
172.4
219.9
236.9
237.8
0.8
6.2
70.4
0.2
73.2
0.3
8.7
79.5
72.6
78.0
86.4
7.6
10.9
8.7
10.7
12.0
10.3
1.3
Point
No.
Depth/
(m)
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
250
250
290
290
290
290
290
370
370
410
410
570
920
920
920
970
970
970
17.63
14.06
15.58
17.51
17.68
20.45
19.74
23.43
21.32
25.77
25.55
32.53
53.13
55.88
50.17
60.26
57.92
57.22
52.6
287.7
141.1
294.8
280.3
343.5
91.3
138.2
191.0
255.7
218.0
92.2
134.7
128.1
273.3
335.0
136.1
295.2
4.7
14.4
3.0
0.1
13.5
6.4
2.1
9.3
11.9
2.6
2.1
3.8
5.3
3.8
15.8
11.0
0.5
10.4
8.62
7.63
8.28
9.37
9.25
8.36
10.09
12.69
10.68
10.73
11.51
15.54
27.72
30.12
27.72
34.52
30.24
28.90
321.9
19.4
29.5
26.3
322.8
73.5
171.9
12.7
37.4
155.4
118.8
199.0
81.4
229.2
314.1
34.0
227.1
205.1
7.7
6.6
83.3
84.3
72.0
15.1
77.1
74.2
72.9
75.6
77.1
77
81.2
71.2
70.2
72.2
70.0
3.5
7.58
6.63
6.84
7.26
6.61
7.75
8.58
10.13
8.20
10.18
8.64
13.21
25.51
28.41
24.89
27.93
26.92
28.52
353.6
133.5
51.8
24.8
193.2
51.2
1.8
50.3
103.6
166.4
128.5
181.4
44.1
216.0
187.0
246.0
226.0
36.3
81.0
74.1
5.9
5.7
11.7
73.5
12.7
12.6
12.0
14.1
12.7
12.4
7.0
10.7
13.1
13.1
15.0
80.0
138
Table 3.3.
Point
No.
Depth/
(m)
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
580
580
580
580
730
730
730
730
790
790
31.18
24.88
28.08
28.44
36.95
37.86
34.68
31.64
40.55
37.26
33.8
1.9
35.2
36.6
176.7
18.2
348.0
13.2
160.6
226.0
6.3
15.5
5.0
2.2
8.8
1.4
5.1
3.8
1.9
14.6
13.74
13.59
14.28
13.34
17.55
16.79
17.34
18.68
20.55
18.19
280.9
271.3
88.7
299.4
2.6
130.6
238.6
79.9
0.3
204.2
74.1
2.1
82.7
72.9
81.1
86.2
74.9
80.5
84.3
74.5
10.88
12.96
11.59
9.44
13.09
12.22
13.48
11.59
16.75
17.66
305.4
353.6
305.8
307.2
86.8
108.2
259.2
283.8
70.6
314.6
14.5
74.4
6.7
16.9
0.9
3.5
14.2
8.7
0.7
5.6
Table 3.4.
Point
No.
Depth/
(m)
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
342
355
355
350
218
218
210
420
20.19
16.16
20.32
18.37
9.46
11.47
11.79
21.50
107.3
345.5
195.9
335.1
228.1
359.5
140.2
313.7
3.1
0.3
12.6
4.5
2.0
4.5
5.7
3.3
9.79
10.28
11.79
9.57
4.36
5.61
5.86
12.32
114.7
211.3
287.3
307.3
318.5
270.3
48.9
193.3
86.9
89.5
6.2
85.2
11.7
9.9
13.1
83.5
7.48
7.59
9.57
6.92
3.04
4.80
5.03
11.56
17.3
255.5
43.0
64.9
308.6
65.2
73.2
224.1
0.4
0.3
76.0
2.4
78.1
79.1
75.7
5.6
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Table 3.5.
Point
No.
Depth/
(m)
Value/
(MPa)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
116.4
115.7
181.8
232.8
234.8
265.5
274.8
302.7
119.2
147.8
186.2
81
91.5
56
6.68
11.93
12.65
14.79
6.67
9.28
9.79
13.21
6.07
7.35
9.53
4.07
4.26
3.68
2
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
347
358
7.3
0.8
7.2
4.08
6.98
7.83
9.25
6.20
7.02
7.26
8.00
3.96
4.65
5.42
2.38
2.86
2.33
77
88
82
70
77
272.2
90.6
98.9
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
13.3
2.9
6.2
3.07
4.11
4.80
6.15
4.40
5.96
6.26
8.00
3.15
3.90
4.92
2.16
2.68
2.03
347
3.9
180.6
189.7
352
340
154.2
344.9
319.8
74.8
87.0
80.5
139
Point
No.
Depth/
(m)
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
118.0
99.1
133.5
151.3
110.9
310
310
310
310
13.30
13.30
14.00
18.50
13.20
23.10
23.11
22.96
19.34
140.0
102.0
118.0
97.0
112.0
359.9
170.0
183.2
153.1
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
2.0
0.5
0.8
0.3
6.40
6.50
7.20
9.10
6.8
7.64
8.25
8.85
8.87
50.0
12.0
28.0
7.0
22.0
89.9
258.1
93.4
64.6
Dip/
( )
Value/
(MPa)
Bearing/
( )
Dip/
( )
1.1
74.5
15.6
78.0
3.10
2.60
3.50
4.00
2.10
9.41
10.72
10.97
8.99
331.4
260.2
90.5
295.1
87.7
15.5
74.3
12.0
140
Table 4.1.
Magnitude of stress/MPa
Borehole
No.
Depth/m
Pi
Pr
Ps
Po
Orientation of
H /( )
1#
1#
1#
2#
2#
2#
3#
3#
3#
4#
4#
4#
5#
5#
5#
6#
6#
6#
7#
7#
7#
891.2
1046.2
1104.9
890.3
1025.1
1079.6
791.0
859.0
1063.0
799.6
1026.4
1052.7
874.7
1027.9
1080.4
813.8
843.8
892.2
891.2
1046.2
1104.9
27.55
28.61
33.27
26.93
28.62
35.17
33.00
40.90
38.40
40.80
42.70
40.90
36.20
37.20
30.40
29.62
31.94
45.78
24.97
27.84
37.29
21.74
25.33
29.47
24.92
26.82
30.60
28.40
35.30
36.20
38.30
33.80
35.70
31.80
30.70
26.80
26.92
30.38
37.63
22.10
26.40
32.75
20.40
24.28
27.67
23.55
24.50
25.98
21.60
26.00
29.00
32.80
32.70
33.90
29.10
29.70
24.80
20.47
26.89
30.51
20.34
24.85
29.99
8.91
10.46
11.05
8.90
10.25
10.80
7.91
8.59
10.63
8.00
10.26
10.53
8.75
10.28
10.80
8.14
8.44
8.93
8.55
10.42
10.95
5.81
3.28
3.80
2.01
1.80
4.57
4.60
5.60
2.20
2.50
8.90
5.20
4.40
6.50
3.60
2.70
1.56
8.15
2.87
1.44
4.54
30.55
37.05
42.49
36.83
36.43
36.54
28.49
34.11
40.17
52.10
54.04
55.47
46.75
48.12
36.80
26.35
41.85
44.97
30.37
37.73
46.27
20.40
24.28
27.67
23.55
24.50
25.98
21.60
26.00
29.00
32.80
32.70
33.90
29.10
29.70
24.80
20.47
26.89
30.51
20.34
24.85
29.99
18.64
22.74
24.30
18.47
22.05
23.50
15.75
17.55
22.95
16.16
22.14
22.85
18.08
22.12
23.50
16.53
17.32
18.59
18.57
22.67
24.23
65.3
78.7
62.9
76.8
63.4
68.5
46.1
44.7
52.4
36.0
39.2
43.6
45.5
67.9
52.8
98.1
110.6
92.5
38.5
32.6
39.0
2)
3)
4)
5)
4.2
Measuring results
To save the measuring cost, the hydraulic fracturing stress measurement was performed in 7 chosen
141
CONCLUSIONS
142
ABSTRACT: This paper introduces one method to detect the fractures induced during the hydraulic fracturing
in-situ stress measurement process. This method can detect the hydraulic fracture fairly well, and can define the
strike of induced fractures exactly so as to determine the orientation of the maximum horizontal principal stress.
After the measured data were compared with the results gained with the traditional fracture impression method,
the findings show that this method is of high precision and operation speed, simple and energy and time-saving.
Especially in the deep measurement boreholes and boreholes with thick mud coat on the all, this new method
has much superiority over the traditional method, which offers a new means to determine the direction of the
maximum horizontal principal stress. Therefore, this new method is of great application value in the engineering
practice and rock mechanics research.
INTRODUCTION
143
144
Serial No.
Depth /m
BHTV result
by BHTV
Result by oriented
impression
Serial No.
Depth /m
BHTV result
by BHTV
Result by oriented
impression
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
40
44
48
52
56
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
105
110
115
118.5
122
125
130
135
139
140
142
145
151
154
161
6
0
6
6
13
3
11.6
14.7
14
14.5
14.5
14.5
5.8
3
35.5
5.5
27
6.5
8.7
38
11
11
11
11
8
14
8.6
20
12
13
8.6
18
19.3
12
4
6
0
11
5
18
2
21
0
11
7.6
8.6
14
20.6
11
26
19
5.5
1.7
3.3
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
167.5
171
178
181.5
185
188
194
198.5
207
213.25
219
228
231
239
241.5
248.5
251
255
259
263
267
271
275
279
283
287
291
5.7
3
3
11
16
16
5.7
3
2.9
5.7
11.4
0
3
30
16.4
8.5
2.9
20.7
11
11
3
3
3
4.3
3
3
8.6
2.
1.3
10.3
27.5
4.7
9.2
7.3
6.9
6.5
12.3
15
22
9.6
40.7
6.4
7.1
1.1
20.5
8.6
5.2
1.7
0.8
8.8
13.3
8.4
0.5
12.9
145
CONCLUSIONS
According to the above, the untrasonic borehole televiewer can detect the borehole wall appearances very
well. This equipment can not only be used to detect
borehole breakouts (Zoback et al. 1985) and induced
fractures to determine the orientation of the maximum
146
REFERENCES
Haimson. B.C., Lee. M.Y., et al. 2003. Shallow hydraulic
fracturing measurements in Korea support tectonic and
seismic indicators of regional stress. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 40: 12431256.
147
ABSTRACT: In-situ stress testing methods frequently used in underground coal mines in China were introduced, including stress relief, hydraulic fracturing, geological structure information, earthquake focal mechanism
and underground stress mapping. The stress data records obtained by the small borehole hydraulic fracturing
testing rig used in underground coal mines were given more emphasis. Based on the testing data, the relationship
between in-situ stresses and depth, and the changes of the ratio of the maximum horizontal principal stress to
vertical stress were analyzed. There exist three types of in-situ stress fields. Depth, geological structures and rock
properties are the main factors affecting in-situ stresses. Complicated geological conditions result in obvious
scatter in testing data. However, the magnitude of in-situ stresses basically increase with the depth in the general
trend; the increasing rate of horizontal stresses is larger than that of vertical stress in shallow sites, and gradually
decrease as the depth increases.
INTRODUCTION
149
150
Principal
stresses
Magnitude
Orientation
Dip
MPa
Huafeng
1
2
3
1
2
3
20.50
14.24
8.63
17.69
14.91
7.95
205.3
76.6
192.8
94.9
8.5
184.7
77.3
2.7
12.4
0.7
78.7
11.3
Panxi
near horizontal or vertical, the fractures are near perpendicular to the minimum principal stresses. When
the axis of roadways is at an angle to the maximum
principal stresses, there are serious stress concentrations and gutters on one side of roadways. When the
axis of roadways aligns with the orientations of the
maximum principal stresses, the roadways are on best
stress condition.
Stress relief
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
14.9
14.3
10.5
10.7
7.6
8.6
9.3
10.8
23.2
21.5
151
Table 3.
mines.
MPa
MPa
MPa
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
540
230
589
373
165
468
376
401
290
505
477
220
482
284
198
176
467
495
86
558
13.5
5.75
14.73
9.33
4.13
11.7
9.4
10.02
7.25
12.63
11.93
5.5
12.05
7.1
4.96
4.41
11.68
12.38
2.15
13.95
Tunliu
Zhangcun
Wuyang
Changcun
Wangzhuang
Gaohe
Sihe
Chengzhuan
g
Changping
Zhaozhuang
Wangpo
Shuangliu
Zhongxing
Hexi
Liuwan
Shuiyu
Tashan
Xinjing
Anjialing
Shaqu
testing results showed as follows: the ratio of the maximum horizontal principal stress to vertical stress is
1.443.22 with an average value of 1.97, and the
horizontal stress dominates the local stress field.
Lots of hydraulic fracturing measurements have
been conducted with the small borehole testing rig
in underground coal mines (Kang et al. 2009a, b).
More than 200 testing sites spreading over 13 coal
mining districts in 6 Provinces of China, were finished
by using the rig. The shallowest testing site is 69.3 m
under the surface in Shendong coal mining district,
and the deepest site is 1283 m in Xinwen district. The
conditions of these mining districts are very different, for example, the dip of coal seams varies from
near level, tilting, to steep tilting, and the strength
of coal measures varies from soft, middle to strong
level. Therefore, these testing sites are under very
different geological conditions, which cover almost
all the geological conditions in Chinese coal mining
districts. Table 3 lists the in-situ stress measurement
results of some coal mines in Shanxi Province, where
H denotes buried depth; v , H and h denote vertical
stress, the maximum horizontal principal stress and
the minimum horizontal principal stress respectively;
denotes the orientation of the maximum horizontal
principal stress. Figure 1 shows the relation between
principal stresses and depth for all sites. The relation
between the ratio of the maximum horizontal principal
stress to vertical stress and depth is shown in Figure 2.
It is shown in Figure 1 that the horizontal stresses
increase with depth. However, the testing results have
obvious scatter because of the considerable geological
differences among coal mining districts. In a general view, horizontal stresses increase more quickly
than vertical stresses in shallow sites; however, the
increasing rate of horizontal stresses decreases with
depth increasing; and the maximum horizontal principal stress tends to approach vertical stress at great
depth.
Figure 2 shows that the ratio of the maximum horizontal principal stress to vertical stress decreases
with the depth increasing, and tends to converge at
1, as is the possible evidence of hydrostatic pressure
state in the deep sites of the crust. The ratio of the
maximum horizontal principal stress to vertical stress
concentrates in the limit between 0.5 and 2.0.
152
Figure 3. Tectonic stress distribution in Xinwen coal mining district and its peripheral area based on focal mechanism
method.
153
REFERENCES
Amadei, B. & Stephansson, O. 1997. Rock stress and its
measurement. London: Chapman & Hall.
Cai, M. 2000. Principle and techniques of in-situ stress
measurement. Beijing: Science Press.
Cai, M. Chen, C. Peng, H. et al. 2006. In-situ stress measurement by hydraulic fracturing technique in deep position
of Wanfu coal mine. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Engineering 25(5): 10691074.
Chen, Q. Li, F. & Mao, J. 2001. Application study on threedimensional geostress measurements by use of hydraulic
fracturing method. Journal of Geomechanics 7(1): 6978.
Chistiansson, R. 2006. The latest development for in-situ
rock stress measuring techniques. In M. Lu, C.C. Li,
H. Kjrholt, et al (eds), In-situ rock stress measurement,
interpretation and application; Proceedings of the International Symposium on In-situ Rock Stress, Trondheim,
Norway, 1921 June 2006: 310. Rotterdam: Taylor &
Francis/Balkema.
Haimson, B. C. & Cornet, F. H. 2003. ISRM suggested methods for rock stress estimation Part 3: hydraulic fracturing
(HF) and/or hydraulic testing of pre-existing fractures
(HTPF). International Journal of Rock Mechanics &
Mining Sciences 40(78): 10111020.
Heidbach, O. Tingay, M. Barth, A. et al. 2008. The World
Stress Map database release. doi: 10.1594/GFZ.WSM.Rel
2008.
Heidbach, O. Tingay, M. Barth, A. et al. 2009. The World
Stress Map based on the database release 2008. Commission for the Geological Map of the World, Paris. doi:
10.1594/GFZ.WSM.Map2009.
Kang, H. & Lin, J. 2007a. Geomechanical tests and their
applications in rock anchorage design. In L. Ribeiro e
Sousa, C. Olalla & N. Grossmann (eds), The second
half century of rock mechanics; Proceedings of the 11th
Congress of the International Society for Rock Mechanics,
Lisbon, Portugal, 913 July 2007: 303305. Rotterdam:
Taylor & Francis/Balkema.
Kang, H. Lin, J. & Zhang, X. 2007b. Research and application of in-situ stress measurement in deep mines. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering 26(5):
929933.
154
C. Wang
Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: In order to better cooperate with the YJ-95 piezomagnetic stress meter for stress measurement,
design and develop the piezomagnetic stress meter intelligent data analysis system. In this paper accuracy assessment and reliability analysis of the intelligent data analysis system of the piezomagnetic stress meter are discussed
in theory and practical application on the detail. This system first processes error and estimates precision about
measured value by least-squares method, studentized residuals method and coordinate transformation. Precision
estimation have two steps: assessing the accuracy of stress components and assessing the accuracy of the principal stress. Then the system analyses the reliability of results depending on existing databases, the in-situ stress
condition and other criteria. The above process is carried out by the system intelligently, and the final results of
the analysis can be presented.
INTRODUCTION
155
2.2
After excluding abnormal observations, using the normal observed values can obtain stress component with
the least square method. And then find the vector of
residuals. A margin of error theory, we can see rms
error of stress component as follows:
156
the measurement results satisfy corresponding specifications. Piezomagnetic principal stress is generally
believed that the relative error is less than 5%, the error
of direction is less than 3%.
4.2 Stress database
Where
b1 = x , b2 = y , b3 = z , b4 = xy , b5 = yz , b6 = zx
b1 , b2 , , b6 are six stress components
of the error, 1 , 2 , 3 is errors of 1 , 2 , 3 .
3.2.2 The error analysis of principal stress azimuth
Principal stress azimuth error Wi in the decision by
the formula.
The simple and direct method of assessment reliability is comparing the measured results with existing
data, but that always can not be realized because of
lacking the appropriate information. The solution is:
the formation of the underlying database, collecting as
much measured stress data as possible. And analyze
data to identify stress law. The intelligent data analysis system is mainly designed for the China region, so
connects to The in-situ stress information of crustal
stress database in China, which is a basis for analysis
the reliability of data.
4.2.1 The regional stress field orientation
The measured principal stress direction should be
consistent with the regional principal stress direction. If there is deviation, deviation should be within
reasonable limits.
4 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
After assess accuracy of the stress date, the reliability
analysis of the results is necessary, that also is in line
with quality control of stress estimation. The piezomagnetic stress meter intelligent data analysis system,
comparing with the available data, in-situ stress state
(topography, depth and rock properties) and other relevant criteriatakes reliability analysis of calculation
results in order to ensure the quality of measurement
results, and to facilitate interpretation of the stress data.
4.1
Error checking
According to rock strength, the depth of measurement points, topography and some other criteriads,
the system evaluates stress data so as to ensure data
reliability.
4.3.1 Comparison with the self-weight stress
The sum of the principal stress presents a certain proportional relationship with the sum of the self-weight
principal stress.
157
Table 1.
Measurement results.
Radial component
Surveying depth*
8.408.70 m
8.779.2 m
Direction
Stress
Direction
Stress
Declining component
13
3.30
20
5.20
175
8.87
65
6.81
220
5.20
110
6.01
265
181.36
155
37.97
130
34.99
20
25.88
175
40.14
65
36.23
220
2.4
110
16.08
265
155
5.05
Table 2.
xy
yz
zx
12.536
13.109
11.489
1.662
0.414
1.428
EXAMPLE
At one hydropower station there are some stress measurement data with YJ-95 piezomagnetic stress meter.
Table 13 shows the measurement date of the two
different depths in the same borehole. Two sets of measured data are calculated uniformly by least squares
method, then the error is analyzed. There is no record
in No.8 component of the first test. After calculating,
No.5 component of the first test and No.3 component
of the second test is abnormal. Excluding abnormal
obverse value, the results also are shown in Table 1.
Evaluate the accuracy of the results with this papers
method, shown in Table 4. From the table, the error
of the main stress is 0.30.5 MPa, the angle error of
the main stress is 2.0 4.4 , so the result is precise.
In addition, piezomagnetic stress meter intelligent data
analysis system analyses the reliability of date depending on existing databases, the in-situ stress condition
(topography, depth and rock properties) and other criteria. From the reliability analysis we can see, the
measurement results in a reasonable range, shown in
Table5. But because the depth of the measuring point
is not enough, the dates are not suitable to represent
the crustal stress environment.
6
CONCLUSION
158
Value (MPa)
Orientation
Dip
33.640
27.909
47.940
224.713
27.725
113.615
20.451
38.972
43.987
Table 5.
Azimuth
error ( )
Inclination
error ( )
0.50
0.33
0.32
2.00
2.11
2.14
1.53
2.03
4.40
Reliability analysis.
The error
Database
Self-weight Rock
Magnitude Direction Stress
Strength Depth
<5%
The magnitude
error (MPa)
<3%
n<2
m<2
Influence zone
<300 m <10
<10%
Repeated asurement
>300 m >2r
>2
12
Notes: * the regional stress orientation; ** existing data magnitude; *** the standard deviation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research is supported by the Fundamental
Research Fund for State Level Scientific Institutes,
No. ZDJ2009-5 and the Youth Fund of the National
Natural Science Foundation of China, No.40704018.
REFERENCES
Li Hong, Ma Yuan-chun & Wang Fu-jiang. 2007. Study
on 3-D in-situ stress measurement by piezomagnetic
overcoring method, Rock and Soil Mechanics 28(2):
253257.
159
Y. Gunzburger
LAEGO Laboratoire Environnement Gomcanique et Ouvrages, Nancy, France
A. Ben Ouanas
INERIS National Institute for Industrial Environment and Risks, Nancy, France
LAEGO Laboratoire Environnement Gomcanique et Ouvrages, Nancy, France
IRSN Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear safety, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
J.D. Barnichon
IRSN Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear safety, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
P. Bigarr
INERIS National Institute for Industrial Environment and Risks, Nancy, France
J.P. Piguet
LAEGO Laboratoire Environnement Gomcanique et Ouvrages, Nancy, France
ABSTRACT: Many techniques of stress measurement or stress monitoring are based on the principle of gluing
a strain-measurement device on the wall of a pilot hole using an epoxy resin. The curing time needed for this
epoxy glue to achieve full hardening is rarely put into questions. Here, we present an in situ study of the impact
of curing time on the quality of overcoring stress measurements using CSIRO Hi cells. The tests were conducted
in an argillite rock at a temperature of 12 C. We show that the conventional curing time (16 hours) is clearly
insufficient in this context and leads to anomalous response in strain readings during both overcoring and biaxial
tests, thus hindering stress determination. We claim that in low-temperature near-surface environments, much
longer curing times may be needed in order to ensure good quality of stress measurements. Other possible
strategies are discussed in the body of this paper.
INTRODUCTION
161
Figure 1. Left: Typical evolution curves for strains at the vicinity of a pilot hole (a) during an overcoring test and (b) during
a biaxial test. Right: Strain curves recorded in Tournemire 20052006 experiment (c) during an overcoring test and (d) during
a biaxial test.
162
Figure 2. Curing time impact on the overcoring hump. From left to right are shown the strain responses of CSIRO Hi cells
to overcoring when the latter is performed at increasing curing times (tests TC33, TC32, TC31, TC35, TC36 respectively).
Note that test TC34 failed due to technical problems. For comparison, all graphs have the same y-axis scale range. The 5 upper,
5 intermediate and 2 lower curves of each graph correspond respectively to the 5 orthoradial, 5 inclined and 2 axial gauges of
the CSIRO cell.
3 RESULTS
3.1
163
Figure 5. Curing time impact on the initial jump in strain readings at the onset of flushing. From left to right are shown the
strain responses of the CSIRO Hi cells to the onset of flushing for increasing curing times (tests TC33, TC32, TC31, TC35,
TC36 respectively). For comparison, all graphs have the same y-axis scale range.
3.4
For each biaxial test, the apparent stiffness of the overcored sample was characterized. This was done, for
each orthoradial gauge, on the basis of the secant slope
of the unloading strain-pressure curve in the pressure
range 05 MPa, by using the thick cylinder solution
for isotropic linearly elastic rock cores with HI cells
(Woronicki, 1993, equations 1920). For each test,
5 stiffness coefficients were thus calculated (one per
orthoradial gauge), from which the mean, maximum
and minimum values were determined. Figure 7 represents those values as a function of the epoxy curing
time at the start of the biaxial test. The fact that the
stiffness coefficients are not the same for all orthoradial gauges comes from the transversely isotropic
behavior of the rock.
We note that the apparent stiffness of the core
samples change with the hardening time. This is interpreted as a signature of the change in the glue mechanical properties as it hardens. Contrary to the previous
observations (overcoring hump, biaxial hump, initial
jump), this change in apparent stiffness seems to hold
up to very high curing times (>100 h), i.e. outside
the range of curing times considered in the present
study. This indicates that the hardening time needed
for the glue to achieve its definite mechanical properties may be even longer than the time suggested by
the disappearance of the anomalous behaviors cited
above.
3.5 Curing time impact on the average amplitude
of strains during overcoring
Beside the disappearance of the overcoring hump, Figure 2 shows that the average amplitude of peak strains
164
Figure 10. Glue aspect after 16 h curing (12 C) and heating under a spotlight (60 C) during a few seconds. The
glue softens so it can be easily moved with a finger or a
screwdriver.
that develop after the drilling bit passes the gauged area
increases with the curing time. Figure 8 illustrates this
in a more quantitative way, for each set of gauges of
the same orientation (orthoradial, inclined, axial).
Note that this result has important implications for
stress determination as it means that it is inadequate
to use peak strains (for a test where the glue would
not have fully hardened) instead of plateau strains, to
determine in situ stresses.
3.6
165
CONCLUSION
166
The hydraulic fracture opening pressure multiple test for the stress state
measurement in permeable rock
V.A. Pavlov, P.A. Martynuk & S.V. Serdyukov
Institute of Mining (Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences), Novosibirsk, Russia
Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
ABSTRACT: In permeable rock the hydraulic fracturing stress measurement is carried out using such impenetrable shell as a packer and a sleeve that prevents from fluid injection into the fracture and rock. The stress states
are determined from several fracture reopening pressures on condition that cracks have different orientation in
reference to a maximum stress. Numerical modeling of this problem shows the gradual character of the crack
opening in the borehole and the influence of an indefinable initial crack length on the reopening pressure value
Pr of other fractures. As a solution the using of a singular radial fracture and the measuring of fracture opening
value on the outline dependence of the pressure in the impenetrable shell are proposed. The fractures are induced
by hydraulic fracturing in advance. The test of the solution is carried out using singular integral equations of
linear fracture mechanics. The fracture opening pressure and fracture opening value on the outline dependence
of the fracture opening portion length and external stress field is determined. The principal stress ratio estimation
algorithm is developed. The ratio of principal stresses is an additional parameter and it is used to find out the
stress with the fracture reopening pressure on the borehole wall. Technical and methodic issues of practical single
and repeated investigations realization are considered.
Keywords: Hydraulic fracturing stress measurements, fracture reopening pressure, numerical modeling
INTRODUCTION
will be a distinct change in the slope of the pressuredeformation curve of a borehole once a radial fracture
is generated in response to internal jacking by a split
loading sleeve. Unfortunately the sleeve fracturing
method cant be used in the condition of an irregular stress field in the massif min /max < 1 (Charsley
et al. 2003). This concerns the technology of a single fracture as well as those of a double one. In the
double fracture technology it is connected with mistakes of the reopening pressure determination of the
secondary fracturing system. Moreover according to
the experiments the direction of secondary cracks produced with sleeve fracture injection in the irregular
stress field is not always orthogonal to initial fractures (Serata 1992). In the single fracture technology
the inaccuracy in external field parameters determinations connected with the impossibility to create linear
extensive fractures by flat jack (Charsley et al. 2003).
Two methods (Pavlov et al. 2009), based on the
integrated use of measuring hydraulic fracture and
deformational measurement are proposed to solve the
problem of max , min determination in the permeable
rock. Realization of the following methods involves
2 stages. On the 1st stage (preliminary) the stretching
fracturing system is formed be hydraulic fracturing but
with high intensity of loading. On the 2nd stage the
mechanism with impenetrable shell is placed into the
same borehole interval. As only one fracturing system is supposed to be produced, than the additional
167
2
2.1
NUMERICAL MODEL
Mathematical model
Where
168
(n determines the odder of the solution approximation). Dividing the real and supposed parts of the
formula we come to the equation:
169
Where
170
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
1.0
1.54/
16.0
0.85/
12.9
0.27/
8.0
4.31/
21.35
2.71/
17.29
0.95/
10.67
8.72/
26.68
5.35/
21.61
1.94/
13.34
13.47/
32.02
8.6/
25.93
3.23/
16.01
18.43/
37.35
12.28/
30.26
4.79/
18.68
23.21/
42.69
16.25/
34.58
6.59/
21.35
0.7
0.5
171
172
S.N. Sand
Rana Gruber AS, Mo i Rana, Norway
A. Myrvang
SigmaH, Trondheim, Norway
ABSTRACT: The Skaland mine is a graphite mine in Senja island, North of Norway. The mine is located in
a granite rock (possibly be Migmatite). The owner of the mine Leonard Nilsen and Sons (LNS) plans for a
new excavation profile, and the stability of the excavation needs to be checked for the planning. For the stability
analyses, SINTEF is asked to carry out stress measurement, using 2D and 3D measuring methods. Results of
the stress measurement are used as an important input for numerical models to analyse the stability of the mine.
This paper is describing the whole process of the stress measurements and the numerical analyses for the mine.
1
INTRODUCTION
STRESS MEASUREMENTS
173
Table 1. Stress measurement (2D, 3D and hydraulic fracturing) at SINTEF List of clients.
Countries
Number Year
China
1
Finland
4
Greenland
1
Iceland
3
Italia
1
Nepal
2
Norway
194
Pakistan
1
Singapore
2
Spain
1
Sri-Lanka
1
Sweden
17
Tanzania
1
2005
19761978
1991
20042006
2001
19932008
19702008
1996
2001,2004
1974
1996
19732007
19921998
Industry
Road tunnel
Mining
Hydropower
Hydropower, Road
Marble quarry
Hydropower
Hydropower, Road, . . .
Hydropower
Strategic storage
Mining
Hydropower
Hydropower, Road, . . .
Hydropower
Figure 3. 3D measurement technique equipment and
procedure.
174
Parameters
Unit
Migmatite Graphite
MPa 140
80
29
0.1
GPa
60
0.19
36
60
25
0.1
25
0.25
175
176
requirement is that observation should be done systematically in the tunnel for early detection of any
unexpected behaviours of the rock mass. Unexpected
behaviours of the rock mass could be significant displacement, continuous loosening of rock blocks or
development of the cracking in the mine. If such
behaviours are observed, they should be noted for
further analyses and treatments.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
177
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their thanks to
Leonard Nilsen and Sons AS and Skaland Graphite
AS for permission to prepare and publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Hoek, E., Carranza-Torres, C. & Corkum, B. 2002. HoekBrown criterion 2002 edition. Proc. NARMS-TAC
Conference, Toronto, 2002, 1, 267273.
NTNU. 1983. Report: Rock mechnical investigation in the
Skaland mine. Trondheim. Norway.
Rocscience Inc. 2005. Phase2 Version 6.0 Finite Element
Analysis for Excavations and Slopes. www.rocscience.
com. Toronto. Ontario. Canada.
SINTEF. 2009. NOTAT/PROSJEKTFORLAG. Report:
North Cape Minerals Stjerny Gruver Geoteknisk og
geologisk bistand Befaringsnotat. Trondheim. Norway.
178
ABSTRACT: To analysis the correlation between the ratio of breakdown pressure (Pb ) to horizontal minimum
compression stress (Sh ) and stability of surrounding rocks. Attempt to use the ratio to estimate the stability of
surrounding rocks. The elementary results indicate: the higher the ratio, the more stable the wall rock. When
Pb /Sh 1.8,the stability of surrounding rocks was well. When Pb /Sh 1.50, hard rock is potential to happen rock
burst, soft rock is easy to convergent distort. When 1.8 > Pb /Sh > 1.50, the wall rock was in the critical condition
of distortion. On the basic theory of hydraulic fracturing stress measurement, the definition of breakdown
pressure (Pb ) and instantaneous shut-in pressure (Ps ) is explicit. The value is correctable, reliable and easy to
acquire. The ratio reflects the effect of stress, intensity of tension resistance to stability of surrounding rocks.
The method based on measurement of in-situ rock stresses and engineering information feedback, the stability
of surrounding rocks is estimated in the engineering survey or preliminary design stage. All those may provide
the basis data for the projects design and construction.
INSTRUCTION
179
study results are in-situ stress measurement data analysis and engineering based on the feedback received
can be in the engineering investigation phase of the
cavern will occur will be able to make an assessment
of geological, provide reference for the design and
construction.
2 THE THEORETICAL BASIS FOR ANALYSIS
Affect the stability of underground rock caverns are
more factors, in addition to the geological conditions
and lithology, depends on the stress state of rock in
large extent. The role of stress has attracted much
attention in engineering for the deeper cavern. A large
number of measurement data show that the rock stress
are mostly compressive, mainly including tectonic
stress and self-weight stress, self-weight stress with
depth is proportional, the tectonic stress associated
with the geological structure, it is rather complicated.
The hydraulic fracturing method is the suggestion
method of the international society of rock mechanics. Hydraulic fracturing method can obtained directly
in situ rock breakdown pressure, re-opening pressure, shut-in pressure and tensile strength and other
parameters, which breakdown pressure and re-opening
pressure can obtained directly from the measurement,
less errors. Maximum horizontal principal stress is
calculated in the corresponding formula, therefore a
larger error.
Based on hydraulic fracturing in situ stress measurement theory, if the fast-water pressure during
fracturing of water penetration into the rock can be
neglected, then the breakdown pressure of broken rock
produced can be established as following formula:
180
Table 1. The ratio of breakdown pressure (Pb ) to minimum horizontal stress (Sh . ) and stability of wall rock.
Rock stability
of feedback
Tunnel
Horizontal/
Vertical
Depth(m)
Biotite granite
intact
stability
granite
Stability
No lining
feldspar granite
stability
Lava, breccia
stability
Ningxia Liupanshan
Highway Tunnel
Beijing Ming Tombs
Hydropower Station
Underground Building
Underground Building
Hydropower Station in
Guangxi
Underground powerhouse
of a storage power station
in Shanxi Province
Siltstone,
sandstone
Volcanic rocks,
conglomerate
stability
Underground powerhouse
of a storage power
station in Shandong
Granite
Stability of
cavern
excavation
Underground powerhouse
of a storage power
station in Guangdong
Granite
Stability of
cavern
excavation
Tunnel/cavern Name
Lithology
Sandstone,
siltstone
Limestone
Borehole
depth(m)
Pb
(MPa)
PS = Sh
(MPa)
Pb /Sh
685/470
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
420
200
200
400
200
52
60
18
17
20
11
15
13
15
16
15
15.2
14.3
11.5
10.0
10.85
10.97
14.28
10
7
7
4
7
5.5
8.0
5.3
6.0
8.27
5.7
6.26
5.0
4.52
3.51
7.11
1.80
2.43
2.85
2.75
2.14
2.36
1.88
3.04
2.50
1.84
2.51
1.86
3.12
2.01
3.12
2.01
100/160
54
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
130
120
120
130
200
130
125
135
30
30
30
6.67
8.25
9.14
10.44
14.82
11.81
12.80
12.50
15.60
14.75
16.50
13.14
20.09
11.61
17.45
14.60
13.97
15.59
19.25
16.18
2.67
3.0
3.13
5.28
6.77
6.49
6.80
6.50
8.50
7.99
7.37
5.37
7.80
5.66
9.45
7.80
6.50
7.07
7.63
8.04
2.50
2.75
2.92
1.98
2.19
1.82
1.88
1.92
1.95
1.85
2.44
2.29
2.70
2.05
1.85
1.87
2.15
2.20
2.52
2.01
stability
Stability of
cavern
excavation
Stability of
cavern
excavation
181
less than 3.0, the higher the ratio, the better the stability of surrounding rock, the initial
classification as follows: When the Pb /Sh 1.8,
hard rock and soft rock cavern is stability; when the Pb /Sh 1.50, the probability is
higher that occurred rock burst in hard rock
and convergent deformation in soft rock; when
1.8 > Pb /Sh > 1.50, it is critical state that occurred
rock burst in hard rock and convergent deformation failure in soft rock.
(3) The ratio of Pb /Sh involve the role of the insitu stress, orientation, tensile strength and pore
pressure on the surrounding rock stability.
(4) The rock stability of deep caverns is closely
related to tectonic activity, rock structure, hydrogeological, engineering geological conditions,
construction techniques and methods. On the use
Table 2. The ratio of breakdown pressure (Pb ) to minimum horizontal stress (Sh .) and stability of wall rock.
Rock stability
of feedback
Tunnel/cavern Name
Lithology
Hydropower Station
In Qinghai
Sichuan Erlangshan
Highway Tunnel
granite, intact
Guang-Yu Expressway
Huaying Mountain
Tunnel
Lan Wu Second-Tier
Of A Tunnel
Yalong Reiver Deep
Tunnel
limestone, shale
large convergent
deformation
local rock burst
collapse large
convergent
deformation
argillaceous limestone,
sandstone and shale
Tunnel
Horizontal/
Vertical
Depth(m)
cake core,
cave rock burst
local rock burst
The level of
depth:1800
The level of
depth :2700
The level of
depth :3050
metamorphosed quartz
sandstone rock, rock
or plywood chibaya
granite
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is founded by National Basic Research
Program of China(2006CB202203), Exploration technology deep and experimental study(SinoProbe-0602) and Institute of Crustal Dynamics, CEA ,Basic
scientific Special Fund(ZDJ2007-2).
REFERENCES
Cornet, F. H. and Burlet D.1992. Stress field determinations
in France by hydraulic tests in boreholes, J. Geophys. Res.
97(B8): 1182911849.
Feng Xiating, Jiang Quan, Su Guoshao.2008. Integrated
intelligent stability analysis and dynamic optimization of
underground engineering in hard rock with high geostress,
1620
Borehole
depth(m)
Pb
(MPa)
PS = Sh
(MPa)
Pb /Sh
200
150
110
120
200
435
462
637
550
250
30
30
30
19.2
21.75
8.5
15.0
12.7
12.15
12.20
15.90
23.0
10.72
30
29
27
12.5
13.19
5.6
7.58
8.47
8.85
8.76
11.18
20.0
7.92
22.0
17.0
18.0
1.52
1.64
1.51
1.97
1.50
1.37
1.39
1.42
1.20
1.06
1.36
1.71
1.50
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
100
300
30
30
30
17
24
13.2
38.4
26.1
5.7
7.0
7.0
7.0
10.0
31.75
29.3
26.5
10.0
16.6
6.58
25.0
21.0
4.0
4.5
5.0
4.0
7.0
23.25
21.81
21.10
1.70
1.57
2.00
1.54
1.21
1.43
1.56
1.40
1.75
1.43
1.36
1.34
1.25
182
183
ABSTRACT: Hydraulic fracture in borehole is used to determine the geo-stresses. The complexity of rock
property and stress state makes the great difference between the real curve and the ideal curve of water pressuretime. The water pressure to crack the borehole wall may be lower than that to spread the fissure. The pore pressure
in rock results in the decrease of the tensile strength. Cylinder specimens were directly tensile under confining,
hollow cylinders were fractured by inner pressure under different axial load, and rings were Brazilian split. The
experimental results show that two indexes of deformation and stress are related to thefailure of rock specimen
when it is suffered non-uniform stresses.
INTRODUCTION
185
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Or
Depth/m
V /
MPa
h /
MPa
H /
MPa
H 2h /
MPa
790
1150
1071
1220
1130
1040
964
967
961
20.94
30.48
28.38
32.33
29.95
27.66
25.55
25.63
25.47
16.56
17.89
20.64
22.80
19.10
16.20
12.23
10.87
10.12
32.39
34.60
39.77
42.10
33.15
31.35
25.65
21.42
20.06
0.73
1.18
1.51
3.50
5.05
1.05
1.19
0.32
0.18
Table 2.
Lcation
Linglong
South crofty
Oskarshamn
depth/
m
V /
MPa
h /
MPa
H /
MPa
H - 2h /
MPa
290
290
410
410
790
490.5
501.6
8.28
9.37
10.73
11.51
18.5
7.6
13.1
6.84
7.26
10.18
8.64
11.3
8.1
6.2
15.58
17.51
25.77
25.55
37.7
30.8
26.3
1.90
2.99
5.41
8.27
15.1
14.6
13.9
*Cited from Cai et al. 2009, Pine et al. 1983, Anderson &
Christianson 2003.
or
From Equation 3c and 5, we have
186
stress is also in the horizontal plane in Smaland granite of Oskarshamn, Sweden (Anderson & Christianson
2003). The largest horizontal principal stress H is 2
times higher than the least horizontal principal stress
h in Table 2. No doubt, the in-situ stresses can not be
measured rightly with hydraulic fracturing.
Clearly, when
and when
Spec.
Z /
MPa
P/
MPa
r /
MPa
R /
MPa
M /
MPa
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
21.2
22.0
57.3
85.7
109.1
20.3
17.6
20.0
23.5
20.2
21.2
18.1
20.7
24.2
20.9
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.7
3.4
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.0
FAILURE OF ROCK
A direct tensile experiment of rock specimens was carried under confining pressure in (You et al. 2006).
Specimens of 50 mm 100 mm in size were glued
with joints 80 mm in diameter and put in hollow cylinder in which hydraulic oil was pumped. The joints
were compressed in axial direction by servo-control
testing machine to balance tensile force produced by
the hydraulic oil in the hollow cylinder. The tensile
strengths under different confining pressure can get
by changing the axial compression force. Although the
specimens of three kinds of rock are machined from
one block respectively, the experimental results were
divided into groups as shown in Figure 2. The tensile
strength decreases with confining pressure linearly.
For a hollow cylinder, R in outer radius and r in
inner radius, acted on hydraulic pressure P, the tensile
stresses at the borehole wall and outer wall are
Table 3 presents the experimental results of hollow cylinders with 6 mm in inner diameter. The hole
wall was sealed with wax. Clearly, the cracked pressure for hollow cylinder is not influenced significantly
by the axial load when it is lower than 80% of the uniaxial compression strength, the average magnitude of
152 MPa. This is different to that shown in Figure 2 for
the non-uniform stresses effect as explained in You &
Su (2010).
The tangential stresses r at the inner surface of the
hollow cylinder as presented inTable 3 are much higher
than the Brazilian split strengths of six discs, from
3.54 MPa to 6.17 MPa, with an average of 4.98 MPa.
Moreover rings with various inner diameters were
Brazilian split and results are presented in Table 4,
where D is the out diameter of 50 mm; L is the length
of about 35 mm; d is 4.6 mm and 7.1 mm of the inner
diameter; F is the fracture load. TT is the tensile
strength after Hobbs (1965)
187
Table 4.
disc
d/
mm
2F / (DL)/
MPa
2F / ((D-d)L)/
MPa
TT /
MPa
BB1
BB2
BB3
BB4
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
4.6
4.6
4.6
4.6
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
4.69
4.98
5.32
5.32
3.33
5.45
6.15
6.61
5.17
5.48
5.86
5.86
3.88
6.35
7.17
7.70
29.6
31.5
33.6
33.6
22.5
36.9
41.6
44.7
Clearly, the small hole in the discs does not influence the fracture load significantly, and the maximum
tangential stress at the hole boundary, or TT , is much
higher than Brazilian tensile strength from sound discs.
The experimental results in Tables 3, 4 show that
the stresses at the weakest point can not determine
the failure of the rock when there are stress gradient
in the specimen. It needs adequate deformation for
rock to destroy or failure. Therefore, two indexes of
deformation and stress are related to the failure of rock
specimen suffered non-uniform stresses.
5
CONCLUSION
188
Z.Y. Zhao
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Acoustic Emission (AE) can provide wealthy information on the failure process of rock mass,
which makes it possible to visualize the process of rock damage. In order to study the AE signature of sandstone, three kinds of specimens with different bedding orientations were selected for uniaxial compressive tests
accompanied by an AE monitoring system. The failure modes of these specimens were clearly affected by structural plane, and can be divided into three categories: tensile-split along the weaker bedding plane (TD), tensile
fracture across the weaker bedding plane (TM) and sliding failure along the weaker bedding plane (SD). Not
only the simple counting of the number of AE events vs. different stress levels and accumulated AE energy with
an inelastic strain rate were studied, but the frequency-magnitude relation was established in different stages of
the uniaxial test by the spectral analysis. For the specimen failed along the weaker bedding, the AE signals were
more intense and the accumulated AE energy before failure was larger. The sandstone has three main frequency
domains at around 50 kHz, 177 kHz and 266 kHz. A significant magnitude increase before peak stresses was
detected for frequency at around 177 kHz. The magnitude variation and duration in 50 kHz and 266 kHz were
not clear for failure along weaker bedding planes. All these results will contribute to the forecast of rock failure
and the back analysis of failure modes.
INTRODUCTION
189
Table 1.
Rock
No.*
Diameter
mm
Height
mm
Vp
m/s
Vs
m/s
Mass
g
#1,
#2, //
#3, //
#4, 35
49.41
49.39
49.43
48.92
99.43
100.73
102.63
101.59
5125.2
5245.8
5345.3
4979.9
2234.4
2243.2
2192.9
2533.4
508.9
519.6
529.5
497.5
* Bedding orientation: indicates the bedding plane is perpendicular to the loading direction; // indicates the bedding
plane is parallel to the loading direction; 35 indicates the
bedding planes with angle at 35 from the loading direction.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Specimen preparation
190
Table 2.
Rock No.
Youngs
modulus
GPa
Poissons
Ratio
UCS
MPa
Duration
s
#1,
#2, //
#3, //
#4, 35
39.1
33.5
37.9
17.3
0.36
0.13
0.11
0.43
125.6
72.9
69.8
26.0
417
324
340
296
Figure 3. Stress paths (vs. time) and AE hits (vs. time) of sandstone specimens.
191
Figure 4. Sandstone bulk strain (%) (vs. time) and accumulated AE energy (vs, time); the images below were the
frequency-magnitude features of A, B, C, and D, respectively in each accumulated energy curves.
along with an AE energy jump. Specimen #1 has obviously accumulated AE energy before large bulk strain
change point related to the peak stress. The percentage
of accumulated AE energy before the maximum stress
is about 64.6%. Specimens #2 and #3 had the lowest percentage of accumulated AE energy before the
first maximum stress, about 0.1% and 0.2% respectively. The accumulated AE energy before the first
maximum stress of #4 specimen was about 24.1%.
There will be two possibilities to explain this. Case 1:
there was much less cracks generated before failure
along the weak bedding planes in rock specimens;
Case 2: the attenuation in the latter case was much
more than the former. This will be proved in further
study by located AE sources.
In addition to a correlation between AE energy and
bulk strain, FFT transform was carried out and typical
magnitude-frequency relations of AE waveform were
plotted in Figure 4. There are three frequency domains
192
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, four sandstone specimens with three
different bedding orientations were carried out under
uniaixal compression tests. The acoustic emission
signatures, including AE hits vs. stress levels, accumulated energy vs. bulk strain changing and AE
magnitude variation, are induced to study how the
failure modes affect AE signals. Several points are
summarized as follows.
(1) The AE signals are more intensive in specimen
with loading direction perpendicular to the bedding plane and its accumulated AE energy before
failure is much larger too. For the specimens with
loading direction parallel to bedding orientation,
(2) The magnitude variation in frequency domain
around 177 kHz can be used to predict failure
along the weaker bedding planes and across the
weaker bedding planes, as significant increases is
shown for this sandstone specimens. Magnitude
variations in frequency domain around 50 kHz and
266 kHz are not clear enough in predicting the
failure along weaker bedding planes.
(3) The structural will affect the reliability of Kaiser
effect in sandstone specimens.
Furthermore, more tests of specimens with different
bedding orientation will be carried out and their AE
signatures will be studied too. The confining pressure
will be induced
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
193
194
ABSTRACT: The CSIRO overcoring stress relief and hydraulic fracturing methods are the most popular
methods used for the measurement of in-situ stress at depth. One major advantage of the CSIRO overcoring
stress relief method is that the three dimensional state of stress can be obtained, but the measurement must be
done in an excavated tunnel(Hudson and Harrison, 2000). Hydraulic fracturing method can be carried out on the
ground surface, but it assumed that one of the principal stresses direction is vertical(Cai et al, 2006). In terms of
the disadvantages of the two methods, the techniques based on core orientation and acoustic emission behavior
of rocks are incorporated in the in-situ stress measurement in order to obtain the in-situ stress conditions at
depth in Shuichang Iron Mine. According to the comparison of the measurement data obtained from the acoustic
emission test in the laboratory and CSIRO overcoring stress relief measurement in the field, effectiveness of the
acoustic emission test is confirmed. In addition, the relationships between in-situ stresses and tectonic settings
are analyzed. Finally, the distribution of in-situ stresses in Shuichang Iron Mine is given, which provides a
meaningful guideline for the following mining and design.
1
INSTRUCTION
So far the slope of Shuichang Iron Mine is the highest one of open pit in China. The slope was designed
to be 660 m high, and Shougang Group planed to
extend exploiting range with the constant and substantial increasing of the iron ores price. The modified
deep of the pit will arrive to 750 m at the elevation of
440 m. The stress states, engineering geological conditions and hydrogeology conditions will be different
form current environment. So the exploration should
be carried out to obtain the factors which are effective
on the stability of slopes before the expanded mining.
Among those factors, in-situ stress state is the most
important to the safety of the slope, so its significant
to obtain the stresses values of the rock mass through
in-situ stress measurement.
Hydraulic fracturing and CSIRO overcoring stress
relief method have been used by University Science
and Technology of Beijing in in-situ stress measurement of Shuichang Iron Mine since Dec. 2001 (Li et al,
2004; Cai et al, 2004). The additional measurement
sites is chosen for drilling and the techniques based
on core orientation and acoustic emission behavior of
rocks are incorporated in the environments to calculate
the in-situ stresses values. In this paper, the measurement results are introduced and the relationships
between in-situ stresses and tectonics are discussed.
2
195
KB
KD1
KE1
4445953.57
4445933.02
4445257.68
506132.39
504928.53
504214.35
59.17
149.51
189.30
There are two drilled holes for in-situ stress measurement this time, and the holes respectively locate in the
west and east bank of the mine (which are K1, K3, as
shown in figure 1). The data of drilling is shown in
Table 4. The oriented cores are drilled through rock
mass, and three cylinder specimens with angles of 0 ,
45 , 90 which measured in the axis counter-clockwise
from the marked dip direction of hole in cross section
are taken. Up to six sections are measured in K1 hole
and K3 hole and the results are shown in Table 5.
Figure 1. Distribution
measurement.
of
sites
for
in-situ
stress
6
50.5 m, and the one between site 2 and 3 was 81.8 m.
The distribution of six measurement sites is shown in
Fig. 1.
The results came from the measurement by the
method of Hydraulic fracturing were shown in Table 2,
and by the CSIRO overcoring stress relief method were
shown in Table 3.
196
Table 2.
No.
KB
KD1
KE
Sequence
number
Depth of fracture
section (m)
Pb
Pr
PS
PH
P0
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
1
2
3
83.3683.96
116.07116.67
155.38155.98
181.53182.13
232.54233.14
265.18265.78
274.51275.11
302.41303.01
118.87119.47
147.52148.12
185.90186.50
2.83
5.93
12.57
12.91
/
9.11
11.72
11.78
9.16
/
13.02
2.08
4.50
7.57
9.13
10.76
6.59
6.89
8.42
5.36
5.85
5.62
1.66
4.08
6.98
7.83
9.25
5.96
6.26
8.00
3.96
4.65
5.42
0.82
1.14
1.52
1.78
2.28
2.60
2.69
2.96
1.16
1.45
1.82
0.74
1.06
1.44
1.70
2.20
2.01
2.10
2.38
0.46
0.74
1.12
0.76
1.43
5.00
3.78
/
2.52
4.83
3.36
3.80
/
7.40
2.16
6.68
11.93
12.65
14.79
9.28
9.79
13.21
6.07
7.35
9.53
1.66
4.08
6.98
7.83
9.25
5.96
6.26
8.00
3.96
4.65
5.42
2.21
3.07
4.11
4.80
6.15
7.02
7.26
8.00
3.15
3.90
4.92
Direction of
fracture ( )
N77 E
N88 E
N70 E
N77 E
Table 3.
No.
Value
(MPa)
Direction
( )
Dip angle
( )
Value
(MPa)
Direction
( )
Dip Angle
( )
Value
(MPa)
Direction
( )
Dip Angle
( )
1
2
3
4.07
4.26
3.68
272.2
90.6
98.9
7.3
0.8
7.2
2.38
2.86
2.33
3.9
180.6
189.7
13.3
2.9
6.2
2.16
2.68
2.03
154.2
344.9
319.8
74.8
87.0
80.5
Table 4.
reflect the history stress path clearly, a lot of paradoxical results are omitted in this paper and the
data in Table 5 result from hundreds of acoustic
emission tests.
Series
num
Dip angel
( )
Length of hole
(m)
K1
K3
130.0
310.5
80
80
406
498
197
Table 5.
Series
num
Depth
(m)
Value (MPa)
Direction ( )
Value (MPa)
Direction ( )
K1
110
140
260
190
250
490
8.0
13.72
14.40
15.56
14.75
33.74
N16 E
N25 E
N62 E
N89 E
N77 E
N62 E
4.53
5.26
5.40
6.13
8.62
20.13
N106 E
N115 E
N152 E
N179 E
N167 E
N152 E
8.27
9.64
12.20
8.38
9.37
20.68
K3
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Several in-situ stress measurements have been carried out with different methods of hydraulic fracturing,
CSIRO and acoustic emission from 2001 to 2010. The
general law of stress distribution can be concluded that
the field stress state is controlled by the horizontal tectonic movement. The first horizontal principle stress
strike to NEE in shallow-seated rock mass, but the data
shows that the direction tends to be NNE in deeper
site. The New Cathysian Tectonic System can be concluded as the main influential factor for the formation
of current stress field. The biggest values of vertical
principle stresses in history are higher than current
vertical stresses, and it is not reflected in hydraulic
fracturing and CSIRO measurement.
The relationships between depth and principle
stresses of rock mass in Shuichang Iron Mine are
198
Timothy B. Byrne
University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
Akito Tsutsumi
Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
Yuhji Yamamoto
Kochi University, Kochi, Japan
Chandong Chang
Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
ABSTRACT: To determine three-dimensional stress orientation, we carried anelastic strain recovery (ASR)
measurements out using drill core samples taken from a scientific ocean deep drilling project. The lithology
of the core samples is mudstone or siltstone with larger porosities ranged from 35% to 45%. We glued strain
gauges on their cylindrical surface, and successfully obtained high quality anelastic strain data in at least six
directions. And then, we determined the three-dimensional stress orientations by the strain-time curves. The
stress orientations obtained from the ASR core measurements were consistent with those from drilling induced
borehole breakouts and tensile fractures observed in electrical image of borehole logging.
INSTRUCTIONS
Following Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) begun from
2003. Deep drillings related with geodynamics such
as seismogenic zone drillings are one of its important scientific targets. Therefore, determination of in
situ stress state is an important and necessary research
item in such ocean drilling projects. As an IODP scientific deep drilling project, Nankai Trough Seismogenic
Zone Experiments (NanTroSEIZE) is undergoing in
the southwest Japan subduction zone to understand
the physics of an active fault (Kinoshita et al., 2006).
Determination of current in-situ stress is one of the
main scientific objectives of NanTroSEIZE.
Unfortunately, there is no foolproof method
by which magnitudes and orientations of threedimensional in-situ stress can be reliably measured
at large/great depth, although various field and laboratory measurement techniques have been proposed.
In the cases of ocean scientific deep drilling projects,
we suggest that a combined application of borehole
method (s) and core-based method (s) be employed.
199
200
201
Figure 4. As an example of anelastic normal strain recovery raw data, strain curves (thin curves labeled by X,Y, Z etc showing
its measurement direction) measured in nine directions during approximate 8 days of a core sample taken from 912 mbsf in
drilling site C0002. Four thick curves (three principal strains, i.e. Max-imum, Intermediate and Minimum strains, and the
Mean principal strain) were calculated from the nine anelastic strain raw data.
Figure 5. Stereo projections (lower hemisphere) of orientations of three-dimensional principal stresses which are same as
those of the principal anelastic strains from ASR measurements with respect to the true north coordinate system at C0002. The
stress orientations were calculated from anelastic strain values at a certain range of elapsed times, thus the orientations vary
with time increases. Open diamond symbol shows the beginning point and solid symbol shows the final point respectively;
and the larger solid circles shows the average of the stress orientation from beginning to final point.
202
SUMMARY
To determine three-dimensional principal stress orientations, we applied ASR (anelastic strain recovery)
measurements using drill core samples taken from
a scientific ocean deep drilling project i.e. NanTroSEIZE (Nankai Trough Seismogenic Zone Experiments). The lithology of the core samples is mudstone
or siltstone with larger porosities ranged from 35 %
to 45 %. We glued strain gauges on their cylindrical
surface, and successfully obtained high quality anelastic strain data in at least six directions. And then, we
determined the three-dimensional stress orientations
Byrne, T., Lin, W., Tsutsumi, A., Yamamoto, Y., Lewis, J.,
Kanagawa, K., Kitamura, K., Yamaguchi, A., Kimura, G.,
2009. Anelastic strain recovery reveals extension across
SW Japan subduction zone, Geophys. Res. Lett, Vol.36,
L01305, doi: 10.1029/2009GL040749.
Chang C. et al., 2009. Constraining in situ stress tensor in
the Kumano forearc basin, Nankai, based on borehole
wall failure analysis, Eos Trans. AGU, 90(52), Fall Meet.
Suppl., Abstract T21C-1832.
Expedition 314 Scientists, 2009. Expedition 314 Site C0002,
in NanTro-SEIZE Stage 1: Investigations of Seismogenesis, Nankai Trough, Japan, Proc. Integr. Ocean Drill. Program, 314/315/316, doi:10.2204/iodp.proc.314315316.
114.2009.
Kinoshita, M., Moore, G., von Huene, R., Tobin, H., Ranero,
C., 2006. The Seismogenic zone experiment, Oceangraph,
Vol.19, No.4, pp.2838.
Lin, W., Kwasniewski, M., Imamura, T., Matsuki, K.,
2006, Determination of three-dimensional in-situ stresses
from anelastic strain recovery measurement of cores
at great depth. Tectonophysics, Vol. 426, pp. 221238,
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2006.02.019.
Lin, W. et al., 2007, Preliminary results of stress measurement by using drill cores of TCDP Hole-A: an application
of anelastic strain recovery method to three-dimensional
in-situ stress determination. Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci., 18:
379393, doi:10.3319/TAO.2007.18.2.379 (TCDP).
Lin, W. et al., 2009a. A Case Study of 3D Stress Orientation Determination in Shikoku Is. and Kii Pen., Japan,
Proceedings of the International Symposium of the ISRM,
EUROCK 2009, Tayler & Francis, Dubrovnik, Croatia,
Oct 2009, pp.277282.
Lin, W., Cui, J., Wang, L., Tang, Z., Sun, D., Peng, H., Xu, Z.,
IkedaY., 2009b. An introduction of Wenchuan Earthquake
Fault Zone Scientific Drilling and determination of stress
states by a core-based method, Japan Geoscience Union
Meeting 2009, J169-019.
Matsuki, K., 1991. Three-dimensional in-situ stress measurement with anelastic strain recovery of a rock core.
In: Wittke, W. (Ed.), Proc. 7th Int. Congr. Rock Mech.,
Aachen, 1, pp. 557560.
Matsuki, K., and K. Takeuchi, 1993: Three-dimensional insitu stress determination by anelastic strain recovery of a
203
rock core. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr.,
30, 10191022.
Teufel, L. W. Determination of in-situ stress from anelastic
strain recovery measurements of oriented core. 1983, SPE
paper 11649, SPE/DOE Symposium on Low Permeability,
Denver, CO, 421430.
Tobin, H., et al. (2009), Expedition 314 summary, in
NanTroSEIZE Stage 1: Investigations of Seismogenesis, Nankai Trough, Japan, Proc. Integr. Ocean
204
ABSTRACT: Rock is a typically inhomogeneous and anisotropic material, which contains several natural
defects with various scales, such as micro-cracks, pores, fissures, joints inclusions, and precipitates. Large
numbers of acoustic emission (AE) signals will be generated when rock is loaded until failure. Experimental study
on rock damage process under cycling load based on acoustic emission technique was carried out. Mathematical
relation between rock damage and AE counts based on damage theory and load/unload response ratio theory
was established to study rock damage process and Kaiser effect. The Experimental results show that acoustic
emission can reflect the rock damage process. Under cycling loading, rock damage is increasing during unload
process with load increasing. There is internal relation between load/unload response ratio of AE and Kaiser
effect. The damage during unload phase may be the induced factor for the occurrence of AE before the previously
applied stress reached when specimens under re-load.
Keywords:
1
acoustic emission (AE); rock failure; damage; load/unload response ratio; Kaiser effect
INTRODUCTION
Tang and Chen [2, 3] established quantify relationship between AE and failure units distribution based
205
206
5 CONCLUSION
The load/unload response ratio of AE count, Y , can
reflect the damage degree inside rock specimens during load and unload phases. When rock under cycling
load, damage will occur during load and unload process, and the damage of unload process will be
enhance obviously with the increasing of stress. The
load/unload response ratio of AE count, Y , will gradually decrease to the value of 1 and fluctuating until rock
failure, which can be seen as the precursor for forecasting rock failure. In this paper, the load and unload
process are continuous without load holding process,
i.e. unload is immediately carried out after load. In further study, experiments of rock under cycling load with
load holding process will be undertaken to analyze the
damage process.
When stress reach a certain level, AE events will
be generated before previously applied stress reached,
which may be caused by the serious damage during
unload phase. But this relation needs further studied
in theory and experiments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by the Special Subject of the National High-Tech Research and
207
Figure 5. Relationship of stress level with load/unload response ratio of different rock specimens.
Table 1. AE counts during load and unload phase of GS2.
Stress level/%
18.16
27.24
36.32
45.4
54.48
63.56
72.65
81.73
90.8
72
11
89
27
143
36
262
94
457
173
609
403
830
874
959
914
1162
1184
Table 2.
Serial number
Lithology
Phase
GS2
GS3
GS4
MS1
MS2
MS3
Granite
Granite
Granite
Marble
Marble
Marble
72.65
73.48
65.98
64.70
63.93
77.53
REFERENCES
208
Fan Yun-xiao. Dmage, the mechanism of Kaiser effect. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2000,
19(2): 254258. (in Chinese)
Yin X C, Mora p, Peng K, et al. Load-unload response ratio
and accelerating moment/energy release critical region
scaling and earthquake prediction . 2002, pure Appl
Geophys, 159: 25112523.
Mogi k. Some features of recent seismic activity in and
near Japan (2), activity before and after earthquake. Bull
Earthquake Res Inst Untv Tokyo, 1969, 47: 395417.
Li Shu-lin, Yin Xian-gang, Wang Yong-jia, et al. Studies
on acoustic emission characteristics of uniaxial compressive rock failure. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering, 2004, 23(15), 24992503. (in Chinese)
Liu Jian-po, Wang Hong-yong, Yang Yu-jiang, et al. experimental study on different rock locating algorithms
with acoustic emission, Journal of Northeastern University (Natural Science), 2009, 30(8): 11931196.
(in Chinese)
Liang Zheng-zhao, Tang Chunan, Zhu Wan-cheng, et al.
Numerical simulation of influence of rock heterogeneity
on the relation between magnitude and frequency. Journal of Seismological Research, 2003, 26(2): 151155. (in
Chinese)
Zhang Hui-hui, Yan Yu-ding, Yu huai-zhong, et al. Acoustic emission experimental research on large-scaled rock
failure under cycling load-fracture precursor of rock. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2004,
23(21): 36213628. (in Chinese)
Lockner D. The role of acoustic emission in the study of rock
fracture . Int J Rock Mech Mi n GeomechAbst, 1993, 30(7):
883899.
209
ABSTRACT: The scalar characteristics (ie stress magnitudes alone) from ca. 200 Western Australian School
of Mines Acoustic Emission (WASM AE) rock stress tensor determinations are compared with those compiled
in an Earth Rock Stress Tensor Database. The two data sets comprise results obtained from different geologic
and geodynamic regimes within different continents in the upper 3 km of Earths crust. Importantly, the data sets
are restricted to results from techniques that attempt to measure, without a priori assumption, the complete rock
stress tensor and are presented as reported in the literature, without prejudice or censorship.
1 INTRODUCTION
The WASM AE stress measurement technique
(Villaescusa et al., 2002), samples the Kaiser Effect
(Kaiser, 1953, Holcomb, 1993) in 6 independent orientations from oriented sub-cores taken from oriented
master core.
To date, over 200 WASM AE stress tensor determinations have now been conducted from near the surface
(eg. Villaescusa et al., 2002) to a depth over 2.5 km
(eg. Villaescusa et al., 2009a). Detailed laboratory
investigations have been conducted on the technique
at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology,
Tsukuba, Japan (Villaescusa et al., 2009b) and further
laboratory investigations have been commissioned
from Sandia National Research Laboratories, USA.
Detailed site investigations have been conducted at
mine sites in Australia (eg. Windsor, 2005, 2006, 2007
and Windsor et al., 2007), Chile (Windsor et al., 2006a,
2006b) and Peru (Windsor, 2009a) in attempts to reconcile the stress measurement results with local conditions of rock strain, rock structure and rock strength.
Here, we record the scalar characteristics (ie stress
magnitudes alone) from ca. 200 WASM AE rock stress
tensor determinations obtained from different geological, geodynamic regimes from different continents
and compare these to those compiled in an Earth
Rock Stress Tensor Database (ERSTD) (Windsor,
2009b). The data comprises results from techniques
that attempt to measure, without a priori assumption,
the complete rock stress tensor (eg. it does not include
results obtained from the Hydraulic Fracturing Technique). The data are presented as reported, without
prejudice or censorship.
2 DISTRIBUTIONS OF STRESS MAGNITUDES
WITH DEPTH
The distributions of the vertical stress and the principal
normal stresses with depth in the upper 3 km of Earths
211
Figure 2. Distributions of principal normal stresses with depth, measured by WASM AE and all measurements from the
ERSTD.
212
213
Figure 5. Relationship of the maximum shear stress with the mean normal stress measured by WASM AE and data from
ERSTD.
CONCLUSIONS
214
Figure 6. Proportional relationships between a) the principal normal stresses with the mean normal stress and b) the principal
shear stresses with the mean shear stress measured by WASM AE and all measurements from the ERSTD.
215
REFERENCES
Brace, W.F. and Kohlstedt, D.L. 1980. Limits on lithospheric
stress imposed by laboratory experiments. Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 85, No. B11, pp.62486252.
Holcomb, D.J. 1993. General theory of the Kaiser effect. Int
J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr. 30, 929935.
Kaiser, J. 1953. Erkenntnisse und Folgerungen aus der
Messung von Geruschen bei Zugbeanspruchung von
metallischen Werkstoffen. Archiv Eisenhttenwesen 24,
4345.
Townend, J. and Zoback, M.D., 2000. How Faulting Keeps
the Crust Strong. Geology 28: 399402.
Villaescusa, E., Seto, M. and Baird, G., 2002. Stress measurements from oriented core. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 39(5): 603615.
Villaescusa, E., Windsor, C.R., Baird, G.R. and Seto, M.
2003. Stress measurements from cored rock. Minerals and Energy Research Institute of Western Australia,
Research Report No. 233. Project 329, Minerals and
Energy Research Institute of Western Australia: Perth. 124
pages.
Villaescusa, E., Li, J., Windsor, C.R. and Seto, M. 2006.
A comparison of overcoring and AE stress profiles
with depth in Western Australian Mines. In-Situ Rock
Stress: Measurement, Interpretation & Applications,
International Symposium on In-Situ Rock Stress. M. Lu,
216
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the results from a number of laboratory testing experiments conducted
under uniaxial and triaxial conditions. A high speed AE monitoring system was used to record the maximum
amplitude and waveform for the AE signals with no major loss of events, even for AE event rates of the order of
several thousands of events per second, such as they are normally observed before a catastrophic full scale rock
mass failure event. The detailed damaging process as stress was increased was determined by monitoring the
complete spacio-temporal distribution of microcracking events. The results showed that for samples of similar
orientation and collected immediately adjacent to each other, the magnitude of the stress field determined using
a triaxial testing set-up is similar to the stress level determined using uniaxial samples.
1
INTRODUCTION
217
feeding into the highspeed waveform recording system, which had a maximum sampling rate of 40 ns and
a dynamic range of 12 bits. Two peak detectors were
used to capture the values of the maximum amplitudes,
from 2 artificially selected sensors, after 20 or 40 dB
preamplifiers. Such high-speed AE monitoring system
can record the maximum amplitude and waveform of
the AE signals with no major loss of events; even for
AE event rates of the order of several thousand events
per second such as they are normally observed before
a catastrophic failure of hard rocks.
The AE hypocenters were determined by using
the arrival times of the P wave and the measured
P-velocities during every test. Location errors are
generally less than 12 mm for fine-grained rocks
and slightly greater for coarse-grained rocks, and are
caused by the effect of a non-homogeneous velocity field. By this, it is possible to study the detailed
damaging process within stressed rock samples, by
monitoring the complete spatio-temporal distribution
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
218
Results for this sample show that during the 2nd (and
additional loading cycles), significant AE activity was
observed (See Figure 9). In all phases AE activity initiated at a stress level slightly higher than 20 MPa, in
219
CONCLUDING REMARKS
220
221
S.Z. Sheng
Institute of Geophysics, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing, P. R. China
ABSTRACT: We estimate the absolute stress value at the earthquake source region of a small cubic area in
Homestead valley fault segment which broke during the Landers earthquake, using seismic stress drop and
rotations of stress axes during the event. We obtained the pre-seismic compressive, intermediate and extensional
principal stress values as 323, 319 and 312 MPa in the depth of 812 km. The shear stresses on the fault plane
before and after the event are 6 MPa and 1 MPa respectively. The results show that normal stress increased after
the earthquake, which helps to terminate the rupture process. The pre-seismic shear-stress is greater than that
after the quake and their differences roughly correspond to the seismic stress drop. The post-seismic shear-stress
is positive, which means no overshooting in co-seismic slip. The differential stress value is less than the absolute
stress value, and the shear stress is also relatively small.
1 INTRODUCTION
The study of tectonic stress field plays an important
role in the research of geodynamics. The world stress
map plan collects global tectonic stress measurements
and research results to establish global stress database
(Zoback, 1992). Although we have some understanding on stress field, relatively little is known about
the stress value. Stress is a key factor in a variety of
seismic dynamic and geodynamic problems, so geophysicists always seek a method to estimate crustal
stress value. At present, only the complete stress tensor at the shallow crust can be directly measured by
using scientific drill holes data (Brudy et al. 1997). Scientists have tried to quantitatively estimate the crustal
stress value according to focal mechanisms and fault
scrape data, combining with geological and lithological data (Zoback, 1992, Plenefisch & Bonjer, 1997).
Some researchers estimated shear stress on fault plane
according to the change of slip direction and stress
drop (Spudich, 1992, Spudich et al. 1998). Using rotations of principal stress axes and seismic stress change,
Wesson & Boyd (2007) proposed the absolute partial stress tensor determination method and applied
to 2002 Denali earthquake. Their results show that the
spatially averaged shear stress resolved onto the fault
plane is 14 MPa before the earthquake, and nearly
zero after the quake. Fialko et al. (2005) determined the
differential stress at San Andreas fault is on the order
of 50 MPa. Differential stresses at the other regions
223
Time
length
Compresive/Intermediate/
Extensional principal
Number stress axes
of data (Plunge/Azimuth)
R
10 years 18
185 days 49
Misfit
(/ )
0.25 2.43
0.60 11.53
224
Then from (1), (3) and (5), we can get the following
form:
i.e.
225
3.2
Since the 3 equations in (6) are trigonometric functions concerning the stress direction, they are relatively
accurate, while the rest 2 equations of (13) and (14)
are concerning R, that show relatively large standard
errors in the stress inversion (Yin, 1996), we set, in
actual calculation, the standard errors of (13) and (14)
as 10 times larger than that of the first 3 equations in
(6) with both standard errors obeying the bell-shaped
distribution. Assuming that the a priori estimate of
the intermediate principal stress value is the lithostatic
pressure at the average depth of the seismic rupture,
and the compressive and extensional stresses are the
lithostatic pressure plus and minus , which is commonly adopted as 10 MPa for the tectonic stress value
(King et al. 1994), respectively, i.e.:
Assuming the rock density () is 2.7 103 kg/m3 ,
gravity constant (g) is 9.8 kg m/s2 . And supposing the
above equation set can be simplified as:
Here
d is the vector for observational data, x is the vector for unknown parameters, x0 is the vector of a
priori stress value that is taken as equation (15), d
is the vector for observational data errors, and Cd
is the covariance matrix of observational data. Let
d = d Ax0 , then formula (16) can be rewritten as:
226
Table 2.
n
e
RP
10
10
10
10
10
8
8
8
8
8
12
12
12
12
12
10
5
15
20
80
10
5
15
20
80
10
5
15
20
80
267.75
267.76
267.73
267.71
267.51
217.11
217.13
217.10
217.08
216.87
318.38
318.39
318.36
318.34
318.14
260.23
260.26
260.20
260.17
259.84
208.93
208.96
208.91
208.88
208.55
311.52
311.55
311.49
311.47
311.14
266.37
266.39
266.35
266.33
266.09
215.73
215.75
215.71
215.69
215.44
317.02
317.04
317.00
316.98
316.73
6.15
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.22
6.40
6.40
6.41
6.41
6.47
5.89
5.89
5.90
5.90
5.97
267.78
267.80
267.76
267.74
267.50
216.82
216.84
216.80
216.78
216.54
318.75
318.77
318.73
318.71
318.47
1.58
1.58
1.58
1.59
1.65
1.96
1.96
1.97
1.97
2.03
1.20
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.26
0.64
0.62
0.71
0.84
6.68
0.93
0.92
1.00
1.12
6.92
0.53
0.51
0.61
0.74
6.63
272.39
272.40
272.37
272.35
272.15
221.74
221.76
221.72
221.71
221.51
323.03
323.05
323.02
323.00
322.80
* and h are used to determine a priori values of compressive, intermediate and extensional principal value according to (15), the unit of
h is km, 1 , 2 and 3 are the pre-seismic compressive, intermediate
and extensional principal stress, n and are the normal stress and
the shear stress before the quake, n and are the normal stress and
the shear stress after the quake, and the unit of all stress is MPa, Rp is
the post-fit residual with the unit of MPa2 .
standard error of observational data is zero, the resolution would be equal to the number of unknown
parameters (the highest resolution, 3 for this study).
Therefore, the turning point of the trade-off curve in
Figure 4a is the best estimation of the standard error of
observational data, corresponding to 0.3 MPa, with
a comprehensive consideration of both the resolution
and post-fit residual.
The second step is to seek for the appropriate standard error of the a priori model. Based on the observation data standard error of 0.3 MPa, we calculate the
post-fit residual and resolution with different a priori
model standard error (x) (Fig. 4b). With a comprehensive consideration of both the model stability and the
post-fit residual, the turning point of 60.0 MPa in the
trade-off curve is the best estimation of standard error
of prior model, which means that there is 60.0 MPa of
parameter space to be determined by observational
data.
By applying the optimal standard error of the
observation data with 0.3 MPa and that of the prior
model with 60.0 MPa obtained above, we also changed
initial input of h and in the range of 812 km and
520 MPa to search the lowest post-fit residual in the
inversion (Table 2). In fact, we also gave an extreme
as 80 MPa, and the results only changed a little.
We can see that different a priori values have strong
influences on the value of pre-seismic principal stress
and normal stress, but less on the shear stress. This
implies that although the absolute stress value has certain relationship with stress rotation and stress drop,
the present data cannot constrain it very well, that is
why the studies of Wesson & Boyd (2007) and Hsu
et al. (2009) do not consider the absolute stress value.
We selected the lowest post-fit residual of 0.5 MPa2 ,
and got the compressive, intermediate and extensional
227
228
ABSTRACT: Conventional inversion methods for in situ stress determination from fault slip data obtained
from focal mechanism solutions, define the optimum stress as the maximum point of the object function. In this
research, object functions are computed for a mesh of principal stress directions and stress ratios for fault slip
data obtained from fault plane solution for aftershocks of Bam Earthquake in Iran, in 2003. Several stress state
possibilities are found with close values of object function. To overcome this problem, a method is introduced
in which the stress states with less than 5 percent difference with maximum value of the object function are
selected and categorized according to their stress ratio. Significant stress states for each category are identified
as high concentrated loci of principal stresses. The results obtained in this method are compared with results
obtained from multiple inverse method which shows a close agreement.
1
INTRODUCTION
2 INVERSION METHODS
2.1 Conventional stress inverse method
The main purpose of conventional inverse method is
to find the directions of stresses which simultaneously
justify a group of fault plane solutions. To serve this
purpose, two main assumptions should be made: the
slip on the fault plane is in the direction of maximum
229
The object function is evaluated for the full variety of stress states. The stress state which produces
the maximum object function is then assumed as the
optimal stress state.
2.2 Visualization of the topography of object
function
Yamaji (2003) introduced a method based on topographic visualization of the object Function. This
method, which is also called Ginkgo model, utilizes
main and post processors to make a stereogram that
shows the stress ratio by a range of colors and the value
of object function by saturation of colors. The mesh is
generated using Rakhamanov et al. (1994) algorithm.
Three hundred directions of 3 axis are generated with
equal intervals and the direction of 1 is rotated about
the 3 axis with an interval of 10 . The stress ratio
is divided in 11 grades from 0 to 1 with an interval
of 0.1. The total numbers of grid points are therefore
300 18 11 = 59400 (Yamaji 2002). The main processor calculates the angular misfit at all grid points of
a computational mesh in 4-parameter space.The object
function for each grid point is calculated according
to calculated misfits and tabulates the results with the
direction of stress axis and stress ratios arranged in the
ascending order of object function. The post processor is projected the tabulated results on the stereogram
DATA SET
230
231
Table 1. The object function evaluated for 59 400 grid points in ascending order. Fmin shows minimum value
of object function. Relative fit, R, is object function minus minimum object function. Rm shows the maximum
value of relative fit. Difference from maximum relative fit is (RmR)/Rm
1 -axis
3 -axis
Number
Relative
fit (R)
FFmin
1
2
50761
50762
57746
57747
58646
58647
59295
59296
59399
59409
157
157
183
34
220
231
15
35
38
161
11
10
0
0
29
42
0
0
20
24
10
81
9
10
247
247
282
154
310
321
109
144
129
341
106
118
87
87
15
29
32
65
11
37
4
9
28
61
0
1
1
2
0
2
2
4
4
10
0
0
0
0
2852
2853
5134
5135
5419
5420
5647
5648
5703
5705
Difference
from Rm
(Rm R)/Rm
1
1
0.500088
0.499912
0.100088
0.099912
0.050131
0.049956
0.010167
0.009991
0.000351
0
232
5 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 5. Position of 1 and 3 axis for different stress
ratios on stereogram. shows the stress ratio. Concentrations of axis are written below each stereogram in the form
of (Azimuth/Plunge).
233
assume that the P and T axis to be directions for principal stresses approximately. Generally 1 lies between
P axis and fault trend and 3 lies between T axis and
auxiliary plane. The classical approach, which is based
on Wallace-Bott hypothesis, tries to find out the stress
state which creates minimum angular misfit. An object
function is defined as summation of a non decreasing
function of angular misfit for all fault slip data. The
method tries to find the stress state which maximizes
the object function. The third approach, which is called
Multiple Inverse Method, is a numerical technique to
separate stress state from heterogeneous fault slip data.
The fault slip data are obtained from focal mechanism solution for Bam earthquake aftershocks and
focal mechanism solutions are discussed to be consistent with N-S fault trend as explained by Tatar et al.
(2005). In the current paper, object function is computed and tabulated for studied data set and resulted
mesh. It is shown that there are a lot of stress states with
different stress ratios which result in close neighborhood to the maximum point of the object function. To
find the best solution for such a complicated case, grid
points with object functions less than 5 percent difference with maximum value of the object function are
chosen and are categorized according to their stress
ratios. The concentration of grid points is assumed
to be the optimum stress state for that stress ratio. A
rotation in direction of principal stresses is observed
according to change of stress ratio. For stress ratios
less than 0.5, direction of 1 is positioned between
P axis and N-S trend (fault plane) and direction of
3 lies between T axis and E-W trend (auxiliary plane).
This is reverse for stress ratios more than 0.5.The stress
states related to stress ratio less than 0.5 seem more
acceptable for studied data set.
Multiple inverse method is also utilized to study
the data set. The main cluster of stress state obtained
from this method is also consistent with stress states
obtained from object function analyses with low stress
ratios. To conclude, the direction of maximum and
minimum principle stresses in Bam area which has
resulted in fault slip during Bam earthquake should be
somewhere in the areas which are indicated by dashed
lines in Figure 7. The approximated azimuth and
plunge of the center of both areas which show the possible direction of maximum and minimum principle
234
Yuan Gao
Institute of Earthquake Science, Chinese Earthquake Administration, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: Shear-wave splitting (seismic birefringence) shows that fluid-saturated microcracks throughout
the Earths crust are so closely-spaced they verge on fracturing and hence are critical-systems. Such criticality
imposes fundamental new properties on conventional sub-critical geophysics that resolve several previously
inexplicable geophysical anomalies as well as implying a New Geophysics that has implications and applications for almost all solid-earth processes and operations including particularly hydrocarbon-production,
carbon-sequestration, and forecasting-earthquakes, as well as suggesting new techniques for investigating
currently-important solid-earth processes. This review summarises this new understanding of fluid-rock deformation where the new properties include: monitorability, calculability, predictability, universality, and extreme
sensitivity to initial conditions. These new properties suggest that New Geophysics is a fundamental advance in
solid-earth geoscience.
1 INTRODUCTION
Conventionally, in situ rocks in the uppermost half of
the crust are considered to be brittle and elastically
isotropic, except where heavily fractured rocks induce
seismic anisotropy and cause shear-wave splitting.
However, there are several unexplained anomalies:
(1) Stress-aligned shear-wave splitting, indicating
some form of anisotropy is almost universally
observed throughout the Earths crust and uppermost
mantle; (2) The inability of oil companies, despite
immense research investment, to extract more than an
average of 30% to 40% of the oil in any reservoir. (3)
Why in situ rock is so weak to shear-stress that the
stress drops at earthquakes are typically 2 to 4 MPa
independent of the enormous range of the earthquake
energy release. We identify further anomalies below.
Clearly the conventional understanding in situ rock is
not wholly correct.
Note that we are so accustomed to many of these
anomalies that they are seldom questioned. They are
merely accepted as the way in situ rocks behave,
without appreciating the underlying dilemma that we
cannot understand the mechanisms.
We review evidence that pervasive distributions of
stress-aligned fluid-saturated microcracks in almost
all rocks in the crust are so closely-spaced they are
critical-systems. Critical-systems are a New Physics
(Davies 1989; Crampin & Chastin 2003), hence a New
Geophysics (NG) (Crampin 2006) and a New Geology (Crampin & Clarkson 2009), that imposes a range
of new properties on conventional sub-critical solidearth geoscience. We review how these new properties
explain anomalies in our understanding of in situ
rock, and suggest new applications and interpretations that are a substantial advance in understanding
conventional solid-earth geoscience.
2 SHEAR-WAVE SPLITTING
Shear-wave splitting is the key observable. Splitting occurs when shear-waves propagate through
some form of seismic anisotropy (Crampin 1981).
Widespread observations of stress-aligned shear-wave
splitting suggest that almost all rocks in the crust
of the Earth, and probably the uppermost mantle, are pervaded by stress-aligned fluid-saturated
micro-cracks (Crampin 1994, 2003; Crampin & Peacock 2008). Only transverse isotropy (hexagonal
anisotropic symmetry) with a horizontal axis of symmetry (TIH-anisotropy) can provide the observed
parallel polarisations, and the only common cause
of TIH in all rocks is stress-aligned parallel-vertical
fluid-saturated microcracks (Crampin 1978); where
only microcracks have sufficient compliance to modify crack-geometry in CO2 -injection experiments
(Angerer et al. 2002), and in near-negligible changes
of stress at great distance from impending earthquakes
(Crampin & Peacock 2005, 2008).
The microcrack pore-fluid is usually a water-based
salt solution but can be hydrocarbons. Figure 1a
235
Figure 1. (a) Schematic illustration of stress-aligned shear-wave splitting in the stress-aligned fluid-saturated microcracked
crust, where sV , sH , and sh are the vertical, and maximum and minimum horizontal differential stresses, respectively (after
Crampin 1994). (b) Schematic illustration of observed percentages of shear-wave velocity anisotropy interpreted as uniform
dimensionless distributions of equally-sized circular cracks, where is crack density and a is relative crack radius (after
Crampin 1994). (c) APE-modelling: schematic illustration of increasing differential stress deforming microcrack geometry
(solid lines) of fluid-saturated rock (with a porosity of 6%) (after Crampin 1999).
2.1
236
Table 1. Match of APE-modelling to observations of shearwaves (details in Crampin & Peacock 2005 updated).
STATIC EFECTS
Shear-wave velocity anisotropy (SWVA) below 1 km km
depth
1 SWVA in all rocks independent of rock type/geology
2 Minimum SWVA in intact rock: APE/obs: 1.5% /
1.5%
3 Maximum SWVA in intact rock: APE/obs: 5.5% /
4.5%
4 Narrow range of crack density: 0.015 < < 0.045
5 Proximity of fracture-criticality/ percolation threshold
6 Consistent SWVA in explor. surveys & above
earthquakes
Other field observations
7 Fracture-criticality specifies crack distributions with
dimensions over 9 orders of magnitude
8 90 -flips of polarisations in critically-high pressurised
rocks
9 Fossils deformation matched by transformation grids
Stress-aligned shear-wave splitting is now a recognised property of the crust and mantle with substantial
numbers of static observations above earthquakes
(reviewed by Crampin & Peacock 2008), and in seismic exploration (no overall review, but there are
hundreds of observations).
Table 1 lists the wide range of observations of
static and temporal variations in shear-wave splitting
in the crust (details specified in Crampin & Peacock
2005). All observations are approximately matched by
APE-modelling. The match can only be approximate
because there is never enough information available
about the sub-surface behaviour for detailed analysis.
There are no known effects that are not matched
by APE. Since NG of fluid-saturated microcracks
is integral to APE, even this approximate match to
observations is strong support for the existence of
critical-systems and NG in almost all rocks.
DYNAMIC EFFECTS
Changes in SWVA during production procedures
10 Changes after pumping tests
11 Changes after critically-high- and low-press. CO2 injections
Changes in shear-wave time-delays (SWTD) before
earthquakes
12 Stress-accumulation changes in retrospect before
14 EQs
13 Stress-relaxation changes in retrospect before 9 EQs
14 Successful stress-forecast of M = 5 EQ in Iceland
15 Plate-wide deformation before 2004 M = 9 Sumatra
EQ
Changes in SWVA/SWTD before Volcanic eruptions
16 Changes before 1966 Vatnajkull eruption, Iceland
17 Changes before Mt Ruapehu eruption, New Zealand
18 Changes before 2001 eruption Mt Etna, Sicily
Changes during laboratory experiments
19 Changes in SWVA and permeability in uniaxial
stress-cells
20 Changes in SWVA in gas-, water-, oil-filled stress-cells
Table 2.
237
3.1
Explanations of anomalies
Figure 2. (a) Deformation patterns in fossils illustrated by simple transformation grids (after Crampin & Clarkson, 2009);
(b) Seismic reflection record sections of effects of CO2 -injection (sequestration) into a carbonate reservoir (after Angerer
et al. 2002): five traces to left are observed, three traces to right are modelled (without reverberations); (c) Effects of small
earthquake energy M = 3.5 earthquake at 70 km distance from the prototype SMS: a) P; SV -& SH -wave travel times;
SWVA; NS & EW GPS measurements; water-well levels; and histogram of seismicity (after Crampin et al. 2003). Full details
can be found in the cited papers.
238
3.1.5
239
5.2
DISCUSSION
240
Yuanbo Zhao
Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: The acoustoelasticity method has been developed to estimate the in-situ rock stresses by the measurement of velocity anisotropy around a borehole. The velocity anisotropy around a borehole can be induced by
intrinsic anisotropy or the applied stresses of rocks. The practical rocks exhibit the anisotropy inevitably. Therefore, In order to advance the acoustoelasticity method for the measurement of in-situ rock stresses, the influence
of intrinsic anisotropy of rocks on the stress-induced velocity anisotropy around a borehole is investigated in
this paper. First, the acoustoelasticity theory of finite-deformation solids is introduced briefly. Secondly, The
stress and displacement fields around the anisotropic borehole subjected to the far-field stress fields are given
by Stroh formalism. Thirdly, the assumption of the body waves propagation along the direction of the borehole
axes yields the quantitative borehole acoustoelasticity. Lastly, we discuss the intrinsic anisotropy of the borehole
on the stress-induced velocity anisotropy around the borehole in detail.
INTRODUCTION
It has been shown in many experiments that the stressinduced wave velocity variations in rocks are about
102 103 /MPa, which are much more than that of
metallic materials (Hirao & Ogi 2003, Johnson &
Rasolofosaon 1996, Nur & Simmons 1969, Pao et al
1984, Thurston & Brugger 1964, Toupin & Bernstein
1961, Vega 2003). Therefore, acoustoelasticity method
being based on the wave-velocity measurement around
a borehole will become a promising method of in-situ
stresses measurement, which promises non-contact,
non-destructive measurements and reusable sensors.
Mao et al. are the first authors to my knowledge to
estimate in situ stresses by measuring stress-induced
body-wave velocity anisotropy around a borehole of
10.2 cm diameter on a 35.6 cm cube of Nugget sandstone under biaxial compressional loadings in 1984
(Mao et al 1984). They measured the shear wave velocities of polarization either parallel or perpendicular to
the principal stress directions in the borehole. They
introduced a simple form of the stress-induced velocity variations around the borehole and used the biaxial
velocity data to back-calculate the applied stresses.
Sinha et al applied the non-uniform stress fields
around the borehole into the acoustoelastic formula for
the homogenous pre-deformed solids directly to obtain
the expressions for the compressional- and shearwave velocities of body waves propagating along
the axial direction of the borehole in an isotropic
medium subject to the homogeneous far-field horizontal stresses (Sinha & Kostek 1996). Winkler et al
exerted an in-plane uni-axial compressional loading
along the = 00 to measure the compressional- and
shear-wave velocities for body waves propagating
along the axial direction of the borehole in a sandstone
sample (Winkler et al 1998). Their measurements for
the locations of = 00 or = 900 with a distance
of 2 borehole radii from the center of the borehole
agree with the theoretical prediction of Sinha (Sinha
& Kostek 1996). Tian and Wang simplified the stress
fields at the borehole wall as the uniform stress fields
to present a simplified acoustoelastic relation for body
waves propagating along the borehole wall (Tian &
Wang 2006). In the above-mentioned researches, all
rocks are assumed to be isotropic. To our knowledge,
there are no quantitative body-wave acoustoelastic
relations around an anisotropic borehole.
In this paper, considering the non-uniform stress
fields around an anisotropic borehole, we present a
quantitative borehole acoustoelasticity for body waves
to discuss the influence of rock anisotropy on the
stress-induced velocity anisotropy around the borehole.
2 ACOUSTOELASTICITY THEORY
Based on finite deformation theory of elastic solids,
the acoustoelasticity theory is introduced to establish a
241
theoretical basis for stress-induced wave-velocity variations of solids. Assumptions of the initial static deformation, small dynamic disturbance, and hyperelastic
constitutive equation yield the equations of motion for
displacements u(, t) induced by the dynamic disturbance with reference to the natural coordinate system
(Pao et al 1984)
i
i
where T
and e
are the initial static stresses and
strains, respectively. 0 is the mass density free of
stresses.
the region outside the circular hole in z plane is transformed to the region outside the unit circle in plane,
where
p and a ( = 1,2,3) are the three complex eigenvalues and eigenvectors of eigenvalue problem
QUANTITATIVE BOREHOLE
ACOUSTOELASTICITY
where
T
T
and
are
1 = {11 , 0, 213 }
2 = {212 , 22 , 223 }
T
the far-field strain vectors. t
=
{
,
1
11
12
13 } and
T
t
2 = {12 , 22 , 23 } are the far-field stress vectors.
Correspondingly, the strains 1 = {11 , 0, 213 }T
and 2 = {212 , 22 , 223 }T are
242
3.2
A plane harmonic wave propagating along the direction of the borehole axis is considered, whose displacements are represented in the cylindrical coordinate
system as
where D = V / C11 / is the normalized wave velocity. Polarization of shear waves can be given by the
eigenvectors.
4
243
Thurston RN, Brugger K. 1964. Third-Order Elastic Constants and the Velocity of Small Amplitude Elastic Waves
in Homogeneously Stressed Media. Physical Review 133:
160410.
Tian J, Wang E. 2006. Ultrasonic method for measuring insitu stress based on acoustoelasticity theory.YanshilixueYu
Gongcheng Xuebao/Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Engineering 25: 371924.
Toupin RA, Bernstein B. 1961. Sound Waves in Deformed
Perfectly Elastic Materials. Acoustoelastic Effect. The
Journal Of The Acoustical Society Of America 33: 21625
Vega S. 2003. Intrinsic and stress-induced velocity anisotropy
in unconsolidated sands. Ph.D thesis thesis. Stanford
University. 181 pp.
Winkler KW, Sinha BK, Plona TJ. 1998. Effects of borehole
stress concentrations on dipole anisotropy measurements.
Geophysics 63: 117.
244
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the history of china volume borehole deformation observation is introduced. The
Chinese volume-strain product named model TJ-2, has the features of highest resolution, linearity and long time
stability. And the principle, transducer structure, technical specifications, install method, data acquisition, and
network communication technique etc. are introduced in this paper. The observation locations and earth-quake
precursor application in china are also described.
1
INTRODUCTION
A key observational requirement in the study of earthquakes is to observe deformation. The borehole deformation instrument is a very important observational
tool. Chinas earthquake precursor observation strain
used in drilling equipment, begun in 1966 (Chen
1995), has already had 40 years of history. The
low-pressure magnetic sensitivity of borehole stress
apparatus was used during 19661983. The volumetype strain called TJ-1 instruments had been used
successfully in 1983 (Su 1997,1985), and now is called
TJ-2. At first, this high sensitivity instrument was not
installed more until 2003 and only 31 units installed,
mainly in northern China. In 2006, more are installed,
although the country has already about 100 sets. In this
paper, the TJ-2 principle, transducer structure, technical specifications, install method, data acquisition
and network communication technique are introduced.
In addition, its observation location and earthquake
precursor application in china are also described.
245
TJ-1
TJ-2
Sensitivity
Resolution
Sensor number
Range
Dynamic Range
Noise Level
Self-stability
Calibration
1 mV/1 108
(11.5) 109
1
(23) 106
(23) 103
0.1 mV
1 107 /a
Constant
Voltage(5s)
<1%
114
Linearity
Sensor diameter
(0.21)%
108
backup sensors inside that the instrument performance is fully consistent with it, where its four
endpoints are connected to the electronic circuits
the land side in peacetime.
At present, China has nearly one hundred sets of TJ2 instrument in the working stations, the majority of
which made a very good observational data. The data
play a good role in the Earth science research and the
earthquake prediction. The results of a small number
of observational data is not very satisfactory, partly
because of various reasons, such as drilling conditions itself. Figure 4 shows the observation stations
distribution map in China.
Figure 5 shows the value curve on QINGZHONG
station in Chinas Hainan Province on 118 minutes,
December 2008.
246
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is founded by Exploration technology deep
and experimental study (SinoProbe-06-02) and the
Basic scientific Special Fund (ZDJ2007-2) supported
by Institute of Crustal Dynamics, CEA.
REFERENCES
247
ABSTRACT: For large underground cavern established in bank slope with V shape valley, estimation of
in-situ rock stress and failure of wall rock is very signification, not only for prevention from potential failure,
large deformation, and instability of caverns, but also for the optimizing design of rock supporting. As a typical
example, the relationship between valley rock stress field ofYalong river and rock failure of underground caverns
is discussed. Firstly, the differences between elastic simulation method and elasto-plastic simulation method of
in-situ rock stress field at V shape valley are analyzed, which shows that the rock stress field calculated by
elasto-plastic constitutive model is more reasonable. Then, the subfield of valleys stress field is marked out
according to the ratio between maximum principle stress and vertical stress, which is useful for position design
of cavern in bank. And, the rock failure of cavern, which is in different horizontal and vertical position of bank
slope, has been summarized through statistical analysis of 9 meshed models using numerical method. Whats
more, the comprehension about rock failure of Jining I underground caverns and in-situ rock stress filed of
Yalong river valley is discussed and the conclusion is that the in-situ initial rock stress condition in stratum,
including value and direction of stress, is the basic force source of rock failure in underground engineering.
INTRODUCTION
maximum principle stress and vertical stress. The failure characters of wall rock in different horizontal and
vertical position of slope is summarized also through
the way of statistical analysis of 9 numerical calculating examples. Whats more, the relationship between
rock failure of Jining I underground caverns in China
and geo-stress filed of Yalong river valley is discussed
based on above understanding.
2
249
Rock
E/GPa
C/MPa
II
III
IV
2542
522
2540
0.25
0.3
0.35
2.0
0.91.5
0.6
0.95
0.75
0.58
In elastic result, the zone of maximum stress concentration is located at the surface of valley, but that
zone of stress concentration in elasto-plastic result is
located at depth about 80 m under the bottom of valley. Indeed, the surface marble should failure when the
maximum principle stress reaches 110 MPa in elastic
result (according to elastic mechanics, the means
compress stress and the + means tension stress),
since the rock mass of marble has the strength which is
not more than 60 MPa. The elasto-plastic result shows
that the maximum principle stress, about 70 MPa,
concentrates under the bottom is more reasonable. This
result is agree well with the usual phenomenon that
the disking phenomenon often appears at the inside of
valley but not surface (Zhu 1985).
250
The elasto-plastic result shows the accessorial tendency of geo-stress from small to large step by step
in bank slope. But, this instance is not agree with the
elastic calculated result, which shows violent grads
of geo-stress at surface of bank slope. Since the rock
at surface is weak, there has not condition to storage large geo-stress. So, the geo-stress field at bank
slope simulated by elasto-plastic model is seems more
reasonable.
251
252
253
CONCLUSION
Taking the Jinping I project as an example, the relationship between rock stress of V shape valley and
rock failure of underground cavern is discussed. In the
study, several cognitions can be concluded.
Firstly, the reasonable model to simulate the in-situ
rock stress at V shape valley is the elasto-plastic constitutive model, which can reflect the in-situ practical
yield of stratum in numerical simulation.
Secondly, the design of cavern position in bank
slope should locate at the relative safety island to
reduce or avoid the failure of wall rock.
Thirdly, the failure distribution of wall rock in
Jinping I underground caverns indicates that the insitu initial rock stress condition in stratum is the
force source of rock failure and the direction of the
maximum controls the place of rock failure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work is financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No.
40902090 and National Special Funds for Major
State Basic Research Project under Grant No.
2010CB732006. The authors would like to give their
acknowledgement to Mr. Song Shenwu, Mr. Zhou
zhong, Mr. Zeng Xionghui for their assistance on basic
information of Jinping I project.
REFERENCES
Hoek, E., Kaiser, P. K., & Bawden, W. F. (2000). Support of
underground excavations in hard rock: Taylor & Francis.
Hudson J.A., Cornet F.H.& Christiansson R. (2003). ISRM
Suggested Method s for rock stress estimationPart 1:
Strategy for rock stress estimation. International Journal
of Rock Mechanical and Mining, Vol.40, 991998.
Jiang Quan, Feng Xiating, Chen Jianlin, et al. (2008). Nonlinear inversion of 3D initial geo-stress field in Jinping
II Hydropower Station re-gion. Rock and Soil Mechanics,
Vol.29, 3003-3010 (in Chinese).
Li, G., Mizuta, Y., Ishida, T., Li, H., Nakama, S., & Sato, T.
(2009). Stress field determination from local stress measurements by numerical modelling. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 46(1), 138147.
Li H, Ma YC, An QM, et al. (2006). 3D stress measurement
in deep tunnel by over-coring and hydraulic fracturing
method. In-situ Rock stress Measurement, Interpretation
and application, London 2006, Taylor & Fracis Group,
4347.
Li, S., Yu, H., Liu, Y., & Wu, F. (2008). Results from in-situ
monitoring of displacement, bolt load, and disturbed zone
of a powerhouse cavern during excavation process. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences,
45(8), 15191525.
Liu J, Feng XT, Qiao LP, et al. (2006). Back analysis geostress
field river valley region a case study of Laxiwa. In-situ
Rock stress Measurement, Interpretation and application,
London 2006, Taylor & Fracis Group, 433440.
Martin, C. D., & Christiansson, R. (2009). Estimating the
potential for spalling around a deep nuclear waste repository in crystalline rock. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 46(2), 219228.
Rajmeny, P. K., Singh, U. K., & Sinha, B. (2002). Predicting rock failure around boreholes and drives adjacent to
stopes in Indian mines in high stress regions. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 39(2),
151164.
Read, R. S. (2004). 20 years of excavation response studies at
AECLs Underground Research Laboratory. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 41(8),
12511275.
Tan, C., Wang, R., Sun, Y., Lei, W., Wu, S., & Yang, M., et al.
(2004). Numerical modelling estimation of the tectonic
stress plane(TSP) beneath topography with quasi-Ushaped valleys. International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Mining Sciences, 41(2), 303310.
Xia, Y., Peng, S., Gu, Z., & Ma, J. (2007). Stability analysis of an underground power cavern in a bedded rock
formation. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research, 22(2),
161165.
Zhu, W., Li, G., & Wang, K. (1985). Analyses of disking phenomenon and stress field in the region of an underground
powerhouse. Rock mechanics and rock engineering, 18(1),
115.
254
P. Kalenda
IRSM CAS CZ, Prague, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: Static vertical pendulums have been installed in mines and caves in Central Europe since 2007.
The two dimensional optical measurement of tilt of rock mass and continuous full digital on-line evaluation
of results makes possible to detect small tilt of the surroundings with resolution of tens of nanoradians or
deformation of the surroundings in the horizontal plane with resolution of hundereds nanometers. The paper
will describe the measurement device, measurement method, observed effects and theirs evaluation.
The two years experience of measurement shows that it is possible to find the main direction of stress in the
surroundings of the pendulum and its development in time. The noise level and anomalous deformation development shows the value of relative stress in the surroundings of the pendulum. The correlation of deformation
between distant stations shows existence of stress variations that they are not of local origin. The stress field has
wider than regional character and effects of very far origin can be observed.
The great changes in stress orientation and in stress state were observed before the biggest earthquakes on
the Eurasian lithosphere plate.
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1. Most common deformations of rock mass by horizontal force a) strain and rotation, b) layering, c) pure
rotation.
active faults by various dilatometers can show the periods of fault activity, when the Coulomb criterion on the
fault is fulfilled (Stemberk et al. 2003).
Because the tectonic stress in rock mass is mostly
horizontal (Sta & Soucek 2002), the common deformations will be in vertical directions (see Fig. 1). That
is why we suggested for the indirect stress measurement a quite new apparatus, based on vertical static
pendulum (Neumann 2007).
2 VERTICAL STATIC PENDULUM
2.1 Physical principles
The measurement device is based on very simple
physical principle. It is vertical static pendulum. The
pendulum weight (bob) is made from electromagnetically neutral material. It is not conductor, it is not
insulator; it has minimal permittivity and permeability.
255
Three technologically different generation of the pendulum have been developed (Neumann 2007). The last
one is described in the following text.
The weight was made from concrete. Weight mass
is about 5 kg. Minimum amount of metal component
was used. The swing attenuator had liquid filling.
Mineral heavy lubricating engine oil was used. The
pendulum rod was made from steel wire with diameter about 1 mm (with respect of local conditions).
The sensor is digital camera with microscope objective lens. Optical magnification has been setup by
the lens selection with respect of local conditions.
The light source is monochromatic LED diode. Very
important part of the weight position measurement
subsystem is micro-raster. It is specific pattern made
on the glass backplane. The pattern has been designed
to support the error free functionality of the evaluation algorithm. It supports wide range of optical
magnification of the sensor. The specific irregular and
256
2.3
Measurement system
The measuring system consists of separated measurement devices placed in specific locality and of central
system. The specific measurement device was adapted
to the specific local circumstances, namely to the
power supply conditions and internet connection possibilities. The typical measurement device consists of
two computers. The first one deals with measurement
(as described above). It is placed close to the pendulum in the underground. The second one is placed
on the surface to support internet connectivity. The
cable between both two computers is used typically to
enable communication between computers and to supply power to the measurement computer. Very long
cable is usually needed in real condition; therefore
specific electronic adapters had to be used to support long cable communication and power transport.
The communication computer was connected to internet with respect of local possibilities. GSM modem
supporting only low speed internet connection had to
be used in localities where no wired connection was
ready.
Figure 5. The vertical static pendulum deployment map; status at the end of year 2009; green squares in operation, blue
installed but not in operation, open planed.
257
Table 1.
Sign of
pend. Locality
In opeartion End of
since
operation Latitude
Longitude
P1
P1a
P7
P6
13C
13Ca
13Cb
Lub
S1
D2
Ida
9.2.2007
9.10.2008
17.5.2007
20.1.2009
3.11.2007
19.10.2008
4.4.2009
25.8.2008
28.3.2009
3.10.2009
1.4.2009
13.99722 E
1
13.99722 E
1
13.99288 E 96
13.99416 E 65
16.77243 E 30
16.77243 E 30
16.77243 E 30
20.17434 E 200
16.29112 E
3
16.29112 E
3
16.08433 E 200
Prbram
Prbram
Prbram
Prbram
cave No.13C
cave No.13C
cave No.13C
Lubenk Slovakia
Skutina, Snen
Skutina, Snen
Ida mine M.Svat.
1.11.2007 49.68601 N
49.68601 N
49.68515 N
49.68561 N
20.9.2008 49.39724 N
5.3.2009 49.39724 N
49.39724 N
48.64934 N
50.35501 N
50.35501 N
50.53289 N
346
275
82
95
12
25
27
41
18
56
45
225
225
350
45
255
255
255
27
315
315
142
or compared with theoretical values of tilt according to the semielastic model of the Earths lithosphere
by Wahr-Dehant-Zschau (Skalsk 1991). The diurnal
periods of tilt is clearly visible on the pendulum P1
at Prbram, which is installed only 12 m below the
surface (see Fig. 9 a,b). Such diurnal waves are caused
mainly by exposition of the Earths surface (Neumann
2007). In the afternoon, when the surface temperature
is the highest, the deformation of the rock mass in
the surrounding of the pendulum becomes irreversible
(see Fig. 9b).
258
microearthquake,
259
Figure 14. Anomalous tilt of pendulum P7 in Prbram (general trend removed) and seismicity, registered by the Czech
seismic network (Zednk 2007, ANSS 2007).
CONCLUSION
Static vertical pendulums were used for indirect measurement of stress in the upper crust. The first static
vertical pendulums were installed in the old Prokop
mine in Prbram and in cave No. 13C in Moravian
Karsts in 2007. One pendulum was installed in a productive potassium mine in Lubenk (Slovakia) in 2008.
In 2009 two another pendulums were installed in old
mine Ida and old fortress Skutina in eastern Bohemia.
More than the two years experience of measurement shows that it is possible to find the main direction
of stress in the surroundings of the pendulum and its
development in time. The noise level and anomalous
deformation development shows the value of relative stress in the surroundings of the pendulum. The
correlation of deformation between distant stations
shows that stress variations are not only of local origin.
The great changes in stress orientation and in stress
state were observed before the biggest earthquakes
on Eurasian lithosphere plate and even before Chile
earthquake on February 2010 (M = 8.8). Two years of
our experience resulted in the successful prediction
of Kurile Islands earthquake on November 24, 2008
(M = 7.3).
260
REFERENCES
ANSS Composite Catalogue (http://quake.geo.berkeley. edu
/anss/catalog-search.html).
Biagi, P.F., Caloi, P., Migani, M. & Spadea, M.C. (1976): Tilt
variations and seismicity that preceded the strong Friuli
earthquake of May 6th, 1976. Ann. Geofis. 29, 137.
Braitenberg, C. (1999): The Friuli (NE-Italy) tilt/strain
gauges and short term_observations Annali di Geofsica,
42,. 581. Page 637664.
Braitenberg, C., Romeo, G., Taccetti, Q. & Nagy, I. (2006):
The very-broad-band long-base tiltmeters of Grotta
Gigante (Trieste, Italy): Secular term tilting and the great
Sumatra-Andaman islands earthquake of December 26,
2004. Journal of Geodynamics 41 (2006) 164174.
Briestensk M., Stemberk J. & Petro L. (2007a): Displacements registered around March 13, 2006 Vrbov
earthquake M=3.2 (Western Carpathians). Geologica
Carpathica, 58,5,487493, Bratislava.
Briestensk M., Stemberk J. (2007b): Recent displacements
registered in selected caves of Dobr Voda karst area
in Slovakia. Acta Geodyn. Geomater., 4, 1, 3138,
Praha.
Crampin, S. & Gao, Y. (2009): A global earthquake monitoring system that would stress forecast all damaging
earthquakes worldwide. Proc. of ISESEP, 8th July, 2009,
Beijing.
Horlek, J. & Fischer, T. (2007, 2008) Zpadocesk seismick st Webnet (West Bohemian seismic network
Webnet).- http://www.ig.cas.cz/cz/struktura/observatore/
zapadoceska-seismicka-sit-webnet/.
Kalenda, P. & Neumann, L. (2010): Static vertical pendulum
observations of anomalous tilt before earthquakes (case
study). The 5th International Symposium on In-situ Rock
Stress August 2527, 2010, Beijing, P.R.China.
Li, J.Z., Z. Q. Bai, W. S. Chen, Y. Q. Xia, Y. R. Liu, &
Z. Q. Ren (2003): Strong earthquakes can be predicted:
a multidisciplinary method for strong earthquake prediction. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences (2003)
3: 703712.
261
ABSTRACT: The treatments in petroleum engineering are greatly affected by the value and heterogeneity of
tectonic stress, which has direct influence on the distribution of horizontal principal stress. For example, the
borehole wall sloughing in drilling and the unbroken reservoir in fracturing will hinder the construction program
and add the construction cost. Therefore, basing on the mechanics analysis of linear elastic rock, the formula is
established among the maximum and minimum horizontal stress with the tectonic stress coefficient, considering
that horizontal principal stress is made up of the overburden gravitational stress component and the tectonic
stress component. Then, the tectonic stress coefficient in the direction of the maximum and minimum principal
stress can be calculated on the base of the rock mechanical experiment parameters and fracturing work data.
According to the tectonic stress coefficient calculated by this method, the horizontal stress is computed in two
wells which are located in the same tectonic zone of Santanghu Basin in Tuha oil field. It is indicated that the
field data and the computational result fit well and the error is small. Hence, the tectonic stress coefficient could
be used in stress analysis and fracturing design for other wells in the same regime. Also, the analysis method
may be applied in other oil and gas field.
1
INTRODUCTION
263
where H , h = horizontal Maximum and minimum tectonic stress coefficient; = Poissons ratio;
E =Youngs modulus; = Biots coefficient;
Set equations (4) and equation (5) together to solve
the horizontal Maximum and minimum tectonic stress
coefficient H and h :
2.3
264
Table 3. The basic parameters of example wells for calculating horizontal principal stress.
H
m
pp
MPa
z
MPa
E
MPa
Well no
H
m
pp
MPa
z
MPa
E
MPa
m19
m24
nd105
m27
nd108
1539.0
1596.0
1529.0
1506.0
1698.0
14.6
17.2
16.0
14.2
17.5
38.4
42.2
40.3
37.0
42.9
53820
47050
42900
47390
35740
0.31
0.30
0.35
0.36
0.38
0.90
0.95
0.96
0.90
0.88
nd6-3
m23
1546.0
1803.0
15.2
18.6
38.2
45.4
38580
43710
0.32
0.35
0.89
0.92
Well no
H
m
Calculated h
MPa
Actual h
MPa
Relative
error
%
nd6-3
m23
1546.0
1803.0
33.9
43.4
31.2
41.5
3.97
4.35
H
m
pc
MPa
pr
MPa
H
MPa
H
104
h
104
m19
m24
nd105
m27
nd108
1539.0
1596.0
1529.0
1506.0
1698.0
37.4
40.7
39.5
36.3
41.1
43.6
47.7
46.3
42.4
48.7
55.4
58.2
56.9
53.7
59.1
5.62
6.56
5.88
5.02
6.17
4.39
4.83
5.46
5.00
6.95
Using the work data in two fracturing wells, pressure drop curve is analyzed through the G function
method. The calculated bottom closure pressure of
well No.nd6-3 and No.m23 is 31.2 MPa and 41.5 MPa.
The actual minimum principal stress of these two wells
is 31.2 MPa and 41.5 MPa, deriving from the equation
(8). Comparing the calculated data with actual data, the
relative error is less than 5%, within the permissible
range. It indicates that the tectonic stress coefficient
gained by this method is credible and approximate to
practice.
5
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a simple method for calculating the tectonic stress coefficient, depending on the
rock mechanics parameters from laboratory experiment and the fracturing work data. On the basis of this
method, the tectonic stress coefficient in Santanghu
Basin of Tuha oil field is solved. In contrast with the
newest fracturing work data in two wells, it can see
that the achieved horizontal tectonic stress coefficient
is suitable to compute the minimum principal stress
for volcanic rock reservoir in this region. Besides, the
method may be applied to analyze the minimum principal stress and guide the design in fracturing of other
oil and gas field.
REFERENCES
265
266
Fulian He
China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: The initial stress field is very important in rock mechanics. The particle swarm optimization
(PSO) algorithm developing in recent years is a stochastic optimization algorithm based on swarm intelligence.
By use of the theory of particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, a modified PSO algorithm is proposed
for the calculation of the initial stress field. PSO algorithm possesses advantages. Then by use of integrating
the advantages of other traditional methods and taking into account the factors affecting the initial stress, the
reasonability of the present method is shown by a case study. The intelligent inversion analysis of initial stress
field in Xinyuan coal mine is carried out by using the particle swarm (PSO) algorithm. The field results show
the method is accurate and high velocity which conforms well to the practical data.
INTRODUCTION
The initial stress field is a never mining-induced natural stress that lies in the strata. Also as we known
that the original rock stress, rock initial stress and
so on. It is the fundamental forces that caused by
mining engineering, civil engineering, water conservancy and hydropower, and various other underground
or open-pit rock and soil excavation deformation
and destruction. To achieve a scientific design and
decision-making in mining and geotechnical engineering excavation, it is a necessary precondition that
accurate information on initial stress. The formation of
stress is the result of crustal movement. It is decided by
several tectonic movements, which include the loading and unloading caused by crustal movements, the
thermal stress caused by magmatic activity, changes
in physical and chemical properties of rock mass and
so on. However, it is impossible to solution quantitatively, based on the development history of the earth,
the initial stress field for the engineering application.
It mainly depend on the measured data, but a few
measuring points is hard to meet the needs of construction projects. It is raised that how to make an
inversion of the initial stress field of regional issues
by using a few measuring points. In the displacement
back analysis, optimization techniques are the important aspects that affect the accuracy and computational
267
2
2.1
268
Algorithm
Conventional
PSO
MPSO
The advantages of PSO are that it is rapidly converging towards an optimum, easy to implement,
simple to compute and free from the complex computation in genetic algorithm (e.g., coding/decoding,
crossover and mutation) (Kennedy, J. and Eberhart
1995). However, PSO does exhibits some disadvantages: it sometimes is easy to be trapped in local
optima, and the convergence rate decreased considerably in the later period of evolution (Eberhart, R. C. and
Shi, Y. 1998), when reaching a near optimal solution,
the algorithm stops optimizing, and thus the accuracy the algorithm can achieve is limited. Hence, it
is necessary to amend the algorithm.
In this paper, the method that the individual particle acceleration was closed to the optimal particle
was used. It can quickly increase the speed of target
particles in the early search, and reduce the speed in
the late search. The conventional PSO algorithm was
changed by amend the equation (2). The inertia increment was introduced, which could be performed by the
following equations:
Test
times
Average
convergence
rate/%
Convergence
rate
1
2
3
1
2
3
43
46
49
32
35
38
325.24
329.79
334.51
243.85
257.21
259.62
For each particle, evaluate the desired optimization fitness function in D variables. Not only is fitness value
of particles an important indicator to evaluate that if the
particles location is better, but also a control indicator
of the rate of algorithm convergence criteria. Compare
particles fitness evaluation with its pbest. If current
value is better than pbest, then set pbest equal to the
current value, and Pi equals to the current location
Xi in D-dimensional space. The MPSO described was
applied in this paper. The absolute error of values measured and values calculated was used as the objective
function, which for a back analysis of the initial stress
field. The expression of the objective function is the
following equation:
where ek represents the absolute error of values measured and values calculated; Num represents the number of the measuring points. The fitness value of
particles was taken by the following equation:
269
Value/MPa
Measured value
Inversion value
Measured value
Inversion value
Measured value
Inversion value
Measured value
Inversion value
Measured value
Inversion value
6.78
7.25
5.87
6.12
8.26
8.19
7.27
7.52
6.83
6.52
4.65
4.86
3.18
2.74
3.29
2.96
3.12
3.02
3.41
2.97
13.72
13.66
13.96
14.31
14.27
13.86
14.73
14.26
14.71
15.37
2
3
4
5
3.3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is the key to the whole MPSO algorithm that particle flight trajectory. Particle flight trajectory of the
flight depends on the speed of particles. Its available
of particle velocity equation and the particle position
equation by the equation (1) and the equation (4).
4
FIELD APPLICATION
CONCLUSIONS
270
T. Wang
School of Mechanics and Civil Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, China
L.H. Hu
China Nuclear Power Engineering Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
S.P. Tian
School of Mechanics and Civil Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: Rock core discing arises in the process of in-situ stress survey on Jiulong mine of Fengfeng
mine area when hollow inclusion stress-relief method is applied. At the mean time, the data of the in-situ stress
is obtained. By measuring the in-situ stress of this district, this paper analyzes the stress condition and the
characteristics of rock core discing when the stress is relieved in the in-situ stress measurement process, and the
core coring operation is stimulated by mathematical software. The relationship between the in-situ stress and
the rock core discing is figured out by stress analysis of the rock core discing based on the measured geostress
data. The result points out that discal drill core is a special outcome of certain stress field. It indicates the stress
field level. The position of discal drill core break does not absolutely located at the root of the rock core, and the
discal drill core is roughly of uniform thickness. The drill core plate breaks from the surface of the drill core,
and the crack size depends on the in-situ stress. This paper discloses the inner link of the in-situ stress and the
discal drill core, offering reference for the back analysis of the crustal stress field in light of the characteristics
of rock core discing.
PREFACE
With the expansion of mining scale and the exploitation of deep underground space, the stability of mining
engineering is getting worse due to the geostatic stress.
Geostress is the fundamental force to the failure of
the surrounding rock and support, earthquakes and
mine dynamic phenomenon. Accurate information on
geostress is a necessary precondition for the wall rock
stability analysis and calculation, the regional forecast of mine dynamic phenomena, to determine the
engineering properties of rock mechanics and achieve
scientific of mining decision-making and design. It
is of far reaching importance to study the crustal
stress for the mineral resources prediction, energy
development and large-scale projects construction.
There are several kinds of in-situ stress measurement methods, which can be classified into Hydraulic
Fracturing Method, Stress Restoration Method and
Stress Relief Method. At present, the Stress Relief
Method is the most commonly used geostress measurement and develops more maturely. A thin-walled
sleeve is needed to drill a core, which has been furnished with measuring sonde when to relieve the stress.
In a certain in-situ stress condition, the concentration
near the drill bit will lead to the rupture of the drill
core, and then cause the core discing.
Rock core discing[2] is a typical phenomenon of
rock mechanics during the drilling process. That is,
the core fractures into discal drill core in the processing of drilling. This phenomenon is mainly found
in igneous rock areas, also observable in metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. For example, the Ertan
Hydropower Station, the Lubuge Power Station, the
Laxiwa Hydropower Station and the Jinchuan mining
area.
Hast[3] first reported the core discing in 1958, and
afterwards Obert[4] , Jeager[5] et al studied this phenomenon by simulation experiment, they confirmed
that the main mechanical cause is the high in-situ
stress. Afterwards, Suzuki and other specialists[6] studied the failure mechanism of the core discing, considered that core discing is mainly shear failure or tension
failure.
271
Table 1.
Vertical
Depth/ Principal Value/
stress/
m
stress
MPa Azimuth/ Obliquity/ MPa
560
1
2
3
27.2
16.3
15.0
93
2
238
5
3
83
15.1
Figure 1. Recent tectonic principal stress direction distribution of China and its neighboring area.
Figure 2. Discal drill core.
Fengfeng mine is located in the east of Taihang Montains, which extends across Handan, Cixian, Wuan
border, belonging to extensional tectonics type coal
field. The coal field is infected by the Zanhuang and
Fuping uplift, the coal-bearing strata spread along the
north-south or north-north-east. Gushan anticline, the
north-south axial fold, is the main controlling structure in Fengfeng mine district, which intersects mine
area into two parts. East of Gushan anticline is monoclinic structure, where the strata spread towards the
north-north-east in general tendency of south-east.
The layers are nearly flat, generally for 8 15 and
the depth of coal-bearing strata gradually increase
from west to east. Recent tectonic principal compressive stress direction distribution of China and its
neighboring area is shown in figure 1.
The geostress measuring point is located in NO.4
coal seam floor in Jiulong mine of Fengfeng mine area,
with a depth of 560 m. Drilling parameters: diameter
0.146 m, hole depth 10.810 m, azimuth NS271 . The
lithology is shale with a character of overall difference
and some mudstone in the outside.
Stress Relief Method is used to measure the
geostress. The measurement results are shown in
Table 1, getting the following conclusions:
(1) The maximum principal stress direction is nearly
the horizontal direction, correspond with tectonic stress field in mainland China, as shown in
figure 1.
(2) The maximum principal stress is in the horizontal direction and the value is about 1.21.8 times
of gravity stress, suggesting that the horizontal
direction of tectonic stress field is dominated.
(3) The maximum horizontal principal stress direction
overall is from the north-west-west to south-easteast.
(4) The vertical stress equals to the weight of the
overlying strata basically.
272
Numerical model
273
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Discussion
CONCLUSION
274
ABSTRACT: We compare two stress models, subsidiary and borehole, as mechanisms responsible for,
respectively, the sonic fast-shear azimuth (FSA) and breakout directions for arbitrary well orientations. We show
that the sonic FSA coincides with the maximum subsidiary principal stress as the dipole shear is unaffected by
borehole stress concentrations, and is, therefore, directly related to the relative deviatoric stress tensor described
by the orientation of h and ellipsoid factor R. In contrast, the breakout orientation, controlled by borehole stresses,
occurs at a location where the compressive principal stress in the borehole tangential plane is maximum. We
show that, to a first-order approximation, the breakout directions are also related to the orientation of h and R as
for normally pressured to slightly overpressured conditions, the breakout orientation is not very sensitive to the
borehole mud pressure. Results indicate that, for arbitrary well orientations, sonic FSA and breakout direction
are not necessarily at 90 of each other. This analysis implies that the sonic FSA, from stress-induced origin, is
theoretically a better measurement to estimate the relative deviatoric stress tensor, and FSA observations from
wells with at least two different orientations can be used to estimate the orientation of h and R. To a first-order
approximation, the same can be done using breakout orientations.
1
INTRODUCTION
2
[cylindri(ZZ + )/2 + [(ZZ )/2]2 + Z
cal coordinates for borehole stresses are defined here
as (r,,Z)], which depends on absolute magnitudes of
in-situ stress, pore pressure, borehole mud pressure,
and Poissons ratio.
Another common source of data is coming from
dipole shear sonic anisotropy from a stress-induced
origin. It has been frequently used to measure the direction of H via the fast shear azimuth in vertical wells
since the work of Esmersoy et al. [9,10]. The fast shear
azimuth (FSA) is defined as the polarization direction
of the fast dipole shear wave propagating along the
borehole direction. For vertical wells and consolidated
rocks with isotropic unstressed backgrounds, the estimation of three shear moduli from dipole and Stoneley
sonic modes in orthorhombic stressed media has been
the basis for a new way to estimate H magnitude using
nonlinear elasticity theory [11, 12]. However, for wells
that are not oriented along a principal stress direction
275
276
max
Figure 3. Relationship of the sub
directions to the stress
directions and 0 R 1 for arbitrarily oriented boreholes
and different stress regimes: (first row) thrust, (second row)
strike-slip, (third row) normal. H is east-west. The red dots
max
min
are nodal points where sub
= sub
= 2 .
In boreholes, sonic shear waves propagate in the direction of the borehole axis, characterized by slowness
vector p, and their particle motions (or polarization
vector U) are almost orthogonal to the borehole axis
in anisotropic media. We define the FSA as the angle
between the projected shear polarization direction of
the fastest wave and a given reference direction (such
as TOH) in the cross-sectional plane. Sun and Prioul
[13,14] showed using a nonlinear elasticity model that,
to a first order, the FSA coincides with the direction of
max
sub
for all propagation directions within the symmetry planes for stress-induced orthorhombic media with
isotropic unstressed background.This result is a consequence of, first, the property of the sonic dipole shear
277
direction. We calculated for R = 0.4 and for various well orientations. The results are shown in Fig. 4
(top) and Fig. 5. Fig. 4 (bottom) shows that the well orientations where = 0 are within an area where the
slowness anisotropy is less than 0.5% when R = 0.4.
Hence, in practice, it is important to note that the difmax
ference between the FSA and sub
matters only if it
corresponds to a range of well orientations where the
anisotropy is actually detectable. Indeed, the notable
differences between our simplified model and the reality are found where the slowness anisotropy is small
and most probably not observable.
We investigated the most direct and accurate relationship for breakout directions and the orientation of h
and R and assessed the sensitivity of this relation to the
state of stress, pore pressure, and borehole fluid pressure at different rock strength conditions. Breakouts
are initiated by borehole stress concentrations around
a cylindrical cavity that are increasing compressive
stresses up to the point of shear failure. Under the
assumption of linear elastic behavior of a homogeneous isotropic rock, borehole stresses in cylindrical
coordinates, rr , , ZZ , and Z around the borehole can be computed using the generalized Kirsch
stress solution for nonaligned borehole and effective
stress directions as [8, 19, 20, 21]
278
max
Figure 7. Angle difference |hoop
Tmax | for borehole
azimuths and deviations between 0 and 90 (vertical is
0 and H is oriented at 90 ) for the following conditions:
V = 100 MPa, H = 0.813 V , h = 0.626 V , pp = 0.45 V
(normal regime with state of stress at frictional limit with
= 0.6, hydrostatic pore pressure and R = 0.5) and p = 0.
rock, the difference between borehole and pore pressures p = pW pP , and the angle that determines the
position around the borehole (and is the angle measured from TOH). Effective stresses are here defined
as the difference between principal stresses and pore
max
pressure; looking at Eqs. 9 and 5, the direction hoop
for
max
min
is the maximum coincides with sub
. Howwhich
ever, for an arbitrarily oriented borehole, the effective
principal stresses at the borehole wall (Fig. 6) are given
by [8]
Breakouts occur at an angle Tmax where the compressive principal stress T in the tangential [, Z]-plane
is maximum (so called Tmax ).
First, we computed the theoretical breakout orientation Tmax (irrespective of tendency for failure to occur)
max
and compared it to the orientation hoop
of the minimin
mum subsidiary stress sub to assess the difference
with results from the previous section on sonic FSA.
max
We computed hoop
and Tmax for a range of borehole
azimuths and deviations between 0 and 90 (vertical is
0 and H is oriented at 90 ) for the following conditions: V = 100 MPa, H = 0.813 V , h = 0.626 V ,
pp = 0.45 V [normal regime with state of stress at fric
tional limit 1 pp = (3 p)( 2 + 1 + )2 with
= 0.6, hydrostatic pore pressure and R = 0.5] and
max
p = 0. The angles hoop
and Tmax were almost insensitive to Poissons ratio, which was kept constant at
= 0.25.
The results are summarized on Fig. 7 as color
max
maps and contour plots of the difference |hoop
Tmax |
for all borehole deviations and azimuths. We observe
279
max p=0
max p=0.1
V
Figure 9. Angle difference |T
T
| for
borehole azimuths and deviations between 0 and 90 using
the same stress conditions as in Figs. 7 and 8 but for two
differential pressures, p = 0 and p = 0.1 V .
max p=0
max p=0.1
V
Figure 11. Angle difference |T
T
| for
borehole azimuths and deviations between 0 and 90 for
the following conditions: V = 100 MPa, H = 0.864 V ,
h = 0.728 V , pp = 0.6 V (R = 0.5) and two differential
pressures p = 0 and p = 0.1 V .
280
FSA
Breakout
Borehole
deviation
Borehole
azimuth
Observation
azimuth (TOH)
60
45
155
45
10
60
CONCLUSION
281
282
ABSTRACT: This paper mainly focuses on the quality of crustal strain observations. Carry on works in
standard, metrology and quality inspection three aspects to establish a quality assurance system ensures crustal
strain instruments have corresponding quality assurance measure in production, station construction and routine
operation is elaborated. The quality of crustal strain observation will be improved significantly. Accurate and
reliable data can be provided for earthquake prediction and seismology research.
INTRODUCTION
283
284
observatory in borehole, DB/T 11.1-2007 Categories and codes for earthquake-related dataPart 1:
Basic categories, DB/T 11.2-2007 Categories and
codes for earthquake-related dataPart 2: Observation data, DB/T 12.1-2000 Earthquake Precursor
Observation Instrument Part 1: Interface and Control
of Sensor, DB/T 21-2007 Technical requirements
of instruments in network for earthquake monitoring The description of common technical parameter
and test method, DB/T 26-2008 Classification and
code for earthquake observation instrument, DB/T
25-2008 Quantities and units for earthquake observation, DB/T 31.2-2008 Technical requirements of
instruments in network for earthquake monitoring The
instrument for crustal deformation observation Part 2:
Strain-meter. In addition, Earthquake and precursory digital observation specifications, Earthquake
station observation specifications and Cave strain
station observation specifications were formulated.
The standards stipulate station construction, operation
and routine observations.
Instruments production standard is also lack currently. Because borehole stain instrument is a special
scientific instrument, market demand is not great. It is
impossible to product in large-scale and main is produced in small workshop just like the other earthquake
precursor instruments production. This type instruments in other nations are produced in the same way. It
is necessary of the Guarantee of standards as produced
in a small workshop where ensure that Process of production can be controlled and instrument performance
is Identical.
4.2
285
[3]
[4]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is founded by Seismic Industry Public Benefit Research Foundation (200708040), Research on
method of measurement value traceability.
[5]
[6]
REFERENCES
[1] Chi Shunliang, Preliminary experiment results of
Pressure-Capative Borehole strain meter, ACTA SEISMOLOGICA SINICA, vol.4, 1982, p.98103.
[2] Ouyang Zuxi, Li Bingyuan, Jia Weijiu, Zhang Zongrun,
A drilling-type ground stress measurement system,
[7]
286
ABSTRACT: A method of In-situ stress fields multi-factor regression analysis, based on visual BP neural
network and on ActiveX technology, is presented with an application example. The relevant theories of neural
network are adopted and permit to calculate the three dimensional stress fields. The method owns the advantages
of strong capability in computing of Matlab, friendly VB interface and easy user-machine conversation.
1
INTRODUCTION
Neural network theory has been used as an effective method in the in-situ stress analysis[1] . But it
will inevitably involve massive problems related to the
numerical calculation, such as routine matrix calculation, model orthogonalization, least-square processing
and etc. In this case, many users will choose the
existing simulation software Matlab. Matlab has great
advantages in some common complicated matrix calculations and simulation calculation, while it is less
able in compiling the graphical user interface (GUI).
Although VB is relatively weaker in matrix calculation
and numerical analysis, it is flexible and convenient in
the programming. Also it is one of the most widely
used visual programming tools.
In order to take advantages of matlab in calculation
and those of VB in GUI, neural network toolbox is
adopted as one of its ActiveX components in the multifactor regression analysis method of three dimensional
stress field. It is capable of visualizing the BP artificial
neural network model in VB.
287
(1) BSTR Execute ([in] BSTR Command), this function uses command string as Matlab parameter,
and the result will be returned in the form of
string. All the executable command lines inputted
into the Matlab command window can be used
here. In this way, the command lines can be used
in codes, just as in the Matlab window.
(2) VOID Minimize Command Window ( ): this function minimizes the Matlab window, which hasnt
been minimized.
(3) VOID Maximize Command Window ( ): this function maximizes the Matlab window, which hasnt
been maximized.
(4) VOID Quit ( ): this function closes the Matlab and
exits.
3 APPLICATION
In-situ stress field is very important in the numerical simulation and stability analysis as well as in the
engineering design and construction. So it requests
an effective analysis method. The method proposed
in this paper combines the advantages of the multifactor regression analysis[26] and the artificial neural
network theory. The training samples of the neural network are generated by making use of the results of the
multi-factor regression analysis, which can avoid the
blindness of sample generation. And also it makes
the network generalization into interpolation problem,
which can improve the network learning speed and
training precision. We can compute the displacement
boundary conditions of the geological model by utilizing the highly nonlinear characteristics of the artificial
neural network, and then apply the obtained boundary
conditions to the main analysis program, so the simulation of the initial in-situ stress field in the engineering
area can be done.
3.1
Site description
the east-west direction and shear stress in the horizontal plane respectively. Mathematical calculating
model can be established according to this, in which
gravity factor L1, tectonic displacement Ux, Uy and
Uxy are regarded as undetermined factors. In order
to determine its range approximately, multiple linear regression analysis can be done once at first, and
then regression coefficients of the four independent
variables (L1, L2, L3 and L4) can be calculated. So
tectonic displacements should be L2 Ux, L3 Uy
and L4 Uxy. It can be considered that the result of
the regression analysis is an approximate solution, true
value of the gravity coefficient and tectonic displacements change around the L1, L2 Ux, L3 Uy and
L4 Uxy. So a suitable range can be selected by the
experience. By doing this it avoids the blindness of
sample generation. And it makes the network generalize into an interpolation problem, which can improve
the networks learning speed and training precision.
According to the measured values, the results of
the finite element multiple linear regression are:
L1 = 1.05, Ux = 0.185, Uy = 0.19 and Uxy = 0.05. So
the ranges of L1, Ux, Uy and Uxy are determined as
follows : L1 [0.85, 1.25], Ux [0.1, 0.4], Uy [0.1,
0.3], Uxy [0, 0.15]. Training samples of the neural
network can be obtained by adjusting the values of L1,
Ux, Uy and Uxy to do the feedforward calculation.
Thought of the uniform design is adopted in the value
adjustments of the training samples. Table U9*(94 ) is
selected to do the design, and every factor takes nine
levels, and combinations of factor levels are shown in
table 1.
For every combination in table 1, finite element
forward calculation is done. The results are used as
training samples, which will be trained by the BP neural network. 96 calculated values of the in-situ stress
components of the 16 measured points arranged in the
measuring hole of underground powerhouse and high
pressure branch pipes are used as input values, gravity
coefficient L1 and three tectonic displacements Ux,
Uy and Uxy are used as output values.Three layer networks are selected in the Network structure, hidden
layer has 24 elements, the network structure is 96-24-4,
and the LevenbergMarquardt algorithm is adopted to
train. The mapping relation among the stress values of
288
Table 1.
levels L1
levels Ux
levels Uy
levels Uxy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
3
6
9
2
5
8
1
4
7
7
4
1
8
5
2
9
6
3
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
0.175
0.2875
0.4
0.1375
0.25
0.3625
0.1
0.2125
0.325
0.25
0.175
0.1
0.275
0.2
0.125
0.3
0.225
0.15
0.100
0.088
0.075
0.063
0.050
0.038
0.025
0.013
0.000
the measured points, gravity coefficient and three tectonic displacements can be obtained, after the training
is done. Now the measured value of the measurement
points are taken as input value, so the output values
are gravity coefficient L1, and tectonic displacements
Ux, Uy, Uxy, as shown in Figure 2. According to
the obtained gravity coefficient and tectonic displacements, the initial stress field can be obtained by doing
the finite element forward calculation once.
By using the ActiveX automation tool and taking
VB as the foreground development tool and Matlab
as background server, we can establish a user interface in the VBs integrated development environment
to implement the visualization of the neural network
model. Take the measured stress values as the input of
neural network that has done the training, then pass it
to the Matlab, let Matlab train and calculate. At last the
calculations are transferred to the VB window to visualize. Meanwhile, add an image control to VB, and set
the stretch attribute as True, so the image control will
adapt to the size of image being loaded. The clipboard
is used to transfer the complete path of the image document and the image in the format of bitmap in order
to visualize the training results in the VB window. As
shown in figure 2: L1 = 1.04, Ux = 0.23, Uy = 0.23,
Uxy = 0.03.
The gravity coefficient and tectonic displacements
of three orientations can be obtained by the BP artificial neural network method; also the stress situation
of the whole engineering area can be calculated by the
superposition and finite element forward calculation.
289
toolbox and many learning algorithms it has integrated are made full use of. Thus the two can make
up for each others deficiencies. So the whole performance of the software is improved, and the
time and energy the development has taken is
saved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is funded by China 11th Five-Year
Plans Science & Technology Supporting Program
(2008BAB29B01-1).
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
[1] QI Lan, DING Zhi-hong, MA Bin, ZHUANG Xiaojun. Regresstion analysis of initial in-situ stress field
with multiple variables and equations. Rock and Soil
Mechanics. 2003, 24(1): 137139
[2] ZHANG Qi-hua, ZHONG Zuo-wu, GONG Bi-xin.
Method of Generating Pure Shear Stress by Adding
Boundary Displacement and its Application in Back
Analysis for Geo-stress Field. J.Yangtze River Scientific
Research Institute. 2000, 17(2): 3436
[3] LI Qing-qi, Regression Analysis and 3-D Fitting of
Initial Stress. Chinese J. of Geotechnical Engineering.
1998, 20(5): 6871.
[4] YU Jun-hua, JIN Wei-liang, ZOU Dao-qin. Displacement function method for analyzing initial earth stress.
Rock and Soil Mechanics. 2003, 24(3): 417419.
[5] David G. Kleinbaum, Lawrence L. Kupper, Azhar
Nizam. Applied Regression Analysis and Other Multivariable Methods. America:Thomson Learning Press,
1999.
[6] LI Yongsong, YIN Jianmin, AI Kai. Geostress regression analysis method and engineering cas application.
J. Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute. 2006,
23(4): 4650.
290
ABSTRACT: In the context of stress field determination for a long tunnel, hydro-fracturing in-situ stress
measurement was conducted in two boreholes drilled in or near faults zones, respectively.The results are presented
and compared with the regional stress field. Those results obtained in fault zone of cataclasite rock are found
in poor consistence with the regional tectonic stress, while other results obtained in the hole near fault zone are
found close to the regional stress.
1
INTRODUCTION
GEOLOGY BACKGROUND
OF THE STUDY SITE
A railway tunnel of 12.97 km long is located in middlelow mountainous areas of Fujian Province, in Southeast China. Although no active faults exist in the tunnel
site, some large faults are found in ground surface.
Four faults are found in the central section of the tunnel with length of 2.5 km, see figure 12. Their depth
and thickness of influence zone are of important task of
geology survey. The fault zones are found mainly oriented towards NortheastSouthwest (named as compression or sheared fault zones) and NWSE (tensile
fault zones). The main faults around the two boreholes
of stress measurement are as follows:
F2, the visible width is about 35 m, oriented at
NE30 and dipped at 80 eastward, the horizontal
extended length is over 2000 m.
F3, the visible width is between 20 and 60 m,
oriented at EW and dipped at about 80 eastward.
F4, the visible width is between 60 and 70 m, oriented at NE10 and dipped at about 77 eastward, the
extended length along the trend is over 3000 m.
291
The different character can be explained by the different integrity and weathering grade of rock mass.
In borehole ZK1s depth section of weathered granite
and gabbro (85145.4 m) in Hole ZK1, the horizontal
principal stress values or their differential values reveal
some local irregularity in the vertical direction. Since
the rock mass is generally qualified as massif hard rock
in this borehole, the stress distribution is stable in the
depth range of measurements (85228 m).
In other hand, the borehole ZK2 is totally located
in the fault F5s influence zone, the rock is totally
weathered cataclasite (73163 m) with localized fragmented gabbros at depth 9394 m, 9899 m and
162163 m in the depth range of measurement. So
it is natural to obtain the very dispersed stress values
in this borehole. However, the orientation of horizontal principal stress is close to that of Hole ZK1. It
can be observation that the character of stress distribution is controlled by the rock structures, especially
the stress magnitudes in faults or in fault zone is quite
heterogeneous.
As mentioned above, the horizontal principal stress
magnitudes in the depth range of measurements are
systematically higher than the estimated vertical stress
292
values, i.e. H > h > Z . This stress regime is coherent to the tectonic feature of sheared compression
faults with a reversed movement component.
4
4.1
It can be observed that the stress results from borehole in or near faults zones presented in this study is
somehow similar to the results in the nearby borehole
of intact granite.
4.2
5 CONCLUSION
The in situ stress measurement results presented in this
study reveal some interesting features. For the borehole partly located in relative intact rock, ZK1, both
the magnitude and orientation of horizontal principal
stresses are consistent to the regional tectonic regime.
For the borehole totally located in a fault zone of fractured rock, ZK2, the magnitude of horizontal principal
stresses are very heterogeneous, only the orientation
of horizontal principal stresses is close to the axis of
the regional tectonic stress.
Therefore it is important to insure the conditions
required by the method of stress measurements and to
analyze the geological data in the study area in order
to appropriately interpret the measurement results and
to establish the correlation with the regional tectonic
stress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was funded by China 11th Five-Year
Plans Science & Technology Supporting Program
(2008BAB29B01-1).
293
REFERENCES
[1] Matin CD, & Chandler NA. Stress heterogeneity and
geological structures. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr., 1993, 30(7), 993999
[2] Su S. & Stephansson O., Effect of a fault on in situ stress
by distinct element method. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 1999, 36(8), 15011506
[3] HUANG Xingchun, XIA Xiaohe & SHEN Weiping.
Measurement and back analysis on the initial rock stress
field around the faults [J]. Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong
University, 1998, 32(12): 5559
[4] Liu Yunfang. Geostress and engineering construction.
Wuhan: Hubei technology press, 2000
[5] Kim K & Franklin JA. Suggested methods for rock stress
determination. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 1987, 24:
5373
[6] YIN Jianmin, CHEN Liwei, ZHONG Zuowu et al.
Measurement and interpretation on in-situ stress with
hydro-fracturing in highway tunnel site [J]. Chinese
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2001,
20(S): 18271830
[7] LI Hong,AN Qimei & XIE Furen. Study on in-situ stress
measurement around coastal marginal land in Fujian[J].
ACTA Seismologica Sinica, 2005, 27(5): 508514
[8] SHI Linhua, ZHOU Zhengrong, BAO Ting et al. Discussion of force source of seismic activity in Fujian and
its coastal area[J]. Earthquake. 2006, 26(2):104112
294
Han Zhenlin
Geological Surveying Insitute, Henan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Exploration and Devleopment, Nanyang,
Hennan, China
ABSTRACT: Studies of earthquake-induced landslides in China using ground motion parameters have been
rare. However, landslides induced by the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake in the Longmenshan area were relatively
well instrumented and can be investigated using ground motion records. Analysis shows that the Newmark
accumulative displacement calculated from the ground motion data recorded in a particular geological hazard
zone corresponds to the hazard intensity in that zone: the larger the displacement, the more serious the geological
hazard. Analysis also shows that the displacement is related to the Arias Intensity, which represents the total
energy released during the earthquake at the observation site. An evaluation model of Newmark displacement
calculated with Arias Intensity was constructed to estimate the subsequent slope failure resulting from the
earthquake. The fact that the calculated results based on the model fit well with the distribution of actual
landslides shows that this method is useful for hazard evaluation. This type of model therefore can be used as
a tool for estimating regional-scale distributions of earthquake-induced landslides and their associated hazards.
Furthermore, the technique is useful for evaluating applied engineering needs during reconstruction efforts in the
earthquake-hit area.
INTRODUCTION
297
298
way to determine ac is by using the static safety parameter FS , i.e., different acceleration is applied to the
slope, and then the acceleration value makes FS equal
to 1 is the critical acceleration. Slope critical acceleration signifies that the slope may fail when the
ground motion acceleration reaches or exceeds this
value. It is the maximum ground motion acceleration
the slope can withstand when subject to an earthquake,
and it is related to the slope geotechnical parameters
(shear strength, unit weights, pore water pressure, etc.),
and the slope geometry. It can be calculated by the
following equation.
299
Figure 2. Newmark displacement vs. critical acceleration for the four geological hazard categories.
simply on strong motion records, Newmark Displacement can be used to estimate the seriousness of the
geological disasters resulting from an earthquake and
can provide information for earthquake emergency
rescue services. In this way, earthquake evaluations
can be obtained much more quickly than by assessing
earthquake intensity, which often takes a long time to
be accurately determined after an earthquake.
Strong motion records also relate to the geological
hazard category. When considering ac , locations with
larger Newmark Displacements are also the places
with the most serious geological disaster levels. For
example, Bajiao station in Shifang City, Wolong in
Wenchuan County, and Qingping station in Mianzhu
City recorded the top three Newmark Displacements
during the Wenchuan earthquake; all three are in Category 1, the region of most serious geological disaster
according to the average disaster levels. Numerous
landslides were triggered in this region. For this reason, we can see that the Newmark Displacement can
also be a good indicator of the landslide hazard on a
small scale. Given a slope and its ac , the larger the calculated Newmark Displacement, the larger the failure
300
where DN is the Newmark Displacement in centimeters, Ia is the sum of theArias Intensity in the horizontal
where Ia is the sum of the Arias Intensity of the horizontal components in meters per second and Df is
the observation distance to the earthquake rupture in
kilometers.
The Newmark Displacement estimated in this way
is not the actual displacement caused by the earthquake. Instead, it can be used as an indicator of the
failure status (hazard level) of the slopes analyzed
above. If a larger DN is found by equation (7), we
can be sure of a greater possibility of triggered landslides; otherwise, the possibility of landslides will be
lower.
301
Displacement model (e.g., Wilson et al., 1985; Jibson et al., 2007). Displacements inside this closed
curve are larger than 10 cm, which means that slope
failure is almost certain. According to Huang et al.
(2008), most landslides (and all large landslides) triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake are located within
30 km of the earthquake rupture. The 29 km distance
contoured in Figure 4 fits well with the actual landslide distributions, although it looks smaller than that
for Category 1, the most serious landslide hazard
area, which may incorporate some locations with less
significant hazard because of the averaging process.
The middle closed curve, at a distance of 48 km
from the rupture, corresponds to a critical displacement of 2 cm, a value adopted by Wilson et al. (1985)
for slopes with brittle material, a condition that is common in the Longmenshan area (Huang et al., 2008;
Feng, 2007). This situation generally corresponds to
Category 1. Within this range, the Newmark Displacement is larger than 2 cm, but less than 10 cm, which
corresponds to a very high probability of landsliding especially for those slopes consisting of brittle
material.
The outermost closed curve, at a distance of about
100 km from the earthquake rupture, corresponds to
the 0 cm displacement estimate. Within the 48100 km
band, the displacement is greater than zero but less than
the critical displacement; therefore landslides might
still be triggered, but the possibility is decreased.
This model can provide a general distribution
map of regional landslides (Figure 4). However,
earthquake-induced landslides are affected by many
factors. Ground motion intensity is not the only important factor, as geological and topographical conditions
can also exert great influence on landslide occurrences. Therefore, as can be seen from Figure 4,
differences may exist between the modeled and actual
cases. For example, notice that in the southwest, landslides hazard is less than modeled, whereas on the
northeast side of the rupture, the hazard is more severe.
This is due to the thrust fault and the propagating effect
of the earthquake. Moreover, on the northeast side of
the rupture, the loess geological condition is quite different from it is in the Longmenshan area. Hence, if a
more accurate result is needed, many additional factors
must be considered in the evaluation model.
In spite of the generalized model results, the Newmark Displacement method can provide a better result
than those obtained by earthquake intensity. The latter produces isoseismal maps with much larger areas
delineated where the earthquake intensity is greater
than IV (Department of Earthquake Emergency Rescue, CEA, 2008). If this evaluation model could be
produced immediately after an earthquake, it would be
helpful for decision making during emergency rescue.
For example, it could be used to focus rescue work in
regions with greater hazard. If more accurate parameters are provided, the evaluation model can produce
better result. This may even be useful for engineering
applications during reconstruction work following a
large earthquake like Wenchuan.
CONCLUSIONS
302
303
ABSTRACT: At the Porce III Hydroelectric Project site there is a lack of information concerning the natural
stress tensor field. Only three USBM overcoring measurements were performed during final-design explorations
at the exploration powerhouse chamber branch gallery. In this article is explained how the natural stress tensor
field was assessed by considering these few measurements and a stress inversion analysis based in a slip analysis
with discontinuity data collected at the powerhouse chamber site. Even tough, there is no a clear evidence to
validate the estimated natural stress tensor field, the obtained results was helpful to reduce the uncertainty about
the natural stress tensor field at the site and exhorted to the stakeholder to be afraid in performing state of the
art and state of the practice stress estimation programs, for any future project in the region.
INTRODUCTION
Natural stress tensor field can be assessed by three different scales: regional scale, local scale and punctual
scale. From the regional point of view, it is possible
to estimate the NSTF due to earthquake focal mechanisms, GPS points displacement measurements at the
terrestrial crust, and by fault planes measurements
(Michael 1984, Lisle et al. 2001).
Also, it can be assessed by an inverse process upon
punctual stress tensors data, as it was employed in
305
Figure 1. Southwest isometric view of Porce III Underground Powerhouse Complex (P3UPC).
Table 1.
c,i (MPa)
t,i (MPa)
Ei (GPa)
()
87 to 124
15
59 to 63
0.20 to 0.51
306
Table 2.
Table 3.
Index
Value
Class.
c,m (MPa)
Em (GPa)
()
RQD
RMi
RMR
Q
GSI
96
42
76
20
65
Excellent
Excellent
II, Good
B, Good
Good
28 to 42
37 to 45
0.21
Trend
Plunge
Trend
Plunge
Trend
Plunge
097
09
006
07
238
79
The rock mass was formed by regional metamorphism in the Early Paleozoic. Later it has suffered
intense decompression, normal, inverse and strike slip
faulting, since the Late Cretaceous; converting it in a
rock mass of dynamic metamorphisms characteristics
with various discontinuity sets. The intense pressure
developed during dynamic metamorphism caused realignment of minerals parallel to the direction of
movement. This rock mass, has also suffered tectonic
and hydro-thermal influence due to the intrusion of
the 7 221 km2 Antioquian Batholith (which its nearest
boundary is located approximately 20 km southwest
from the P3UPC) that is dated between 63 and 90
Million Years (i.e. Late Cretaceous) (Restrepo et al.
1991).
Mechanically, rock mass at P3UPC comprises the
Gneiss rock material intruded by Plagioclase, Potassium Feldspar, and Quartz veins with widths less than
ten centimeters. On a very local scale, considerable
variation of the orientation of the foliation and banding can be observed, but in general it has a dip-direction
of SE-NW to S-N with a sub-horizontal dip. The
banded assemblage is composing a preferred plane of
weakness, deformation and rupturing.
In some locations, the intense pressures developed during dynamic metamorphism cause slickenside at the rock mass. Persistent displaced planes were
observed (i.e. slip faults) associated with this tectonic
activity, which have a dip direction NE-SW and sub
vertical dip, reflecting a compressive state (i.e. inverse
fault). Near these slip faults, faulting perpendicular
to the slip faults planes are present. Also, a group of
non-persistent discontinuities planes is present at the
rock mass, which can be related to the presence of
the slip faults. Table 2 show the Engineering Indexes
obtained in studies prior and during the construction of
the underground excavations (Suarez-Burgoa 2008).
The regional natural stress tensor orientation was estimated by referring to geological studies around the
area of the project. Thenkamp et al. (2002) found a
direction of N103 E for the major horizontal stress
while Corts et al. (2005) expressed a direction of
N107 E. Corts and Angelier (2005) concluded that
the actual compressive regime in the northern part of
the Los Andes has a major compressive stress with
a NW-SE to WNW-ESE orientation, with an average
307
Stress
Trend
( )
Plunge
( )
()
Avrg.
Desv.
( )
1
2
3
271
037
150
42
34
30
1.0
27.0
Table 5.
Trend
( )
Plunge
( )
233
037
150
49
34
30
Stress
Trend ( )
Plunge ( )
Magnitude (MPa)
1
2
3
097
340
217
33
35
38
13.5
6.9
6.0
308
Table 6.
close to the real one and that around the P3UPC, the
vertical stress is still the minimum principal stress,
confirming the assumed NTSF for the P3UPC.
Stress
Trend ( )
Plunge ( )
Magnitude (MPa)
1 = H
2 = h
3 = v
097
007
277
00
00
90
14.0
12.2
7.0
7 CONCLUSIONS
6 DISCUSSION
Incomplete stress tensors, at different scales (i.e.
regional, local and punctual scales) for the P3UPC site
was defined as NSTF by the upwards explained analysis. Using all this information, the final and complete
local NSTF at P3UPC site was defined by the next
assumptions:
Vertical stress due to rock mass weight is assumed
to be coincident with one of the principal stress,
say v .
The remaining two principal stresses are horizontal.
The major principal magnitude is one of the horizontal, because a compressive regime may prevail
in the region.
The major horizontal stress has a direction near
to that defined in the compressive regime in the
regional NTSF analysis.
Vertical stress magnitude is geostatic.
Major principal stress magnitude is around 14 MPa,
based on the overcoring results.
A value of the principal stress differences ratio ()
equal to 0.26 was assumed, based on the value
specified in Corts and Angelier (2005).
Table 6 shows the final complete tensor assumed to
be a good representative of the local NSTF around the
P3UC, where KH = 2.0 and Kh = 1.7 for an overburden of z = 260 m (Figure 3). The 1 /2 , 2 /3 and 1 /3
rations are 1.15, 1.74 and 2.0, respectively. By calculating the ratio between 1 and the uniaxial compressive
strength of the rock mass (c,m ), giving a value of 0.33,
one can have the idea that in P3UPC, a low geostress
condition prevails. For two dimensional stress-strain
analysis, the major and intermediate stresses were
assumed equal to a magnitude of 14 MPa (i.e. a NSTF
with KH = Kh = 2.0), because they dont differs too
much.
After this research was concluded, owners of the
hydroelectric project performed three hydrofracturing
(HF) tests in three boreholes, making a total of six
HF values, at the Penstock tunnel near the P3UPC
(EE.PP.M-E.S.P. 2008) (for the location see Figure 2).
Here, the magnitudes for the minimum principal stress
vary between 5 to 7 MPa for a mean overburden of
250 m, which were similar to the magnitude of the theoretical geostatic overburden, equal to 6.8 MPa. These
tests shown that a theoretical geostatic condition was
309
310
ABSTRACT: How to enhance the output in low-permeability oilfield has been the focus of the researchers. The
technique of abrasive jet cutting in oil are developed to be used in increasing oil production and water pouring
quantity by abrasive two-phase jet theory. Based on the basic parameters of Daqing oilfield, it proved the relation
of rock body stress and seepage rate.According to the numerical simulation for the in-situ rock stress field changes
of oilfield before and after slotting, the mechanism of abrasive jet cutting in oilfield to increasing production is
found. Slotted through wells weeks the change of the original rock stress field, obtained after the abrasive water
jet cutting oil output slit mechanism. The results showed the flow-area increased and the seepage rate increased
after slotting. Furthermore, the rock strata of compaction zone loosened and bring new cracks with reducing of
in-situ rock stress, thereby enhancing effectively the permeability of strata and increasing oil production.
1
INTRODUCTION
311
3.1
Seepage equation
Continuity equation is
Seepage equation
Coupling equation
312
Distance
Stress
Mpa
Distance
Stress
Mpa
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
7.356
15.013
18.835
20.848
22.359
23.028
23.841
24.389
24.786
25.017
25.349
25.595
25.809
26.021
26.211
26.378
26.605
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
26.821
26.938
27.160
27.380
27.643
28.005
28.332
28.555
28.934
29.320
29.812
30.310
30.981
31.516
32.225
32.928
33.914
Distance
Stress
Mpa
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
34.866
35.735
36.802
37.921
39.129
40.513
41.932
43.781
44.951
46.875
51.881
56.408
60.375
64.880
68.455
83.555
the cracks will reform new stress region under powerful stress. Previous compaction-dense ring is removed.
Relaxation phenomena of rock stress appear around
the slits. The relatively high-stress region is a very
small area which exists only at the top of the narrow gap. Compare the stress distribution before and
after rock is slotted. The compaction-dense ring exists
before rock is slotted and the in-situ rock stress is great
lager. They make pore and crack of rock closed and
permeability reduce. The crude oil flows into the well
difficultly. Hence, the production decreases.After rock
is slotted, the compaction-dense area is removed. The
permeability increases sharply around slit. The area of
seepage and flow increase and flow distance cut down.
At the same time, the rock layer of compaction-dense
area became loose and turned up cracks. Thus slotting effectively enhances the ability to penetrate and
oil production.
According to simulation results, Table 1 is the
distribution of unilateral rock stress around a well.
Since slotting is symmetrical, the other side of the
distribution should be the same.
313
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
1. Thomas J. Labus. 1993. Fluid jet technology: fundamentals and applications. St. Louis, MO: Water Jet
Technology Association.
314
ABSTRACT: In China, 20% of the coal total reserves are low coal seam. Safe and efficient exploitation of
gently-dipping close-range low coal seam not only reduce the waste of resources, but also to extend the mine
life. Based on the geological conditions and the storage state in the median space of Daanshan coal mine,
analyze the in-situ rock stress laws of four mining methods (make single and compound mining respectively
in the coal pillars and no coal pillar) by similarity simulation theory and numerical simulation. The rooffall state and the strata-pressure laws of exploiting in gently-dipping close-range low coal seam are found.
Furthermore, there are four experiments by dint of similar material simulation experiment and rocks physical
mechanical experiment for the coal seam with different mining methods. It is better that taking no coal pillar
and single seam mines coal in flat dipping girdle in security and economy by comparison. The simulation
and the experimental results are very important in the other pertinent theoretical researches and productive
practices.
INTRODUCTIONS
315
Table 1.
Item
Apparent Bulk
Cohesive Interdensity
modulus strength friction
3
MPa
MPa
angle
Kg/m
2720
1800
2690
1780
2660
35800
3740
54700
1180
87600
20
0.9
20
0.9
20
28
30
20
32
28
double fulcrum and coal pillar after mining. After mining in the upper coal seam, there is a biggish area to
withstand in-situ rock stress in virtue of the support of
down-canal rock and coal. There is a higher degree of
stress concentration on both sides of coal pillars, and
the 10 m coal pillar could support a upper in-situ rock
stress. When the two coal seams have been mined, the
in-situ rock stress all forces the 10 m coal pillar. The
scale decreases and the value increases. The stress is
up to more than double the original stress. The rock
stress would exceed the strength of coal seam which
led to the edge of coal pillar damage. Then the concentrative stress move into the internal pillar which results
in the stretching destruction of coal pillars. It threats
security.
2.3.2 The regularity of the in-situ rock stress
as mining coal seam with no coal pillar
Coal pillars may be damaged so that the mining area
can not be supported. Respectively, numerically simulate the rock stress under the upper and both coal seams
with non-coal pillar. See to Figure 2.
In Figure 2, the value and scale of the stress at both
ends of mining area with no coal pillar are less than
with the coal pillars. It is in favor of supporting. However, there will be stress relaxation zone at the reserved
location of coal pillar. In particular, the scale of the
zone is bigger after mining the two coal seams. The
zone is prone to roof fall due to no load-bearing pillars. It should be strengthened supports. But the degree
of concentration of rock stress falls with no pillar and
affects range smaller. The impact of changes in mining is also smaller. So supporting and management of
mining areas are easy.
316
317
management. At the same time, when the roof pressure of upper-canal working face is coming, roof beam
will bend and sink. This dynamic load will be impact
of 1.5 m rock roof. It could destroy all the supporting of working face, and leave down-canal coal seam
out of producing.
CONCLUSION
318
REFERENCES
[1] Xiexing, Miao & Minggao, Qian. 2009. Research on
green mining of coal resources in Cina: current status and future prospects. Journal of Mining and Safety
Engineering 26(1): 112.
[2] Zhengjing, Shi & Guoqing, Sun & Shouhong, Fu. 2006.
Mining technology in deeply inclined and thin coal seam
above gob. Coal Mining Technology 11(3):2628.
[3] Luqing, Li & Yanfe, Wang. 2008. Effective ways of raising specific yeild at face of gradient and thin coal seam.
Coal Technology 27(2): 6869.
[4] Chengduan, Li. 1996. Study on advancing mining for
solving single gentle slopping the seam subject to
sudden outbursts. J. XIANTAN MIN. INST 11(2):
1216.
319
ABSTRACT: During the excavations of the Qinling extra-long tunnels, severe rockburst occurred in several
sections, where the initial subhorizontal stress is about 20 MPa30 MPa and the overburden is no less than
1000 m. The magnitude of the in situ stresses are related to the rock masss capacity of storing initial geostatic
stress. Large in situ horizontal stresses are kept in intact gneiss, with unaxial strength more than 45 MPa and
overburden more than 200 m. The large subhorizontal in situ stress mainly plays the role of 2 during tunnel
excavations in the section of gneiss with severe rockbursts occurred. The initial stress in the rock mass at Qinling
tunnels is not such large that severe rockbursts will be induced during tunnel excavations. The severe rockbursts
should be the combination effect of in situ stress, gneiss fabric and excavations.
INTRODUCTION
321
v (MPa)
H (MPa)
z
(m)
Cal.
Tested
Cal.
Tested
1.66
1.09
0.88
0.88
0.82
240
600
1080
1100
1600
6.24
15.90
28.62
29.15
43.20
13.2
/
34.1
36.2
43.2
10.36
17.33
25.29
25.60
35.37
27.2
21.9
27.5
28.2
27.3
There is no simple linear relationship between horizontal stress and vertical stress (overburden). This is
different from the horizontal stress increase trend in
the Lrdal Tunnel (Grimstad 1999). The magnitude
of the maximum measured horizontal major principal
stresses varies from 21.9 MPa to 28.2 MPa with different overburden. The calculated horizontal stresses
using the equation: H = kv (Grimstad 1999), where
k = 0.25 +7Ed (0.001 + 1/z), where Ed , the deformation modulus of the rock mass in GPa and z, the overburden in m, as well as parameters used in calculation,
is tabulated in Table 1. The magnitude of the measured
horizontal stresses are higher than these of the calculated in the sections with an overburden no more than
1100 m, while the inverse is the case in sections with an
overburden more than 1100 m, as shown in Figure 2(a).
The trend of the magnitude of the in situ stresses in
Figures 1 and 2 may be explained by the rock masss
capacity of storing initial geostatic stress. Figure 3
shows the relationship between the in situ horizontal stresses and the strength of the host rock of the test
holes. In general, the in situ stresses in the rock masses
have an increasing trend with larger uniaxial strength.
However, it is notable that the in situ stresses vary in a
narrow range in rock masses with a strength more than
45 MPa. Figure 3 implies that rock masses, with same
strength and integrity, store initial stress with similar
magnitude.
2.2
322
Modes of rockbursts
323
Table 2.
(MPa)
13.2
6.2
10.6
8.3
12.3
7.6
34.1
15.0
36.2
16.1
43.2
17.2
3 /1
1 /c
max
/c
46.6
100.2
145.0
145.0
147.0
147.0
0.5
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.28
0.11
0.08
0.24
0.25
0.29
0.72
0.23
0.20
0.60
0.63
0.76
324
sliding crack, which occurs under compressive loading, is required to open the wing cracks thus providing
a mechanism for their propagation.
4.3
Mechanism of rockbursts
CONCLUSIONS
325
REFERENCES
Brun, J.P., Sokoutis, D. & Driessche, J. 1994. Analogue modeling of detachment fault systems and core complexs.
Geology 22: 319322.
Cai, M., Kaiser, P. & Tasaka, K.Y.T. et al. 2004. Generalized
crack initiation and crack damage stress thresholds of brittle rock masses near underground excavations. Int J Rock
Mech Min Sci. 41: 833847.
Detournay, E. & St. John, C.M. 1988. Design charts for a
deep circular tunnel under non-uniform loading. Rock
Mechanics and Rock Engineering 21(2): 119137.
Diederichs, M. S., Kaiser, P. K. & Eberhardt, E. 2004.
Damage initiation and propagation in hard rock during
tunneling and the influence of near-face stress rotation.
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 41: 785812.
Eberhardt, E., Stead, D., Stimpson, B., et al. 1998. Identifying
crack initiation and propagation thresholds in brittle rock.
Can. Geotech. J. 35(2): 22233.
Everitt, R.A. & Lajtai, E.Z. 2004. The influence of rock fabric
on excavation damage in the Lac du Bonnett granite. Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 41: 12771303.
Grimstad, E. 1999. Experience from excavation under higher
stress in the 24.5 km long Lrdal Tunnel, Proc. intern.
Conf. on Rock Engineering Techniques for site Characterisation. Bangalore India Dec. 135146.
Gu M. C., He F. L. & Chen C. Z. 2002. Study on rockburst in
Qinling tunnel. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering 21(9): 13241329 (in Chinese)
Guo Z. Q. 2003. Rock bursts and countermeasures in Zhongnanshan Highway Tunnel. Modern Tunnelling Technology
40(6): 5862 (in Chinese)
Hoek, E. & Brown, E.T. 1980. Underground Excavation in
Rock. London: Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Hudson, J.A. 1989. Rock mechanics principles in engineering
practice. CIRIA ground engineering report: underground
construction, Hartnoll Ltd., Bodmin, cornwall.
Kaiser, P. K. & Maloney, S. M. 1997. Scaling Laws for the
Design of Rock Support. Pure appl. Geophys 150: 415
434.
Ma, J., Chen, W., & Berggren, B.S., et al. 2005. Features of
the rockburst in Qinling Tunnels in central China. Proc.
of Intern. Symp. on Design, Construction and Operation
326
Youming Xiong
Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
Kuangxiao Liu
Sinopec Research Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: In-situ stress plays an important role in keeping borehole stability and designing the appropriate completion technique. Ultra-deep horizontal wells are adopted to exploit marine carbonate gas reservoirs
in northeast Sichuan, which are sour gas reservoirs with high sulfur content. To recommend the appropriate
completion method for horizontal well in sour gas fields in northeast Sichuan, in-situ stress should be precisely
gained at first. Based on care in method and induced facture method, imaging logging data of 16 wells was
used to determine the stress direction. Statistical results indicated that the maximum horizontal principal stress
extended nearly east-westward. Rock mechanical parameters were calculated from density logging and crossdipole acoustic logging data based on the relationship between rock strength and acoustic slowness. Layering
earth stress calculation model combined with imaging logging data and well stability information during drilling
were used to calculate magnitude of in-situ stress of marine reservoir. Then, the influence of marine in-situ stress
on horizontal borehole stability during production was studied, which gave an insight on ultra-deep horizontal
wellbore completion optimization in northeast Sichuan.
INTRODUCTION
Caliper logging curves are usually used to determine stress orientation (Ma, 2002). But this method
is not applicable during sections without collapse and
sections with collapse induced by other reasons but
shear failure. Micro-resistivity scanning imaging log
(FMI) and dipole acoustic log (DSI) can solve these
problems (Liu, 2005). In this paper, FMI, DSI and
caliper log data were used together.
Multi-pole acoustic logging and density logging
data can be used to calculate rock mechanical parameters; dipole acoustic log and Cross-dipole acoustic log
data can be used to estimate in-situ stress magnitude
(Ma, 2002). In this paper, logging data were used to calculate rock mechanical parameters, in-situ stress was
estimated from suitable stratified calculation model,
and then drilling information was used to calibrate the
calculated results. Based on these data, the optimum
completion method for ultra-deep horizontal wellbore
in northeast Sichuan was given out.
327
stress. Northeast Sichuan basin is located in the superposition zone between arc-shaped block-type fault belt
of east Sichuan basin and south Daba-Micang arcshaped block-type fault belt. In general, this district
has experienced two stages, marine carbonate sediment during Paleozoic era/Middle-Triassic and continental clastic sediment during late-Triassic/Jurassic.
This process formed three reservoir accumulation systems. In the near eight years, Changxing-Feixianguan
gas pay zones for Puguang, Longgang, Yuanba and
Feixianguan-Jialingjiang gas pay zones for Hebachang
had been discovered in this area (Zhu, 2008).
Three tectonic movements have changed the orientation of tectonic stress (Hu, 2008). Through Indosinan
to Yanshan stage, orientation of tectonic stress is
NE-SW, but during Yanshan Stage, the orientation is
NW-SE.
2.2
Elliptical borehole caused by collapse failure during drilling is usually due to tangential stress around
the borehole. From Eq. (2), when r = R, tangential
stress reach the maximum if equals to 90 or 270 ,
which means max = 31 2 p; if equals to
0 or 180 the minimum value would appear, which
means min = 32 1 p.
In this case, the orientation of minimum tangential
stress is coincident with maximum horizontal principal stress. Imaging logging data could clearly show
the direction of borehole breaking out and pressureinduced fractures, this information can help precisely
determine horizontal principal stress direction.
2.2.1 Orientation determination using
drilling-induced fractures
Pressure fractures and stress release fractures are
adopted to identify orientation of horizontal principal
stress. On EMI images, pressure fractures look like
two black stripes parallel to well axis, which have stable direction and extend to a long distance. And stress
release fractures look like a group of parallel fractures
with high angles.
Fig. 2 is a fragment of EMI images on Shuangmiao
1 well in NE Sichuan. Clear drilling-induced fractures
can be found. The chart about the directions of drillinginduced fractures is shown in Fig. 3. We can conclude
that the present maximum horizontal principal stress
is nearly East-westward, mostly N60 -80 E.
328
parameter
value
parameter
P-wave slowness/
sm1
S-wave slowness/
sm1
Density/gcm3
Clay content/%
Poisson ratio
170.554
Elastic modulus/
GPa
Bulk modulus/
GPa
75.201
Shear
modulus/GPa
Compressive
strength/MPa
Cohesion/MPa
Friction angle/
Tensile
strength/MPa
Sand production
index/GPa
303.025
2.673
2.748
0.266
54.836
value
29.705
206.682
37.872
16.708
7.574
94.443
2.2.2
329
Table 2.
Well No.
Vertical depth
Sv/MPa
SH/MPa
Sh/MPa
P101-2H
P102-2
P104-1
P301-4
P6-3
P11
PD-1
M4
D1
5522.55698.2
5448.05770.0
5571.05850.0
4818.05100.0
4999.05387.6
5650.35927.8
4993.05365.0
3798.04135.9
5011.05389.0
144.45149.06
142.34150.77
145.16152.47
125.92133.31
130.75140.93
148.92156.19
130.53140.28
99.84108.69
131.66141.56
87.1689.94
85.8990.98
87.5992.00
75.9880.44
78.8985.04
89.8694.24
78.7684.64
60.2565.59
79.4485.42
63.4765.50
62.5466.25
63.7867.00
55.3358.58
57.4561.92
65.4368.63
57.3661.64
43.9747.76
57.8562.20
where Sv = vertical stress, MPa; = average density of overlying strata, g/cm3 ; = density of rock
mass, g/cm3 ; h0 = starting depth of target intervals,
m; h = depth of target intervals, m.
3.3
where H = tectonic stress factor of maximum horizontal principal stress; h = tectonic stress factor of
minimum horizontal principal stress.
3.4
The study shows that the direction of maximum horizontal principal stress of main marine reservoirs in
NE Sichuan is nearly east-westward and the vertical
stress is the maximum principal stress. The difference
between maximum and minimum horizontal principal stresses is small so that stress conditions can
be deemed as nearly symmetric. Sand production
index is 94.443 GPa which means that sand production would not occur under normal drawdown
pressure.
A few numbers of horizontal wells were deployed
in NE Sichuan; natural depletion development and
multiple zones production strategy were used. Considering the uneven distribution of reservoir physical properties, acid fracturing would be optimum
method to improve productivity. This will affect wellbore stability during production especially important
for sour gas reservoirs. So, consideration should
be paid on horizontal wellbore stability during production in optimizing horizontal well completion
method.
Based on calculated rock parameters and in-situ
stresses, we can use geo-mechanical model to analyze
stability of horizontal open-hole sections under various drawdown pressures, which take strength reduction due to acidizing and formation pore pressure
reduction due to long-term production into account.
The calculated results can be noted as equivalent
plastic strain curves in figure 6 to 8 (Lan, 2010).
From these figures, conclusions can be made:
1) equivalent plastic strains augment with the increase
of drawdown pressure that means drawdown pressure
should be strictly controlled to reduce possibility of
330
borehole instability if horizontal well trajectory direction was not coincident with horizontal principal stress
orientation; 2) formation pore pressure reduction has
great effects on horizontal borehole stability during
production; 3) when angle between horizontal well trajectory and direction of maximum horizontal principal
stress reaches 60 , possibility of borehole instability
increase after drawdown pressure comes to 10 MPa; 4)
horizontal borehole stability is the worst when angle
between horizontal well trajectory and direction of
maximum horizontal principal stress reaches 45 , well
repair should be taken in the later production stage if
open-hole completion was used.
In this case, appropriate horizontal well completion method for sour gas fields in Northeast Sichuan
was recommended. 1) If well trajectory was coincident
with direction of horizontal stress, open-hole completion was recommended. 2) If the angle between well
trajectory and direction of horizontal stress was less
than 30 , open-hole completion could be used, but
drawdown pressure should be strictly controlled. 3) If
the angle was more than 30 , cased completion should
be used.
331
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Huang Bo. 2008. Study of the formation stress analysis
method for imaging logging [Master Thesis] [D]. Beijing:
China University of Geosciences (Beijing). (In Chinese)
Huang Jixin, Peng Shimi, Wang Xiaojun, et al. 2006. Application of imaging logging data in the research of fracture
and ground stress [J]. Acta Petrolei Sinica, 27(6): 6569.
(In Chinese)
Hu Ming, Deng Shaoqiang, Chen Rong, et al. 2008. Tectonic stress field and hydrocarbon migration in Northeast
Sichuan basin [J]. Special Oil & Gas Reservoirs, 15(3):
1419. (In Chinese)
Lai Fuqiang, Sun Jianmeng, Su Yuanda, et al. 2007. Prediction of fracture pressure using multi-pole array acoustic
logging [J]. Progress in exploration geophysics, 30(1):
3942. (In Chinese)
Lan Kai, Xiong Youming, Yan Guangqing, et al. 2010. Horizontal borehole stability and its influence on well completion optimization in northeast Sichuan [J]. Petroleum
exploration and development. (Submitted) (In Chinese)
332
ABSTRACT: There are rich coal-bed methane resources in China. But the production volume is so small that
can not establish large-scale industrialized mining in most coal seams which are low permeability. Based on
the character of low permeability coal seam and the regularity between desorption and seepage, in-situ rock
stress is one of the important influence factors for coal-bed methane movement is found. And the numerical
simulation analyses respectively to single well, double wells and nine wells collocation received the change laws
and influence circle of in-situ rock stress field nearby the well before and after injection of heat. The results
show: In-situ rock stress reduction is beneficial to coal-bed methane pulled out from the adsorption state after
injecting heat into shaft. The coal-bed methane flows into the production shaft faster under greater pressure
difference on the region outside of the thermal radius. It generates interference between wells when arranges
multiple wells. It allows the rapid decline in reservoir stress and a large number of coal-bed methane is released.
Especially for nine wells exploitation, the interference between wells is more obvious and differential pressure
area is wider. Numerical simulation results provide guidance for exploitation through injection of heat into low
permeability coal seam in our country.
INTRODUCTION
333
2.2
Geometrical equation
The infection of coal-bed methane seepage to framework metamorphosis mostly is the infection about
modulus of elasticity and compressive strength by the
effective pressure.
where Vrg = rate of flow (m/s); K = absolute permeability (md); Krg = relative permeability; g = fluid
viscosity; g = fluid density (kg/m3 ); H = elevation
(m); and Gg = fluid start-up pressure.
Continuity equation:
334
of coal-bed methane development projects and recovery of coal-bed methane resources. Therefore, a reasonable wells arrangement should be considered in
order to improve the effect of heat injection.
3.2.1 The simulation results and analyses
of double wells
The influence of mining by inter-well interference
should be noted in double wells exploitation through
heat injection. The contours of the in-situ rock stress
after heat injection will be gained according to the
numerical simulation on coal-bed methane coupling
double wells. See to Fig. 3.
The stress is big around two producing wells
like single well when heat is injected. The coal-bed
methane is pressed into well by pressure difference.
At the same time, reservoir stress decreased rapidly
because of interference between wells to release a large
number of coal-bed methane.
The reservoir pressure profile curve of double wells
show the reservoir pressure declined faster than the
single-well exploitation at the early period of exploitation time. The coal-bed methane content and the
reservoir pressure were both significantly lower in the
335
vicinity of wells. There will be a more uniform differential pressure that enhances production effect to
increase gas output of both wells. The inter-well interference well will form when the production of double
wells at the same time. In the initial period of joint
exploitation by injecting heat in double wells, area of
pressure relief expands to the surrounding area as soon
as a certainty distance. With the exploitation of time,
the pressure relief effect weakened and production of
each well reduced. Therefore, the joint exploitation of
the double wells can reduce the exploitation time and
increase the exploitation efficiency.
3.2.2 The simulation results and analysis
of nine wells
As a result of a unified group of differential pressure
formed by joint exploration in nine wells, the coal-bed
methane production within the scope of differential
pressure is more adequate. For the nine wells exploration, inter-wells interference phenomenon is more
obvious, area of differential pressure is much wider,
and reservoir stress decreased rapidly. The biggish insitu rock stress oppresses coal-bed methane into the
production well. See to Figure 5.
Contrasting the contour of single well to double
wells, we found the initial pressure of multi-wells
decline faster. The content of coal-bed methane and
reservoir pressure are clearly lower in the vicinity of
shaft. They are form a uniform cone of depression
and heighten an effect of emission. So the production increases. The effects of multi-wells are similar to
single and double wells. Therefore, the arrangement
of multi-well spacing lies reasonably when mine wells
jointly so that mining time reduces.
Figure 6 shows the transient pressure in the two
kinds of mining methods near points at the center
well. From Figure 6, for single-well exploration and
exploitation of nine wells, pressures are increasing
with the extraction time decreases at the point due
to the pressure relief; there was no significant difference for two kinds of mining methods at the beginning
stage. After a period of time, well interference occurs.
CONCLUSION
1. Comprehensive consideration the actual production conditions of coal-bed methane through injection of heat, the coupling mathematical model
contains separately temperature, coal and rock
deformation and non-isothermal seepage field of
coal-bed methane which are injected heat is found.
2. When inject heat into single well, in-situ rock
stress accretion and reservoir stress reduction are
beneficial to coal-bed methane pulled out from
the adsorption state after injecting heat into shaft.
The coal-bed methane flows into the production
shaft faster under greater pressure difference on the
region outside of the thermal radius.
3. It generates interference between wells when
arranges multi-well. It allows the rapid decline in
reservoir stress and a large number of coal-bed
methane is released because of biggish in-situ rock
stress. Especially for nine wells exploitation, the
interference between wells is more obvious and differential pressure area is wider. All of these show
inject heat is propitious to the output of coal-bed
methane.
336
REFERENCES
1. Jianping, Ye & Yong, Qin & Dayang, Lin. 1998. Chinas
CBM resources. Xuzhou: China University of Mining
and Technology Press.
2. Xiangyan, Kong. 1999. Advanced Mechanics of Fluids in Porous Media. Anhui: University of Science and
Technology of China Press.
3. Mingyang, Zhao & Yaoqing, Hu. Experimental study of
the law of effective stress by methane pressure. Chinese
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 17(3): 2631.
4. Jupeng, Tang &Yishan, Pan & Chengquan, Li & Zixian,
Dong. 2007. Experimental study of adsorption and desorption of coalbed methane under three-dimensional
stress. Natural Gas Industry 27(7): 3538.
5. Dongmin, Ma & Jidun, Shi & Shougang, Zhang. 2007.
Experiment on Qinnan field CBM desorption. Journal
of Xian University of Science and Technology 27(4):
581583.
337
Cable truss support on a large span set-up coal entry based on ground
stress measurement
Xiaokang Zhang
University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China
Kaiqing Li
University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China
ABSTRACT: There are no stable upper rock strata available to suspend if conventional bolts (cables) are used to
support the large span set-up entry with thick coal roof, and the roof caving accident is prone to occur. According
to the field observation results of rock stress, a stress distribution model of the surrounding rock is built to analyze
the relationship between rock stress and roadway damage. In this paper, the active multidimensional support
technology of cable truss is put forward, and its control principle is discussed, and the physical simulation
experiment is done to verify the effect. After the support scheme is applied in field, the surrounding rock is
controlled successfully.
The thick seam (more than 3.5 m) occupies an important place in the current coal industry of China. Its
reserves, in total, account for about 44% of all coal
deposits and more than 40% of all volume of production. As the coal market improves and the urgent need
for high capacity and efficient exploitation, the caving
method has made great progress and been a primary
method in the mining of thick seam. However, the fully
mechanized caving method is bound to cause the problem of large span set-up entry timbering with thick and
friable coal roof.
The comprehensive mechanized caving method is
adopted to mine No. 10 coal seam in Pangpangta Colliery. The seam is 8.6013.30 m thick and the average
thickness is 11.40 m. There are 13 levels of carbon
mudstone dirt band with a thickness of 0.100.38 m
in the seam. The roof is grayish black mudstone or
sandy mudstone with a thickness of 1.007.00 m and
the bottom is grayish black mudstone and sandy mudstone that thick about 1.008.00 m. The set-up entry
of No. 10101 fully mechanized caving mining face
is a rectangular figure at 3.5 m high by 6.8 m wide.
As the immediate roof of the set-up entry is friable
coal roof of which the thickness is about 8m and then
mudstone roof with great variety in thickness, the
traditional bolts (cables) supporting technique cant
solve the problem that no stable upper rock strata
are available to suspend. In addition, the influence of
horizontal stress to the entries stability is never considered in the support design in Pangpangta Colliery, as
a result obvious underground pressure behavior can
be observed in the small section crossheading and
339
Altitude/
m
Hole
depth/m
Azimuth/
Dip
angle/
361
918
11.2
225
14
Location
Vertical
magnitude/
dip
stress/
Name MPa
Azimuth/ angle/ MPa
crossheading s1
s2
s3
13.08
8.40
6.74
188.63
86.84
99.64
2.35 8.35
66.65
23.21
340
is in the latitudinal direction that both are nearly perpendicular. According to the maximum principal stress
theory, when the roadway trend is perpendicular to that
of the maximum horizontal principal stress the horizontal stress will damage the roadway worst. So not
only the large span and the friable coal roof should be
taken into account in the surrounding rock control of
the set-up entry, but also the influence of the horizontal
stress that greatly increases the controlling difficulty.
2 THE ACTIVE MULTIDIMENSIONAL
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY OF THE
CABLE TRUSS
2.1
341
span set-up entry, 7.8 by 3.0 m of Pangpangta Colliery is simulated. In the simulation the mohr-coulomb
criterion is applied to the model (90 60 m) that the
uniformed vertical stress of 8.35 MPa is composed on
the upper boundary and 13.08 MPa on the lateral. The
bottom is fixed to control the vertical displacement.
3.2 The parameter of the prestress cable truss
Combined with the simulation results and theoretical
calculation, the parameters are defined as follows: the
obliquity angle of the cable truss is 70 and the depth
of the drill hole is 9.0 m, the distance between the hole
of the cable and the coalside is 1.5 m. The supporting
schema is shown in Figure 5.
The roof supporting: the combined support of the
single cable and the cable truss is applied in which
they are staggered patterned and both the distance
between two rows is 1.6 m. The type of the bolt is
the high strength steel bolt ( 20 2500 mm) with a
row space of 800 mm applied together with the W-type
steel band (4500 250 35 mm) and rhombic metal
mesh (4.5 1.1 m).
The coalside supporting: the high strength steel
bolt (18 2 m) is used combined with the ladder beams (14 4300 mm) and the rhombic metal
mesh(4.5 1.1 m) of which the row space is 800 mm.
342
DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
(2) The support force, that passes through the maximum shear stress area, can be provide by the cable
truss not only in the vertical direction but also horizontally. The steel strand of cable truss system
contact with the roof along lines, so the load in
the steel strand can transfer continuously. Whats
more, the location of anchorage lies deeply in the
compressed rock of the coalside so that the atresia
structure that can bear high stress is formed.
(3) After the active multidimensional control technology of the cable truss is applied in the set-up entry
support of No. 10101 face, the roadway is tending
towards stability quickly and the surrounding rock
is well controlled, solving the supporting problem
of the large span set-up entry.
Research Foundation for the Returned Overseas Chinese Scholars, State Education Ministry (2007-1108).
REFERENCES
Meng, Xianrui et al, 2009. Selection Principle and Development Status of Thick Seam Mining Methods in China.
Beijing: Coal Science and Technology.
Zhao,Hongliang et al, 2007. Application of prestress truss
cable in large cross section coal roadway. Beijing: Journal
of China Coal Society.
Du, Bo et al, 2009. Study on Complex Active Support System of Seam Gateway with Thick Carbonaceous Mudstone
Roof. Beijing: Coal Science and Technology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research work is financially supported by National
Basic Research Program of China under Grant No.
2010CB226802, and sponsored by the Scientific
343
C.S. Zhang
East China Investigation and Design Institute, CHECC, Hangzhou, Peoples Republic of China
S.Y. Wu
Ertan Hydropower Development Company, Ltd., Chengdu, Peoples Republic of China
ABSTRACT: The auxiliary tunnels and the underground testing sites #2 and #3 at the Jinping II hydropower
station are buried in the entire Jinping mountain at a maximum depth of 2525 m. The in-situ stress level is
very high and the self-weight stress at that depth reaches 66.5 MPa. Many difficulties, such as the breakouts
of the boreholes, core discing, and failing to be fractured, will be encountered in the stress measurements. The
phenomena, including the brittle failures of the intact rock mass and core discing are directly related to high
stress level. Hence, abundant information can be obtained by interpretation of these phenomena disclosed during
the excavation of the auxiliary tunnels and the underground testing sites. Based on these data, the multi-methods
integration analysis is carried out to estimating the regime, orientation and magnitude of the in-situ stress at
this site. The analysis indicates that the accuracy of the results is proportional to the amount of available data.
However, limited by the quantity of data at this site, it is difficult to obtain the horizontal components of shear
stresses by applying this method. Nevertheless, the results can meet the requirements for the stability analysis
of the surrounding rock mass of the headrace tunnels at this hydropower station.
1
INTRODUCTION
345
346
347
Figure 9. Stereographic projection map of stress test results from the auxiliary tunnels.
Table 1.
Orientation and magnitude of in-situ stress at the sites with the depth of 2,500 m.
SV
SH
Sh
Analysis
value/MPa
azimuth/
plunge/
value/MPa
azimuth/
plunge/
value/MPa
azimuth /
plunge /
REGression
REVision 1
REVision 2
70.1
69.7
69.3
273
273
277
69
69
70
30.6
43.7
43.8
123
123
124
19
19
18
35.9
50.4
50.3
30
30
31
10
10
8
Zoback et al. (2003) proposed a methodology to estimate the in-situ stress based on vertical borehole
breakouts. And assuming three components of in-situ
principle stresses, one being self-weight stress and
the other two being horizontal stress, the minimum
horizontal stress can be obtained from hydraulic fracture testing, and the orientation and magnitude of the
maximum horizontal stress can be determined from
recorded borehole breakouts. The compression failure
locations on the hole wall and the maximum horizontal
stress are generally orthogonal, with the tensile fractures paralleling it. Zoback et al. (2003) and Lucier
et al. (2009) both pointed out that there is not an exact
quantitative relation between the failure positions on
the tunnel walls and in-situ stress when the tunnel
axis deviates from the vertical direction. Based on the
brittle failure locations in the auxiliary tunnels and
the tunnels at the UTS, it can be concluded that the
in-situ stress orientations are not ideally vertical and
348
CONCLUSION
349
The regime of in-situ stress can be accurately determined by analyzing the statistical data from the
brittle failures of the surrounding rock and core discing. The results indicate that the stress encountered
at the greatest depths of the auxiliary tunnels and the
UTS is of the NF type, and that the vertical stress is
an essential factor controlling the brittle failure of
the surrounding rock.
Due to the specific geological tectonic characteristics of the Jinping mountain through which the
tunnels are cut, the accuracy of the estimation of
the in-situ orientation at the maximum depth of the
site is guaranteed in light of the analysis of the stress
test results.
The ratio between the maximum stress and the minimum stress is 1.6, which indicates that the tectonic
stress at the engineering site is very high. The difference between the vertical stress and the horizontal
stress is slight after the superposition of self-weight
stress and the tectonic stress. The larger range and
the shallower depth of the surrounding rock failure
also verify the accuracy of the results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
350
ABSTRACT: To study the relation between stress and rockburst during tunnel excavation at a hydro-power
station, in-situ stress measurements are carried out by hydraulic fracturing method. the maximum compression
stress and minimum compression stress within the tunnel crosssection are obtained by stress analysis. The
possibility of rockburst is analyzed with rockburst criterion, and provided the scientific basis and technological
support for the design and construction of the tunnel engineering.
INTRODUCTION
As a mountain incised meander, damsite valley generates from granite with high mountains, deep river
valley and steer slope. Slope height which approaches
the river is more than 1000 m and natural slope is 35 to
50 for the left bank and 45 to 60 for the right bank.
Typical V-shape valley with slight asymmetry of which
altitude is less than 2800 m has provided excellent
geological conditions for construction of hydropower
station.
2.2 Introduction to geology structure
The engineering zone is located in the southeast of
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. It borders southeastern section
of Bayan Har Mountain on the north, northern section
of Qionglai Mountain on the east and Ta-hsueh Mountains on the west. Its geology structure is in the eastern
rim of Songpan County-Garze geosyncline fold belt
and Bayan Har Mountain miogeosyncline fold belt
and north of Songpan County- Garze geosyncline fold
belt (namely, in the zone from Jintang to Aba). It borders Maqin-Lueyang deep fault on the north, Longmen
Mountain deep fault on the southeast and Xianshuihe
fault on the southwest. The zone consists of 3 structural
layers and area is about 30,000 square kilometers.
2.3 Stratum and lithology
Lithology of exposed stratum in the damsite mainly
consists of Yanshan Keeryin granite olith, namely,
biotite moyite during the early period and late period as
well as Yanshan granite during the late period. Granite
has fine-medium-granule structure and self-gradual
structure. Rocks are solid and complete with slight
weathering to fresh rocks and compressive strength
can be 88 MPa to 115 MPa. Occurrence of rock mass
can be classified into batholith and stock. Dike in the
zone mainly consists of granite pegmatite with a little
351
Table 1.
Depth/m
H /MPa
h /MPa
Orientation of H
106.10106.90
115.70116.50
124.10124.90
138.10138.90
150.00150.80
165.40166.20
175.00175.80
8.39
13.73
14.52
15.35
17.22
17.37
17.47
5.24
8.83
8.57
9.75
10.22
10.72
12.22
N68 W
N64 W
N70 W
Table 2.
Rockburst judgment.
Method
Judgment
/c < 0.2
0.2 < /c < 0.3
0.3 < /c < 0.55
/c > 0.55
Hoek
/c < 0.3
judgment
0.3 < /c < 0.42
0.42 < /c < 0.56
/c > 0.56
Hou Faliangs A status 3 /1 = 0.00,
rockburst
B status 3 /1 = 0.25,
judgment
C status 3 /1 = 0.50,
method
D status 3 /1 = 0.75,
E status 3 /1 = 1.00,
Russenes
judgment
3.1
Type
Without rockburst
Weak rockburst
Medium rockburst
Strong rockburst
Without rockburst
Weak rockburst
Medium rockburst
Strong rockburst
lcr = 0.188c;
lcr = 0.294c;
lcr = 0.360c;
lcr = 0.383c;
lcr = 0.402c;
352
Table 3.
Burial
Russenes
depth/m /c judgment
100
150
175
0.23
0.49
0.50
Hoek
judgment
Weak rockburst
Without rockburst Without rockburst Possible rockburst
Medium rockburst Medium rockburst Rockburst
Rockburst
Medium rockburst Medium rockburst Rockburst
Rockburst
1 mean that in-situ stress field in the entire measurement zone mainly consist of tectonic stress field and
stress status is shown as follows: H > h > V .
3.2
Hou Faliangs
Comprehensive
judgment method evaluation
Where: H and h refer to the maximum and minimum horizontal principal stress in the measurement
zone respectively; refers to included angle between
axial line of tunnel and the maximum horizontal stress;
Forecasting result shows that rockburst is possible
when burial depth of tunnel is less than 100 m and
rock will surely burst despite of judgment method if
burial depth exceeds 150 m. It is required to strengthen
support and monitoring during tunnel construction to
avoid rockburst.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Ding, L. 2007. Crustal stress measurement and rockburst
possibility analysis at a highway tunnel in east China.
Hydrogeology & Engineering Geology, 1: 5761.
Guo, Q., Wu, F. et al. 2006. Study on relationship between
deformation of surrounding rock and in-situ stress in
Wushaoling deep-buried railway tunnel [J]. Chinese
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 25(21):
21942199.
Hubbert, M. K. & Willis, D.G. 1957. Mechanics of hydraulic
fracturing [J]. Trans., AIME, 210: 153166.
Hou, F. & Wang M. 1989. Rockburst Criterion and Control Measures in the Circular Tunnel. Application of Rock
Mechanics in the engineering. Beijing: The Knowledge
Press.: 195201.
Liu, Y. 2000. Rock Mass In-situ Stress and engineering
constructions. Wuhan: Hubei Science and Technology
press.
Li, H., An, Q. et al. 2005. Study on Relativity Between Rockburst and Stress State in the Deep Tunnel. Chinese Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Engineering., 24(1): 48224826.
Xu, L., Wang, L. et al. 2002. Study on mechanics and judgment of rockburst[J]. Rock and Soil Mechanics, 23(3):
300303.
353
X.P. Lai
Energy School, Xian University of Scinece & Technology, Xian, China
ABSTRACT: Space structures and scales of mined-out area are dynamic changed with high-sublevel fullymechanized caving in steep and thick coal seam. In weakening and disturbance of segment pre-blasting, the degree
of coal damage and crack would be increased, and the complexity of physical-geometric structure and spatiotemporal evolution of mined-out area would be intensified. Firstly, the complexity of geological environment
and mining technologies, balsting parameters and technologies optimization, and blasting effect of B1+2 steep
coal seam of Weihuliang coal mine were analyzed comprehensively. Then, the pre-splitting blasting was applied
successfully in 52 m sublevel top-coal caving and weak the coal effectively. Finally, the blasting effect was
detected in broken zone with RSM-SY5 acoustic detector and YS(B) borehole optic camera, and the front
and behind support forces were monitored before and after blasting. The results showed that blasting effect
was obviously, and which provided technological reference for the subsequent safe mining of 102 m and 18 m
sublevel top-coal caving.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
355
The radius of fractured circle determines the parameter of top coals pre-splitting blasting. i.e., take full
advantage of dynamic forces of stress waves, so that
the distance between shot holes can be close to the
minimum burden. The distance between two shot holes
shall be as close as possible to the sum of two radiuses
of fractured circles, otherwise the pre-splitting will not
be adequate, and large blocks will be formed between
two shot holes. Contrariwise, it will be broken excessively, and the shock-effect caused by the excessive
energy from explosives will make troubles to the support. For the B1+2 coal mass, because of the adequate
developed cracks, the theoretical calculation is very
different from the practical condition. According to the
theory of blasting stress waves, the quasi-static theory
of explosion gas and engineering analogy, amendments are gradually made in accordance with the actual
conditions.
(1) According to theory of blasting stress waves, the
critical resistance can be calculated as follows.
356
Hole number
Hole length/m
Amount of drillpipes
1#, 11#
2#, 10#
3#, 9#
4#, 8#
5#, 7#
6#
9.3
11.69
17.87
27.15
26.79
26.16
12
14
22
34
34
33
357
In order to ensure safety of pre-blasting, the preblasting alley was used, and a water injection pump
was used to inject water into coal seam from top to
bottom. It is key technique of this engineering, and
there are few underground mines or workfaces can dig
such large-scaled (three roadways) pre-blasting alleys,
which could also be used as roadways to weaken coal
mass by injecting water. Injecting Water in advance in
pre-blasting alley, when the next part of coal seam is
under mining, the strength of coal mass will obviously
decrease because of having soaked in water for a long
time, and meet the requirement of caving. Therefore
the top coal caving ratio of workface will be promoted, and it is nearly a perfect technology that not
only improved the output and the efficiency, but also
attained goal of safe mining.
358
7 CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was financially supported by Doctor Subject Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China
(No.20070008012).
(1) Through comprehensive analysis on the complexity of geological environment and mining technology of workface, the optimization of blasting
parameters and technologies, the amount of explosives and the blasting effect, pre-splitting blasting
of 52 m high sublevel coal was implemented
successfully.
(2) RSM-SY5 acoustic detector and YS(B) borehole
optic camera were used to observe the development of cracks and monitor average compressive
stresses of front and behind workface supports.
The results showed that blasting effect was obviously, and which provided technological reference
for the subsequent safe mining of 102 m and 18 m
sublevel top-coal caving.
(3) Pre-blasting can increase breaking degree of top
coal, raise permeability of coal seam, and prolong
the effusing of gas effectively. Water injection
in pre-blasting alley can lower coal temperature
effectively. Grouting-backfilling technology and
nitrogen injection can reduce oxygen supply, and
consequently reduce the ignition probability of
workface (or mined-out area). The normal top
coal caving of 52 m and 102 m high sublevel, and
18 m low sublevel coal seam and pillar were successfully carried out, which removed the hidden
risk of large-scaled roof collapse of the subsequent mining, so the problems of new explosive
sources formed by gas accumulation as increasing
the height of horizontal segment would be solved
at the beginning. Those proved that pre-blasting
and water injection are effective weakening and
mining method for caving of local high sublevel
coal.
(4) In view of the comprehensive analysis on complexity of workface, blasting parameters optimization, techniques, the amount of explosives
and the effect in the process of pre-blasting, this
blasting is representative in high sublevel top coal
caving of complex environments.
Chen, Z.h., Xie, H.P., Lin, Z.M. 2002. Study on falling ability
of top coal during top coal caving by damage mechanics. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering,
21(8):11361140.
Gao, Z.N., Shi, P.W. 2001. Rock movement law of horizontal
section top coal caving in steep seam. Xian University of
Science & Technology, 21(4): 316318.
Kang, T.H., Zhang, J.P., Bai, S.W. 2004. Theoretical study
and application of weakening top coal using water preinfusion in fully mechanized sublevel caving mining.
Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering,
23(15):26152621.
Miao, S.J., Lai, X.P., Zhao, X.G., & Ren, F.H. 2009. Simulation experiment of AE-based localization damage and
deformation characteristic on coving rock in mined-out
area. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and
Materials, 16(3): 255260.
Shao, X.P., Shi, P.W., He, G.C. 2007. Analysis on unloaded
arch structure of roof in mining steep seams using horizontal section top-coal caving. Journal of University of
Science and Technology Beijing, 29(5): 447451.
Shi, P.W., Zhang, Y.Z. 2006. Structural analysis of arch of
spanning strata of top coal caving in steep seam. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 25(1):
7982.
Wang, N.B. 2007. Probing into rational improvement of horizontal sublevel height of steep-pitch fully-mechanized
caving face. Mining Safety & Environmental Protection,
(10): 149153.
Xie, H.P., Wang, J.C., Chen, Z.H. 1999. Study on top-coal
blasting technique of full-mechanized caving in the hard
thick coal seam. Journal of China Coal Society, 24(4):
350354.
Xian University of Science and Technology, ShenhuaXinjiang Energy Com. Ltd. 2007. Monitoring and
comprehensive analysis of broken characteristics on
heavy-steep seam at 579E2EB1+2 Weihuliang Coal Mine.
REFERENCES
359
G. Qi
School of Mechanics and Civil Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology
ABSTRACT: The haulage roadway of the fifth coal mine of Hebi coal group located in the syncline axis,
depth of burial 706 m, is suffering from a knotty problem of severe tunnel deformation and in short supply of
production due to high tectonic stress and complex geological environment. The main elements on roadway
stability controlling were determined and the mechanism of the deformation and failure of the roadway was
researched by means of comprehensive analysis on engineering geological and the results of in situ measurement
of ground stress around the roadway, based on the result of numerical simulation, the new coupling supporting
designbolt-mesh-cable + truss with anchor in the floor to control floor heavingis proposed. Practices have
proved that the bolt-mesh-cable + truss and anchor in the floor scheme adapts to high ground press condition, it
will make full use of the action of coupling support and controlling the deformation of the roadway sufficiently,
and providing fundamental basis for safe and efficient production for other coal mines.
1 INTRODUCTION
361
Table 1.
Number
Sampling site
Lithologic
characters
Quartz
Plagioclase
Iron
pyrites
Siderite
Amorphous
state
Clay minerals
Amount /%
1#
2#
3#
4#
Roof
Right side
Right side
Floor
Sandy mudstone
Mudstone
Mudstone
Mudstone
22.7
24.5
24.1
44.2
1.6
1.2
0.7
0.3
4.0
5.7
4.0
4.7
8.3
6.4
1.6
/
/
/
/
/
63.4
62.2
56.8
69.6
Item
Lithology
Bulk
density
/kN/m3
Compression
Water
Cohesion Internal Tensile Youngs
strength
Softening absorption force
friction strength modulus Poissons
/MPa
coefficient /%
/MPa
angle
/MPa
/GPa
ratio
Sandy mudstone
Mudstone
2.524
2.534
47.38
43.27
0.265
0.287
2.13
2.72
30
34
2.7
3.0
3.346
2.726
24.01
15.01
0.221
0.212
1#
2#
1
2
3
1
2
3
23.6
18.9
16.8
23.4
18.3
16.6
98.6
13.8
185.7
94.7
7.9
195.8
3.6 17.62
51
37.6
4.6 17.64
75.8
13.2
362
Based on the analysis of engineering geological conditions, the on-site testing and laboratory test results,
three main deformation mechanics mechanisms of
deep roadway of Hebi Coal mine were determined,
that is: IAB : molecular and colloidal imbibitions; IIAB :
tectonic stress mechanisms + gravity mechanism;
IIIAE : random joint type + structure deformation type
(He M.C. 2005.)
For the IAB -type, distortion space is reserved to
release the deformation energy and reduce the stress
concentration; for the IIAB -type, the mesh-anchor +
truss support method is adopted, the mesh-anchor and
truss coupling support formed the closed permanent
lining, so that the stress and strain of the surrounding
rock is homogenization, and the deformation of the
surrounding rock is uniform, thus, the unstable deformation mechanics mechanism of IIAB -type is turned
into a stable one IIB -type. For the IIIAE -type, the 3D
bolt optimization techniques is used, the anchor mesh
and rock achieved coupling support in the strength and
stiffness and the deformation energy is fully released
to achieve the maximum self-supporting capacity; and
then the anchor coupling support technology is used
in the key points, the strength of the deep rock is fully
mobilized, so the strength of the supporting body and
the rock is mixed secondly, thereby the resistance of
the supporting body is the minimum.
4 DESIGN OF SUPPORTING STRATEGY
Against the features of high ground pressure, large
deformation and hard supporting, according to its
mechanical transformation mechanism, the new programs of mesh-anchor + bottom bolt + flexible layer
truss coupling supporting is proposed, and the supporting parameters, supporting design and supporting
process is optimized.
363
roof, floor and two sides to achieve coupled integration supporting(Li Z.J.2008).The specifications of the
grouted bottom anchor are as follows: seamless steel
pipe of 33 mm diameter, wall thickness 5 mm, length
2500 mm, and solidifying the anchor with the cement
paste after installed.
4) The Optimization of Flexible Layer Truss Supporting.Select the 11# mining I-beam as the soft truss
material witch with high strength, tensile, compressive
and shear strength, and using the bracket connecting
rod to connect the single truss, making it a whole
and three-dimensional one, thus bringing the bending
resistance and torsion resistance into a tensile resistance, compressive resistance or shear resistance, so
better supporting effect is achieved.
Figure 3. Support pattern of the second shaft statio.
4.2
1) The primary spraying concrete. The primary spraying concrete must be executed as soon as possible after
the roadway is excavated so that the water in the air
will be cut off, and the thickness of the initial spraying
concrete is possibly small, the required thickness is no
more than 30 mm;
2) The primary coupling support of anchor and
mesh. Install the roof anchor and side anchor to heel
workface and mesh installing timely, the designed
bolt preload is 6080 kN. The bottom bolt should
be executed after the drain is executed but before
concreting;
3) Anchor cable secondary support. According to
the observations of rock pressure and displacement
back analysis principle, the best supporting time for
the second anchor coupling supporting is 30 m40 m
backward the workface (according to the normal
tunneling velocity).
4) The permanent supporting of flexible layer
truss.A gap of 100 mm was reserved between the flexible spray layer and the steel truss, the surrounding
rock experienced full deformation in the limit of the
soft spray layer and the deformation energy is released,
and thus a uniform state of external plastic area and
internal elastic area is created, the purpose that the
high-stress energy transfer to deformation and highstress transfer to the surrounding rock is achieved,
when the flexible laye is contacting the steel frame, it is
the time for the implementation of concrete permanent
supporting.
5
5.1
The simulated horizontal and vertical stress distribution and displacement of the roadway are shown in
Fig. 5Fig. 8.
According to the analysis of the horizontal and
vertical displacement and stress contour of the roadway, the distribution of the equivalent region is uniform, it indicates that better deformation coordination
364
6 APPLICATION RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
365
group, the compound deformation mechanics mechanisms of the roadway was determined, the anchor
mesh and anchor cable + flexible layer truss and bottom bolts supporting measures is proposed, and the
support parameters and the construction process was
optimized, the main conclusions are as follows:
1) Based on the study of roadway failure mechanism of the third level of the fifth coal mine of
Hebi coal mine group, the compound deformation
mechanics mechanisms of the roadway was determined and the pertinent transformation supporting
measures was proposed, and the supporting program of
anchor mesh-cable + flexible layer truss and the bottom
bolts controlling floor heaving was put forward.
2) By means of the optimization of the supporting parameters and the construction program, the
anchor, mesh-cable and truss work in co-ordination
and matched to each other, so the active supporting is
achieved, the self-bearing capacity of the rock is maximized as well as the supporting capacity of the anchor,
and the strength of deep rock is mobilize, so the rock
and the anchor, mesh-cable and the sprayed concrete
support system achieved the best coupling conditions.
3) The deformation space is reserved between the
soft layer and the rigid layer on the basis of meshanchor supporting, so the deformation energy of soft
rock is released, at the appropriate time, the rigid truss
REFERENCES
He M.C. 2004. Present state and perspective of rock mechanics in deep mining engineering. Proceedings of the 8th
Rock Mechanics and Engineering Conference. Beijing:
Science Press.
XIE H.P.& PENG S.P. 2006. Basic Theory and Engineering
Practice in Deep Mining. Beijing: Science Press.
HE M.C., XIE H.P. & PENG S.P. 2005. Study on
rock mechanics in deep mining engineering. Chinese
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering 24(16),
28032813.
HE M.C. & CHEN Xl.2007.Software system for large deformation mechanical analysis of soft rock engineering at
great depth. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering, 26(5): 934943.(in Chinese)
HE M.C. & SUN X.M. 2004.Support design and construction guide of soft rock roadway engeering in Chinese coal
mines.Beijing: Science Press.
LI Z.J. & HE M.C. 2008.Analysis and applicagtion of bolt
and mesh reinforcement and anchor wire coupling support mechanism under high horizontal site-stress.China
Mining 17(7):6568.
366
X.N. Jia
State Key Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, University of Mining and Technology,
Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: The exploitation of Carrara Marble dates back to Roman times. Throughout these twenty centuries, quarrying activity was mostly developed in the Carrara district in open pit quarries. In the last decades
many quarries have been moved into underground. In some areas the mining stopes are subjected to rock burst.
In order to overcome this hazard, detailed studies were carried out on Carrara Marbles geostructural and geomechanical setting, as far as laboratory determinations of its basic physical and mechanical parameters, focused on
obtaining knowledge of the right geomechanical assessment and marble rock-mass behaviour and on developing
mining prospecting and stability analysis. On the basis of those studies, it is now possible to predict by means
of FEM analysis, the occurrence of rock-bursts and to define the geometry and sequence of quarrying activity,
such as the supports to be placed.
FOREWORD
The exploitation of the world famous Carrara Marble (Tuscany, Italy) (Fig. 1) began with the Romans,
decreased in the Middle Age and increased again
during the Renaissance.
The production of marble blocks gradually, but
slowly, increased up to the end of XX century when
both the technology and the increment of international
assets brought to the necessity to evaluate the amount
of marble and to organize the exploitation itself.
In the last twenty years environmental concerns and
mining optimization induced many quarries to move
underground in order to lower the impact on environment and increase dimensional stone percentage
production. At the beginning many of these underground quarries, due both to cultural heritage and
the lack of specific laws, were worked without any
geomechanical study, any design, or any bolts or reinforcements, guided only by the instinct and experience
of the quarrymen.
Present day intense Carrara Marble exploitation,
which includes the widening of the underground quarries, up to very large sized caverns, new concerns for
safety and new specific laws have forced quarriers to
apply to designers for up-to-date exploitation projects.
This study concerns the rock-burst problems
encountered in the deepest and larger of the Carrara
Marble underground quarry: the Carlone quarry.
The Carrara Marble derives from the tectonometamorphic deformation of an Hettangian (about
200 Ma) carbonate platform. The Carrara Marble is
the result of three tertiary (27 to 12 Ma) overprinted
367
Characteristics
Orientation
verso
lower strength
secondo
intermediate
strength
contro
higher strength
Geomechanical assessment
Because of its metamorphic origin and its slight chromatic banding (macchia), Carrara marble presents
a weak oriented texture which determines a weak
anisotropy degree of mechanical characteristics.
In particular, Rotonda (1991) found a degree of
anisotropy of about 2% by measuring P-wave velocities in 36 directions on a spherical specimen (110 mm
in diameter).
The tectonic actions determined a global orthotropic
structure and three principal planes of weakness can
be recognized in the field. Such planes, at right angle
relative to each other and called by quarrymen verso,
secondo and contro (Tab. 1), control the exploitation
and excavation of the Carrara marble representing
planes along which blocks are cut. They sub-divide the
rock mass into prismatic blocks, the sizes and shapes
of which determine the commercial grade.
Because fractures are mainly distributed into bands
it was possible to categorise the Carrara Marble
rock-mass into four rock-mass typologies: intact, scattered fractured, systematically fractured (finimento),
intensely fractured (intersection of two finimento)
(Coli 1995, Coli 2001a, b, Coli & Livi 2002, Coli et
al. 2006).
3
LOCAL SETTING
368
m
sd
cv (%)
N
(%)
d [kg/m3 ]
Vp [m/s]
f [MPa]
0.4
0.1
14.8
6
2708
1
0.1
6
4386
176
4.0
6
96.2
0.7
0.8
3
Figure 7. Stress-strain curves obtained in uniaxial compressive test on Carlone marble samples performed by Bologna
University.
LABORATORY ANALYSIS
In order to define the geomechanical behavior of Carlone quarrys marble and to open new insight in the
understanding of rockburst, laboratory analyses were
carried out in the labs of the Universities of Bologna
369
Table 3. General physical-mechanical data for Carrara marble from literature ( = slenderness; m = mean
value; sd = standard deviation; cv = variation coefficient
(N = number of tests).
Cubic samples ( = 1)
E.R.T.A.G. (1980)
m
cv (%)
d [kg/m3 ]
f [MPa]
0.4
12.7
53
53
Cylindrical samples ( = 2)
Rotonda (1991)
m
cv (%)
(%)
d [t/m3 ]
VP [km/s]
VS [km/s]
f [MPa]
t [MPa]
E [GPa]
7.1
0.03
1.48
1.33
3.1
4.6
1.9
49
49
50
50
4
10
4
cv (%)
d [t/m3 ]
f [MPa]
t [MPa]
0
5
17
9
8
6
2692
130.5
0.4
2.7071
6.26
3.09
98.2
10.2
77.6
2.69
91
4.9
Figure 9. Strength values versus confining stress: the symbols represent data points and the lines, in blue and in red,
represent respectively the theoretical values in accordance
with Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown strength criteria.
370
4.2
Rockburst testing
371
Table 4.
NO.
#
quartz
potash
feldspar
plagioclase
calcite
IC-8
99.2
dolomite
siderite
clay mineral
contents(%)
0.8*
Embedded depth
10.00
14.00
14.00
20.00
27.00
32.00
64.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
7.00
10.00
12.00
12.00
5.00
5.00
0.00
7.00
10.00
12.00
0.00
500 m
500 m
750 m
1000 m
1200 m
1200 m
372
Discussion
materials. Geoflorida2010 Advances in analysis, modeling & design. Geotechnical special Publication, n 199:
12271236. West Palm Beach (FL): 2024 February 2010.
Berry, P. & De Virgilio, F. 1985. Significativit dellindice
di resistenza R.I.H.N. III Convegno Nazionale su Attivit
Estrattiva di minerali di 2a categoria, Bari 1719 gennaio
1985: 103109.
Coli, M. 1995. Geostructural and geomechanical setting of
the Carrara Marble quarries, Italy. Mechanics of jointed
and faulted rock, MJFR-2, Wien, 1014 Aprile 1995.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Coli, M. 2001a. Geomechanical characterisation of Carrara Marble. ISRM Regional Symposium, EUROCK 2001,
Helsinky: 5357. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Coli, M. 2001b. Underground exploitation of the Carrara
Marble. In Adachi et al. (eds), Modern Tunneling Science
and Technology: 10451050.
Coli, M. & Livi, E. 2002. Applicazione di tecniche GIS nella
pianificazione dellattivit estrattiva: carte della stabilit
generale di versante dei Bacini Marmiferi Industriali del
Comune di Carrara. Quarry and Construction 12: 1725.
Coli M., Livi E. & Pini G. (2006) Riferimenti geostrutturali e
geomeccanici per una corretta progettazione in sicurezza
di cave in galleria nei bacini marmiferi apuani. GEAM,
Atti convegno Le cave in sotterraneo, Torino 20/6/06,
101106.
E.R.T.A.G. 1980. I Marmi Apuani: schede merceologiche.
Firenze: Regione Toscana, Nuova Grafica Fiorentina.
Franklin, J.A. & Hoek, E. 1970. Developments in triaxial
testing technique. Rock Mechanics, 1970, 2, 223228.
Hawkins, A.B. 1998. Aspects of rock strength. Bull. Eng.
Geol. Environ. 57: 1730.
He, M.C., Miao, J.L. &, Feng, J.L. 2010. Rock burst process of
limestone and its acoustic emission characteristics under
true-triaxial unloading conditions. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences. 47(2): 286298.
Hoek, E. & Brown, E.T. 1980. Underground excavation of
rock. London: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy.
ISRM, R. Ulusay, R. & Hudson, J.A. (Editors) 2007. The
Complete ISRM Suggested Methods for Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring: 19742006. Turkey:
ISRM Turkish National Group Ankara.
Jaeger, J.C., Cook, N.G.W. & Zimmerman, R.W. 2007.
Fundamentals of rock mechanics. New York: Wiley.
John, M. 1972. The influence of length to diameter ratio on
rock properties in uniaxial compression: a contribution
to standardization in rock mechanics testing. Rep S Afr
CSIR No ME1083/5.
Mogi, K. 2007. Experimental rock mechanics. London:
Taylor & Francis.
Obert, L., Windes, S.L. & Duvall, W.I. 1946. Standardized
tests for determining the physical properties of mines
rocks. US Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations, 3891,
p 1.
Rotonda, T. 1991. Mechanical behaviour of an artificially
microcracked marble. Proc. 7th Congr. ISRM : 345350.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Tang, C.A., Tham, L.G., Lee, P.K.K. & Liu, H. 2000. Numerical studies of the influence of microstructure on rock
failure in uniaxial compression Part II: constraint, slenderness and size effect. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 37 (4): 571583.
373
ABSTRACT: The magnitudes and orientation of in situ stress affect the stability of mine openings, as well
as the type and amount of ground support needed to maintain a safe working environment for miners. Using
hollow inclusion stress cells, researchers obtained 13 in situ stress measurements from 6 coal mines Kailuan
mining area, China. According the analysis of the measurement data, the characteristic of in-situ stress field is
obtained. At last the relation between in situ stress and geological structure was discussed. The result provided a
more precise and reliable stress environment for design, construction and production of deep mining in Kailuan
mining area.
INSTRUCTIONS
data were available. This paper documents the measurements, describes the in situ stress state, and discusses the relation of in-situ stress field and geological
structure.
2
375
1-installation pole; 2- orienting device cable; 3- orienting device; 4-data sampling cable; 5- orienting pin; 6- waterproof ring;
7- epoxy colophony canister; 8-shell (cement inside); 9-fixed pin ; 10-interspace between cell and borehole; 11-plunger;
12-borehole; 13- glue hole; 14- waterproof ring; 15- orienting device head; 16-strain gauge rosette.
Figure 2. Structure of KX-81 HI cell.
Figure 3. Location of in situ stress measurement sites and geological structure of Kailuan mining area.
the relaxation were measured. Then with the elasticity theory calculated the magnitude and orientation of
in-situ stress. The HI cell was KX-81, designed by the
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS). It was an improver based on
the CRISO HI cell which was invented by Worotnicki
and Walton (1976). It could obtain 3D stress state in
one stress relief process and its water proof performance was very well. The out diameter was 35.5 mm,
376
Table 1.
Location
No.
Depth
(m)
Magnitude/
MPa
Orientation/
( )
Dip/
( )
Magnitude/
MPa
Orientation/
( )
Dip/
( )
Magnitude/
MPa
Orientation/
( )
Dip/
( )
Jinggezhuang
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
410
410
410
830
830
630
630
650
650
450
530
260
870
27.40
17.30
18.70
29.50
33.00
31.80
34.30
24.34
20.46
18.91
22.96
14.22
30.15
136.0
132.0
130.0
131.0
148.0
131.6
66.0
103.0
142.0
119.0
79.0
104.0
180
3.00
24.00
8.00
2.80
8.70
4.10
3.00
3.78
1.31
0.73
8.16
8.11
1.35
14.30
14.00
15.10
21.30
20.20
16.80
15.20
16.01
15.31
12.31
12.09
7.15
21.01
46
45
42
*
*
*
*
*
*
29
*
*
*
1.00
6.00
17.00
78.00
58.50
61.00
58.10
78.68
81.88
5.38
85.90
78.91
88
12.80
12.90
10.80
21.00
18.50
15.30
14.50
13.90
7.64
9.04
7.38
6.50
17.14
*
*
*
86.00
64.00
70.00
17.20
29.90
29.50
31.70
10.66
8.01
84.57
9.96
7.51
0.50
Tangshan
Qianjiaying
Fangezhuang
Donghuantuo
Linxi
41.0
53.0
43.9
155.0
193.0
52.0
*
169.0
14.0
90
MEASUREMENT RESULT
377
Where H is depth, m.
It shows that the relationship between average horizontal stress and depth is equal to the average of k in
China.
The relationship of maximum, interim and minimum principal stress is an important factor of stress
field characteristic. According the modality and correlative stress state of fault, Anderson, E.M (1951)
categorized the in-situ stress to normal fault region
(v > hmax > hmim ), slip fault region(hmax > v >
hmim ) and anti-fault region(hmax > hmim > v ). YU,
S.Z. (1994) categorized in-situ stress to static stress
field, dynamic field and quasi static stress field based
the relationship of horizontal principal and vertical
stress. Usually normal fault region correspond to static
field, slip fault region and anti fault region correspond to dynamic field. According Table 1, most
areas belong to slip fault region. Jingezhuang mine
and Fangezhuang mine was exceptional. They are
anti-fault region.
DISCUSSION
Kailuan mining area includes four coal-bearing structural zone, Kaiping syncline, Chezhoushan syncline,
378
Wandaoshan Syncline and Xigangyao syncline. Kaiping syncline is an unsymmetric structure with a NESW direction. Its length is about 50 km and width
20 km. The direction of the syncline axis changes
from Guye to Linxi and Tangjiazhuang which is EW.
The strata of west and north wing inclines slightly
in the vicinity of Tangshan mine and Zhaogezhuang
mine, but its east and south wing become more flat in
the vicinity of Qianjiaying mine, Lvjiatuo mine and
Linxi mine. Chezhoushan syncline is an unsymmetric syncline too, about 20 km length and 5 km, width.
Its axis is NE45 . NW wing of syncline is complicated, the southeast wing relatively simple. The axis
of Wandaoshan syncline is arc-shaped curve which
transferred from NE in north to NW in south. It is
about 5.3 km length and 3.4 km width. The direction
of Xigangyao syncline axis is SN. Like Kaiping syncline and Chezhoushan syncline, its west wing is steep
and east wing flat.
The in situ stress measurement sites were located in
different mine, so it belong to different coal-bearing
syncline. Jinggezhuang mine is in Wandaoshan syncline. This syncline is special structure to other
syncline. So the stress state is different to other.
The anti-fault stress state is controlled by the syncline. The Chezhoushan syncline, Kaiping syncline
and xigangyao syncline has similar characteristic, so
the stress state in those region was accordant. The
Fangezhuang mine is governed by the EW structure.
This maybe the reason that the abnormity of stress
state.
CONCLUSION
379
REFERENCES
Cui, X.F & Xie, F.R. 2001. The Space - time Variations of
Present Tectonic Stress Field in North China before and
after 1976 Tangshan Earthquake. Earthquake Research In
China, 17(3): 280288.
Zhao, D. A. & Chen, Z.M. 2007. Analysis of distribution rule
of geostress in china. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Engineering, 26(6): 12651271.
Brown, E.T. and Hock, E. 1978. Trends in relationships
between measured in situ stresses and depth. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 15(4):
211215.
Xie, F R & Cui, X F. 2004. Regional division of the recent
tectonic stress field in China and adjacent areas. Chinese
J . Geophys, 47 (4): 654662.
Zhao, J.T. & Cui, X.F. 2002. Preliminary analysis of the
tectonic stress intensity in the source region of Tangshan earthquake. ACTA SEISMOLOGICA SINICA, 24(3):
268276.
Yu S.Z. 1994. Engineering Geology of Coal Mine. Xuzhou:
China University of Mining & Technology Press.
380
Z.Z. Li
College of resources and Environment, Hebei Polytechnic University, Tangshan, Hebei, China
ABSTRACT: As the depth increasing of domestic and foreign coal mines, the ground press increasing gradually
and the mining conditions are getting worse and worse. By the impact of tunneling and mining face, the roadway
deformation is serious and the roadway floor heave frequently, the regular service of the roadway is affected
severely. The engineering geological conditions and the mechanical properties of the wall rock of a certain
coal mine were analyzed, and the in situ ground press and strain of the roadway was measured, the floor heave
failure mechanism of the deep large span roadway was studied, and the floor heave controlling program anchormesh-cable + bottom grouting anchor was proposed aiming at the results of the analysis, and the numerical
simulation also verified that the program is reliable, the field experiments showed that the supporting got a good
performance, the research production gives some references for the floor heaving controlling and prevention of
the deep roadway.
1
INTRODUCTION
A coal mine in Henan province, the transportation roadway of -450 Level is deeper than 730 m,
the cross-section of the roadway is 5.6 3.4 m2 ,
with anchor spray and U-bars supporting, and the
supporting parameters are as follows: the resin
bolt 20 mm 2000 mm, the rowto-row distance is
381
Table 1.
Sampling sites
Rock lithology
quartz
calcite
dolomite
Iron pyrites
siderite
Total %
Roof
Left wall
Right wall
floor
Black mudstone
Sandy mudstone
Black mudstone
Black mudstone
29.8
44.3
26.3
7.8
33.5
1.4
8.7
13.8
5.1
0.9
0.7
56.4
50.6
69.3
88.3
3.2
382
According to the above analysis on the stability controlling technology of the deep mine roadway, getting
rid of the shortcomings of the traditional supporting
forms and utilizing its merits, the three step coupling
supporting technology of anchor-mesh-cable + base
angle grouting bolt is raised, its technical characteristics are as follows:
1) The anchor, sprayed concrete and wire mesh as the
primary support to protect the shallow rock and
voiding the loose circle expanding, the bolts and the
surrounding rock work together to form the bearing
ring.
2) The second step is the roof controlling aiming at the
key points. Supporting the key position like the roof
and shoulders using the anchor wire to mobilize the
strength of deep rock and reduce the pressure on the
floor that produced by the loose rock.
3) The base angle grouting bolts implement as the
third step to protect the base angle. The coupling
supporting of mesh-anchor wire-bolt played important role to control the roof and the two sides, at the
same time, the base angle bolt was implemented
to cut off the plastic slip-line of the bottom rock
effectively, weakening the compression stress from
both sides of the roadway and controlling the plastic zone development of the base rock to achieve
the integrated coupling controlling of the roof, two
sides and the bottom.
4.2 The mechanism of base angle grouting
bolts supporting
Based on the above analysis, the anchor, sprayed concrete and wire mesh as the primary support to protect
shallow rock, the anchor wire supporting the key position as the second step to control the roof, so the
pressure applied to the bottom is greatly reduced, so
that the coupling role of anchor and anchor wire mesh
acts on the surrounding rock, the stress state of the
bottom and the boundary conditions are improved significantly. In this way, if the pressure applied on the
bottom is still larger than the carrying capacity limit,
it is necessary to take the base angle grouting bolts as
the further supporting method.
The mechanical model of base angle bolt controlling floor heaving is shown in Figure 3, after the
roadway is excavated, A and B begin to enter the plastic
state first under the action of loose rock, then the entire
floor rock extended into the plastic state. According to
The FLAC3D is applied to study the floor heaving control action and the mechanical effect of the base angle
grouting bolt in the deep tilt layered soft rocks. Three
models was established against the deep geological
conditions, model 1: bolting and sprayed concrete lining, no base angle grouting bolt; model 2: mesh-anchor
supporting, and both sides laid out a row of 45 base
angle grouting bolt; model 3: mesh-anchor supporting, and both sides laid out two rows of 45 base angle
grouting bolts.
The vertical displacement of model1 (figure 5 a)
shows that serious convergence distortion happened
because the roof and bottom are not controlled effectively. Severe floor heaving appeared, the maximal
383
The optimized supporting program of bolt-meshanchor cable +base angle grouting bolt is successfully
applied to the 530 m roadway repairing project
of the coal mine, the optimized supporting parameters are as follows: the resin anchor is 22 mm
and length 2500 mm, inter-row is 700 700 mm, the
preload is 6 t; the welded wire mesh is 6 mm, mesh
segment is 800 900 mm, mesh size 100 100 mm;
the steel standard anchor wire is 18.9 mm, the
length is 8000 mm, inter-row 1600 2100 mm, the
adopted arrangement is 3-4-3, the preload is 10 t;
the base angle grouting bolt is seamless steel pipe
of 33 mm, the length is 2500 mm, 2 for each side,
spacing 500 mm, distance 1000 mm. The layout of the
supporting cross-section is shown in Figure 8.
The deformation monitoring of the supported roadway is carried out after the supporting program is
384
REFERENCES
implemented, according to 260d monitoring data (Figure 9), the roof subsidence is 54 mm, the displacement
of the right wall is 52 mm and the left wall is 58 mm,
the maximum floor heaving is 42 mm, generally, the
deformation of the roadway is small, 120d later,
the supported roadway has been stabilized and good
supporting effect is achieved.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of field investigation, laboratory
tests and field tests, the floor heaving failure mechanism of deep large cross-section roadway is studied,
the three steps supporting program of bolt-mesh and
cable + base angle grouting bolt is proposed to control the floor heaving, and the numerical simulation
and on-site applications validated the reliability of
the supporting program, the following conclusions are
drawn:
1) The three steps supporting program is reliable, that
is, anchor wire supports the roof, bolt-mesh protects
the sides and the base angle grouting bolts protect
the floor, the supporting program can effectively
control the heaving floor;
Li Z. J. 2004. Present state and perspective of rock mechanics in deep mining engineering: Chinese Society of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering ed. Proceedings of the 8th
Rock Mechanics and Engineering Conference. Beijing:
Science press
HE M. C. & SUN X. M. 2004. Support design and construction guide of soft rock roadway engineering in Chinese
coal mines. Science Press: Beijing
Liu W. T. 2007. Study on the mechanics of the asymmetric deformability for rock roadways at great depths and
supporting countermeasures in datun mining area, China
University of Geoscience: Beijing
Li Z. J. 2009. Study on Deformation Mechanism and Control
Strategy for Deep Rock Roadway in the Fifth Coal Mine
of HBCG. China University of Mining and Technology:
Beijing
Li Z. J., He M. C. & Tang Q. D. 2008. Analysis and
application of bolt and mesh reinforcement and anchor
wire coupling support mechanism under high horizontal
site-stress. China Mining. 17(7): 6568
Xie H. P., Peng S. P., He M. C., et al. 2006. Basic Theory
and Engineering Practice in Deep Mining. Science Press:
Beijing
385
ABSTRACT: Floor heave is one of the most difficult problems of soft rock roadway supporting in coal mines. A
serious floor heave have occurred when the west wing track roadway of Tingnan coal mine was being constructed,
the maximum value reached to 50 cm, which impacted the normal application of roadway severely. The article
involved engineering geology, soft rock engineering mechanics and clay mineralogy etc, employed the ways of
study on engineering geomechanics, laboratory testing on properties of rock mass, and combined with FDM 3D
numerical simulation, and deeply researched the deformation mechanism and generating process of floor heave,
it indicated clearly that the major influencing factor that led to floor heave was the horizontal extrusion stress,
and the secondary ones were floor surrounding rock with high content of swelling clay minerals and soaking
effect on floor rock. Thus the deformation mechanism was compound type of floor heave caused by the combined
action of plastic extrusion and swelling. Aimed at the above-mentioned mechanism, a new support measures
would be provided with inverted arch and floor bolt to control the floor heave. Project protice has shown good
results of new supporting have been obtained with expected effects, and controlled the floor heave effectively.
Keywords:
Soft rock roadway floor heave deformation mechanism horizontal stress swelling soaking effect
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH OF ENGINEERING
GEOMECHANICS
387
388
389
Table 1.
Principal
stresses
Value
(MPa)
Direction
angle ( )
Dip
( )
Vertical
stress (MPa)
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
17.9
11.9
9.8
22.3
11.6
9.7
27.7
13.6
11
98.6
13.8
185.7
94.7
7.9
195.8
99.4
8.4
204.1
3.9
53
36.7
4.7
76.9
12.18
3.8
14.2
75.2
11.1
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
11.1
11.2
in the floor of west wing track roadway, the floor surrounding rock with high swelling mineral contents
soften and swell easily when exposure to water, so
the failure mechanism of floor heave is also swelling
type. In conclusion, the mechanism of floor heave is
multi-type consisting of above mentioned mechanism.
the loss of floor rock strength and volume expansion, and aggravate the displacement of floor heave,
thus the displacement of roadway side close to the
drainage ditch is bigger than the other side, which
present the phenomenon of asymmetrical deformation. Aimed at the floor mudstone of west wing track
roadway, through the experiment on uniaxial compressive strength of mudstone in different soaking time[8] ,
the attenuated relation between uniaxial compressive
strength of floor mudstone and soaking time has been
obtained, as shown in the figure 5.
3 ANALYSES OF MECHANISM AND FAILURE
PROCESS OF FLOOR HEAVE
3.1
By way of research on field engineering geomechanics, and combined with theory analysis of soft rock
engineering mechanics, that shown the principal force
acting on west wing track roadway is tectonic stress
that closely approximates horizontal direction, and
because of the biggish engineering partial stress in
bottom angle, so the major failure mechanism of floor
heave is plastic extrusion under horizontal extrusion
stress; besides, swelling rock advances into the roadway on account of expansion, the capacity to swell
seems to be limited to those rocks that contains clay
minerals such as montmorillonite, with a high swelling
capacity. by results of X-ray diffraction analysis and
experiment on soaking effect of aluminous mudstone
390
being in a strain softened condition, is called softening region, also namely plastic loosened zone. Under
the pressure of horizontal stress field, when the stress
at the rock of floor exceeds the rock limit strength,
the plastic deformation and rheology of the weakened floor rock occurred, and the squeezing floor rock
advances into the roadway, which cause the roadway
floor heave. In addition, at the situation of roadway
water accumulation, when there is the plastic loosened
zone around roadway, the water can not only contact
with the exposed rock, but also percolate through the
interior of surrounding rock by passing through cracks,
making the increase in contact area between water and
rock, the aggravation of physical and chemical reaction between water and rock, and the acceleration of
rock swelling speed and the loss of rock strength. After
that, the strength of surrounding rock within plastic
loosened zone is constantly reduced, perhaps totally
lost, creating that the plastic loosened zone is further
broadened. The effect of mighty in-situ stress coupling
water makes surrounding rock further get softened, the
strength and the modulus of deformation are evidently
reduced, and the cohesion is almost lost, so the floor
surrounding rock further advances into the roadway,
causing the vicious circle[11]. In a word, the process
of multiple swelling floor heave is the process of coupling action of soft rock reaction for water inducing
properties of rock change and the plastic deformation
under in-site stress field.
The original support in west wing track roadway was the form of floor-opening support, a
700 mm 700 mm pattern of 2.1 m long 18 mm
diameter resin anchored and tensioned rockbolts were
installed radially from the roof and walls; one cable
was installed from every cross section of roadway,
using 6.5 m long, 15.2 mm diameter high-strength lowrelaxation stran spaced at 1.6 m in the top of roof;
6.5 mm diameter wire mesh, with 150 mm of shotcrete
for the roof and walls were installed. Because of no
effective support for the floor and corner, and the floor
mudstone when meeting with water is easily getting
weak and swelling, so the floor of roadway, under
the extrusion action of horizontal stress, becomes the
deformation unrestrained surface, the stress concentration in floor rock happened, causing the plastic
deformation and the serious floor heave, and then,
directly affecting the stability for roof and walls and
the displacement occurred to the roof and walls.
From the entire deformation of west wing track roadway, the large displacement quantity of floor heave,
account for 80% in total displacement, and having
small displacement in walls, are obtained.
Strengthening technology
391
was fixed; the upper surface, being the stress boundary, were loaded by overburden weight stress equal to
11 Mpa, the value of horizontal stress on this model
was determined by the results of in-situ stress measurement; the Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion was
used as failure criterion of materials.
Two kinds of support forms are: support with
rock bolt-wire mesh-shotcrete and cable (the original
support form); support with bottom angle rock bolt
and inverted arch on the basis of the original support
with rock bolt-wire mesh-shotcrete (the new support
form of testing section). The support system diagrams
of two forms are showed in the figure 6, and the results
of numerical simulation are showed as figure 7 and
figure 8.
By the comparative analysis of displacement fields
of two forms, the results were followed as:
(1) The original support form as being in a state
of floor opening without support, the asymmetrical deformation of roadway happened, the serious
floor heave has arisen in the left side close to
the drainage ditch, the maximum value of floor
heave arrived to 49.5 cm; the horizontal maximum displacement zone was mostly concentrated
underneath the wall angles, that caused the floor
mudstone squeezed by the horizontal displacement advanced into roadway, then increased the
displacement of floor; and the floor mudstone is
on the condition of being sheared and slid along
the plastic shear sliding surface, the chief failure mechanism of floor heave, that was plastic
extrusion, was basically consistent with the displacement fields of original support, thereby the
mechanism of large deformation of floor has been
validated.
(2) The new support form as having reinforced the
floor with bottom angle bolt and inverted arch,
that removed the stress and displacement concentration on region around the wall angles, cut off the
continuity of horizontal stress from roof, walls and
tectonic stress, improved the stress condition of
floor surrounding rock being sheared, controlled
the quantity of floor heave, and the deformation
of roadway has a tendency to stability. Besides the
addition of strengthening technology of floor with
bottom angle bolt and inverted arch to original
support enhanced the overall support effect, and
not only effectively controlled the displacement
392
ENGINEERING APPLICATION
CONCLUSIONS
393
[7]
[8]
REFERENCES
[1] Kang H P. Mechanism and Control of Floor Heave
in Soft Rock Roadway. Beijing: China Coal Industry
Publishing House, 1993: 14. (In Chinese)
[2] He M C, Sun X M. A Guide on the Design and Construction of Coalmine Soft Rock Engineering in China.
Beijing: Science Press, 2004: 145163. (In Chinese)
[3] Xie F R, Chen Q C, Cui X F. Crustal Stress in
China. Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 2003.
(In Chinese)
[4] Chen H. J,1999,Stress Analysis in Longwall Entry
Roof Under High Horizontal Stress. Ph.D. dissertation,
West Virginia University, pp.278
[5] Gale, W. J. Strata Control Utilising Rock Reinforcement Techniques and Stress Control Methods, in Australian Coal Mines. The Mining Engineer, Vol. 150,
No. 352, Jan. 1991, pp. 247253
[6] Gale, W. J., and Blackwood, R. W. Stress distributions and rock failure around coal mine roadways. Int.
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
394
ABSTRACT: There was a hydropower in the transition zone between Qinghai-Tibet plateau and Sichuan Basin,
while excavating the traffic tunnel towards its underground structure at about 631 m horizontal depth, many rock
burst happened at right arch, and the hydraulic fracturing three dimensional stress measurement was adopt at
the place immediately. The paper introduced the process and the result of this measurement, analyzed the spatial
distribution of crustal stress and the maximum tangential stress max in tunnel excavation. It found that the
direct mechanical cause of the rock burst was that the max at the site of right arch reached 39 MPa, which
have greatly exceeded the rock burst critical stress lcr 29 MPa.
1 INTRODUCTION
The hydropower is located in Ganzi Tibetan
autonomous prefecture, a transition zone of QinghaiTibet plateau and the Sichuan Basin, is a high mountain
canyon. In the zone, mountains and the ditches stagger each other, and the whole terrain is from west to
east, the local faults are not developed, and no regional
active faults pass through.
While excavating the traffic tunnel of diversion
routes, rock burst happened at about 631 m Horizontal
depth. It occurs during the smoke cleaning after blasting, and occasionally happened after the tunnel have
finished for 1 to 2 months, It mostly occurred at right
arch on the wall, mainly medium-sized peeled off.
To identify the crustal stress at the location of
rock burst, a three dimensional stress measuring point
was conducted in the traffic tunnel which is about
The measuring point carrying out hydraulic fracturing three dimensional stress measurement was at stake
0 + 6310 + 639 m in the traffic tunnel, its upper
rock depth was about 515 m, the E.L. of its bottom
is 2250 m, and the tunnel was toward to N62 E.
The mountains is very high with exposed bedrock
surface, cliffs, THE gradient of the natural slope generally at 45 75 , with gray Yanshanian two-mica
granite. Its strong with wet compressive strength is
about 80 MPa, which belong to hard rocks, density is
2.66g/cm3.
The two-mica granite of measure section is fresh,
hard, and integrated, is class II rock, with light
gray to white color. It is lack of joints, little joint
plane is mostly flat, closed and non-filling. At stake
0 + 631 m, there is a joint on the wall, with attitude
395
Table 1.
Borehole No.
Serial No.
Test depth/m
A(H )
B(h )
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
10.6811.93
13.8415.09
15.4216.67
17.0018.25
21.0622.31
9.1010.35
10.6811.93
17.0018.25
18.5819.83
20.1621.41
9.1010.35
15.4216.67
17.0018.25
18.5819.83
20.1621.41
14.15
13.17
11.70
10.38
10.33
9.74
12.42
12.58
14.96
16.00
9.79
11.65
12.27
12.55
13.40
8.18
7.58
6.60
6.06
6.00
5.22
7.68
7.10
9.52
9.70
6.29
6.55
7.37
7.75
8.20
Fracture Azimuth /
57
59
63
157
165
158
N32 W
N35 W
N34 W
* B , A the minimum and maximum principle stress measured in horizontal and inclined boreholes h , H the minimum
and maximum horizontal stress
The fracture azimuth measuring rule: Facing to the bottom of the borehole, within the cross-section of borehole, measure
the angle from right direction to the fracture in counterclockwise.
396
In the theory of HF three dimensional stress measurement method, the three dimensional stress of
measuring point could be calculated by parameters
of attitude, the plane stress values and azimuths of
three intersection boreholes in different direction. The
selection rule of plane stress value as below: if one
boreholes stress value has little change at whole depth,
then averaging value was adopt, if the value was much
larger or lower to normal ones for the influence of
stress concentration or releasing, then get rid of the
abnormal data first. In usual the prefer direction was
adopt as the azimuth of the maximum principle stress.
With the method mentioned, it had a careful analysis
on the measurement stress data at first, then deleted
any abnormal data which were significantly larger or
lower than normal ones, at last identified the fit data
to calculate the three dimensional stress, as shown in
Table 2.
With the data in Tab. 2, three dimensional stress of
the measuring point was obtained, the value, azimuth,
inclinations and components were shown in Table 3.
As list in Table 3, the maximum principle stress
value was 16.39 MPa, with azimuth 327 , inclination
51 , the middle principle stress value at 9.88 MPa,
with azimuth 142 , inclination 39 , and the minimum
principle stress value at 7.46 MPa, with azimuth 234 ,
inclination 3 nearly horizontal.
Having Analyzed of each principle stresss value,
azimuth and inclination, it found that the inclination of
the maximum stress was quite steep, and the vertical
stress component was the largest one, obviously the
deep bury of upper rock made a significant effect to
the stress pattern, and it showed that the main actual
stress near the measuring point was firstly act at
within 10 m, and then gradually reduced till the bottom, stress value in ZKD02 was much lower at first for
the influence of fissure, and then gradually increased
till the bottom; and stress value in ZKD03 increased
with the depth.
As shown, there were 5 measured stress value and
3 data of the maximum principle stress azimuth has
been obtained in each borehole, the measurement was
quite successful.
There were any differences among the measured
plane stresses in three different direction boreholes.
Also test segments stress value in any borehole was
larger or lower than the normal ones because of the
influence of stress concentration or releasing, overall, the stress values in three boreholes were more
consistent. Of them, the maximum principle stresss
value normally at 1014 MPa, the minimum principle
stresss at 69 MPa. The maximum horizontal principle stress azimuth of the vertical borehole ZKD03 was
near to N34W.
397
Parameters for calculating the three dimensional stress of traffic tunnel measuring point.
Borehole name
Inclination
Azimuth /
A or H /MPa
B or h /MPa
Fracture azimuth
ZKD01
ZKD02
ZKD03
2
1
90
195
115
/
11.95
13.99
12.47
6.88
8.50
7.47
60
160
N34 W
Table 3. Three dimensional stress result of the measuring point in traffic tunnel.
Principle stress
Value
Azimuth
Inclination
Stress component
1
2
3
16.39 MPa
9.88 MPa
7.46 MPa
327
142
234
51
39
3
X = 10.91 MPa
Y = 9.03 MPa
Z = 13.79 MPa
XY = 2.32 MPa
YZ = 1.63 MPa
XZ = 2.75 MPa
*X-axis at south was positive, Y-axis at east was positive, Z-axis at upper is positive. And azimuth at north was zero, positive
at clockwise, and the inclination upon horizontal (zero) was positive.
maximum tangential stress max position on the tunnel wall must be at point B and B , and the value of
max as Formula (1)
Rock burst was a serious problem in tunnels excavation, Studies showed that the occurrence of rock
burst mainly depended on the nature and the stress
of surrounding rock, and the rocks nature was much
important, the rocks stress was much necessary. Its
hard to tell what scale did each one take effort in
rock burst (Hou et al. 1992). For the same reason,
now types of assumptions and Criterions appeared to
study the rock burst phenomenon, which relying on
such as strength, stiffness, energy, stable, fracture, etc
(Miu et al. 2002). Because rock burst was too complex to predict, each method had its own advantages
and disadvantages. Of them, use the ratio of crustal
stress to rock strength to study whether or not rock
burst happens in tunnel rock mass was more reasonable. In this paper, the same type of criterion from
professor Houfaliang (Hou et al. 1989) was adopt, as
follow formula (2):
398
4.
In formula (3), c referred to rocks uniaxial compressive strength like formula (2), lcr referred to the
Critical stress of rock burst.
The Granite rocks uniaxial compressive strength
near this measuring point of traffic tunnel was 80 MPa.
And the ratio of 2 /1 at the measuring point was
about 0.60, reference to formula (3), the state of rock
mass was C, and the rock bursts critical stress lcr
equal to 0.360c , at about 29 MPa, which mean while
the Maximum tangential stress exceeded it do rock
burst happen.
The maximum tangential stress existed at the
positions B and B on wall, and its value equal
to 3 1 2 , at about 39 MPa, obviously, it have
exceeded the Critical stress lcr , so that the rock burst
would happen.
The above analysis showedfrom the perspective
of crustal stress, rock burst would happen at positions
B and B (The bottom left corner and top right corner
of tunnel, along the azimuth of 2 ), this was consistent
with the actual rock burst position.
Yet that, rock burst was an complex geological
phenomenon, the cause of it maybe related to rocks
mechanical structure, tectonic, stress, tunnel shape,
excavation progress, etc, stress was just one factor,
to analysis rock burst only by the view of stress, there
was any one-sidedness maybe.
4
CONCLUSIONS
Having introduced the three dimensional stress measurement results of measuring point at traffic tunnel in
one hydropower, and having analyzed the stress contribution features at the place of rock burst, now it have
approximately clarified the mechanical cause of rock
burst. And the conclusions of the stress measurement
and rock burst analysis were driven as followed.
1. There were any differences among the measured
plane stresses in three different direction boreholes.
Also test segments stress value in any borehole
was larger or lower than the normal ones because
5.
of the influence of stress concentration or releasing, overall, the stress values in three boreholes
were more consistent. Of them, the maximum principle stresss value normally at 1014 MPa, the
minimum principle stresss at 69 MPa.
The maximum horizontal principle stress azimuth
of the vertical borehole ZKD03 was near to N34W.
The maximum principle stress value was 16.39 MPa,
with azimuth 327 , inclination 51 , the middle principle stress value at 9.88 MPa, with azimuth 142 ,
inclination 39 , and the minimum principle stress
value at 7.46 MPa, with azimuth 234 , inclination
3 nearly horizontal.
Having Analyzed of each principle stresss value,
azimuth and inclination, it found that the inclination of the maximum stress was quite steep, and
the vertical stress component was the largest one,
obviously the deep bury of upper rock made a significant effect to the stress pattern, and it showed
that the main actual stress near the measuring point
was firstly act at vertical direction, and secondly at
horizontal.
By rocks mechanical parameter, measured stress
data and Houfaliangs rock burst criterion, it found
that why the rock burst happen was that the max
at the right arch of tunnel reached 39 MPa, greatly
exceeded the critical stress lcr which was about
29 MPa, and it was the main mechanical cause of
rock burst.
REFERENCES
Chen, Q., Li, F., et al. 2001. Application Study
of Three Dimensional Geo-stess Measurements by
Use of Hydraulic Fracturing Method[J]. Journal of
Geomechanics, 7(01).6978.
Hou, F. & Wang, M. 1989. criterion of rock-burst evaluation
and its prevention and cure measure in circular tunnel[C],
Rock Mechanics in Engineering Applications, Beijing:
Knowledge press, 195201.
Hou, F., Liu, X., et al. 1992. Causes of rock burst re-analysis
and discuss of Intensity classification[C], Chinese Society of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, the 3th Rock
dynamics Conference Proceedings, Wuhan: Wuhan Tech
Univ. Surveying & Mapping press, 448457.
Hubbert, M.K & Willis, D.G. 1957,Mechanics of Hydraulic
Fracturing[J]. AIME Trans., 210:153166.
International Society for Rock Mechanics, Commission
on Testing Methods. 1987.Suggested Methods for Rock
Stress Determination[J]. Int. J. Rock Mech. Mi Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr. 24(1): 5373.
Kuriyagawa, M. & Kobayashi, H.,1989. Application of
hydraulic fracturing to three dimensional in situ stress
measurement[J], Int. J. rock Mech. Min. Sci. 26(6):
587593.
Miu, J., Wu, J., et al. 2002.Causes of rock burst in circular
chambers and its geological disaster analysis [J]. Journal
of Hohai University (Natural Sciences), 30(5):3740.
Zoback MD. & Haimson BC., Hydraulic Fracturing Stress
Measurements[M]. Washington DC: National Academy
Press, 1983:201209.
399
ABSTRACT: By adopting the research methods of in-situ investigation, laboratory test and theoretical analysis,
the slope sliding mechanics and key factors of effecting stability of the slop in catastrophe was analyzed at Shenli
open mine. The working slope was divided into four zones including land sliding zone, potential sliding zone,
relatively stable zone and importance engineering zone by analyzing the engineering geological condition and
lithological characteristics of slope. By the application of the in-situ monitoring data, the model of forecasting
the landslide was built up. Combined with the modified grey model and mutation forecasting model, the suitable
method of landslide catastrophe forecasting was given. The in-situ monitoring data and the land sliding condition
were verified, which proves the feasibility of the forecasting method.
1
INTRODUCTION
401
3.2
Refer to the area distributed near the landslide, in critical condition, or has had a crack in the appearance, etc
and landslide may happen. Such as area II1 between
landslide DH1 and DH2, area II2 between landslide
DH2 and DH3, area II3 between landslide DH4 and
DH1. Potential slide area and the nearest landslide
zone has the same stratigraphical lithology and influencing factors. If dont take the corresponding control
measures, it is likely to form a threat of landslide.
3.3
402
slope instability (figure 3), destroying front transport shortcuts. This is evolution model of landslide:
Cut slope makes the slope toe stress redistribution.
First slope slides along cretaceous mudstone deposited
interface causing the slope crest cracks slide shear
surface forming gradually. Under inducing factors
(rain, long lasting rainfall, etc.) the sliding surface run
through leading to a hazard.
Landslide disaster is an change system that is determined by internal and external factors which influence
each other, from gradual changes to the mutation, from
quantitative to qualitative. It is a kind of nonlinear evolution, non-continuous variation, and the mutations is
finally precursor of damage[24] .
The point mutations is the most widely used within
the scope of mutations in mechanics theory, phase
space is three-dimensional, its canonical function of
potential function is [5] :
403
1/4
y
among: ai = i!t
(x n), Change
i |t=0 , make: t = a4
type (7) into sharp point mutations standard form by
variable substitution:
Type of:
According to the p, q we can calculate F values utilizating type (5), predict the moment whether the slope is
stable.
7
can not control the dynamic change, often need several monitoring points. According to the forecast of 14
pile we can get the F value of other piles in April 30,
May 3, May 6 and May 9. (table 2.)
(1) All the F values of monitoring points 114 in
eastern non-work wall were greater than zero on
April 30, May 3, and May 6 and it was predicted
that the side slops within the scope of the slipe
points were stabile. Landslide cant happen.
(2) 1, 11, 12 and 14 pile F values were less than
zero, the other 10 pile F values greater than zero
on May 9. Considering 1, 11, 12 and 14 piles in
upperlimb of slope DH2, they are more sensitive
to the slope changes and four pile points along the
slope toward the same direction. So the slope near
the four piles may slide on that day by forecast.
The reality is that the slope slided, slide area is
1440 m2 , mainly concentrated around the pile 14
on May 7. The forecast effect is good.
Table 1.
Observation time
Monitoring values/cm
Prediction/cm
2007
3.13
3.19
3.25
3.31
4.06
4.12
4.18
4.24
4.30
5.06
1.11
1.18
1.51
2.18
2.88
3.43
6.26
13.69
25.92
38.73
1.11
1.19
1.40
1.69
2.18
3.18
5.67
12.37
23.32
39.78
Table 2.
404
Monitoring F value
1
3
5
7
9
11
12
13
14
1
3
5
7
9
11
12
13
14
4.30
9.44E+4
6.87E+4
5.83E+5
1.28E+5
8.54E+4
7.14E+4
8.37E+4
6.94E+4
7.38E+4
5.6
5.45E+4
5.68E+4
4.84E+4
6.56E+4
5.86E+4
4.47E+4
5.59E+4
4.29E+4
5.83E+4
Prediction
effect
F value
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
5.3
6.68E+5
7.63E+4
6.63E+4
8.75E+4
6.83E+4
6.23E+4
7.36E+4
5.83E+4
6.26E+4
5.9
5.66E+4
5.26E+4
3.36E+4
5.73E+4
2.17E+5
2.38E+4
4.52E+4
5.18E+4
3.43E+4
Prediction
effect
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
stable
unstable
stable
stable
stable
stable
unstable
unstable
stable
unstable
8 CONCLUSION
This article analysed land slope according to the
ShengLi open caol mine slope engineering geological conditions and present situation of the slope. It
analysed the landslide mechanism of side slope with
the method of numerical simulation and theory analysis, and put forward the forecasting method, the main
conclusion:
(1) On the basis of exploration the slope engineering was divided. The main influence factors of
ShengLi open coal mine landslide land sliding
were confirmed by using the rock mechanics
and engineering mechanics theory. And further
analysed the landslide mechanism.
(2) According to the landslide mechanism, we revised
the traditional theory of grey forecasting model to
a new grey-mutation forecasting model, and got
suitable method for pit slope landslide disaster
forecasting.
(3) The monitoring data and the landslide condition of
eastern non-work wall of ShengLi open coal mine
proved the landslide disaster prediction method is
feasible, and got a good effect in the engineering
application of ShengLi open coal mine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the funding
support from HeBei Province Natural Foundation
405
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a case study of a deep-buried underground tunnel project with the buried
depth of 1000 m in south-western China. Both the magnitude and direction of the geo-stress were determined
through the field measurement. The stress distribution law of the tunnel with different buried depth from 700 m
to 1000 m was comprehensively analyzed and evaluated. Through the laboratory tests and field monitoring, the
mechanical parameters and engineering characteristics of surrounding rock were obtained. On the basis of the
Kaiser Effect measurement, the real-time tests were carried out in surrounding rock for monitoring the rock
burst. The study detected that the acoustic emission parameters multiply before the occurrence of rock burst.
Furthermore, the wave-form was obtained when rock burst occurred though analyzing acoustic emission signal.
The results of the analyses provide a scientific basis for tunnel support design and section choice of the deep
tunnel projects.
1
INTRODUCTION
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
407
The measurement method is using hydraulic fracturing technique (ISRM 1987, Cai 1993, Cai 2000,
Peng 2006 & Ma 2005). The in-situ stress measurement is in one borehole. The measured borehole,
which is a vertical borehole with buried depth of
approximately 26 m, is located in the floor of the
deep-buried tunnel. The rock property of the drilling
hole is relatively integrity and dryness. The lithology of the borehole is mainly as follows: 04.3 m,
408
Table 1.
Physical and mechanical properties of surrounding rock and evaluation results of rock burst-prone tendency.
compressive strength (MPa)
Rock samples
Uniaxial
Triaxial
Elastic
modulus (GPa)
Poisson
ratio
DT
(ms)
WET
KE
Rock burst-prone
tendency evaluation
Sandstone
Mudstone
1:1 combination
1:2 combination
1:3 combination
1:1:1 combination
Coal petrology
53.647
15.14
25.12
61.95
63.99
13.91
120.577
61.336
21.23
5.346
7.83
4.40
4.065
0.229
0.27
0.132
0.34
360
720
360
1.9
1.6
weak
weak
no
weak
Note: DT = Dynamic damage time; WET = Elastic energy index; KE = Impact energy index.
Table 2.
Measurement
points
fracturing section
depth (m)
Pb
Pr
PS
1
2
3
4
5
6
4.55.3
8.69.4
11.512.3
16.016.8
21.622.4
25.025.8
17.0
13.5
18.0
10.5
7.9
10.5
11.3
8.5
7.7
6.9
7.15
8.6
7.2
6.3
6.2
6.5
5.6
10.3
13.6
15.3
10.2
10.4
10.9
6.9
7.2
8.6
7.2
6.3
6.2
0.13
0.24
0.33
0.43
0.51
0.66
orientation of H
( )
NW73
NW38
NW36
Notes: (1) Pb = fracturing pressure; Pr = re-expanding pressure; PS = instantaneous closure pressure; T = rock tensile strength;
H = maximum horizontal principal stress; h = minimum horizontal principal stress; v = vertical principal stress.
(2) The depth of the borehole is calculated from the floor of the deep-buried tunnel. The upper parts of the rock dont consider
when vertical stress v is calculated.
reddish-brown fine sandstone; 4.37.65 m, purplered muddy siltstone; 7.658.15m, reddish-brown fine
sandstone; 8.158.45 m, purple-red muddy siltstone;
8.4518.25m, reddish-brown fine sandstone; 18.25
18.46 m, purple-red mudstone; 18.4619.06, purplered siltstone; 19.0619.55 m, purple-red mudstone;
19.5522.43 m, purple-red siltstone; 22.4329.76m,
reddish-brown fine sandstone.
According to the geology and lithology condition
of borehole, six hydraulic fracturing tests have been
carried out in this hole, of which three are chosen for
impression test to determine fracturing orientation in
the borehole.
4 IN-SITU STRESS MEASURING RESULTS
ANALYSIS
Through six hydraulic fracturing tests in this borehole,
reliable measurement results are obtained. Fracturing pressure, instantaneous closure pressure and reexpanding pressure of each test in each cycle are clear
and the repetition is good. Therefore, the values of
maximum horizontal principal stress and minimum
horizontal principal stress can be calculated by the
fracturing pressure, instantaneous closure pressure and
re-expanding pressure. The values of vertical principal stress can be calculated through the theoretical
409
410
The acoustic emission signals of rock mass are relevant to the state of rock mass damage occurs. Its
parameters change accordingly with the different
stages of the destruction.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors sincerely thank the following agents for
their financial supports: National Natural Science
Foundation of China (50974126, 50674095), Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University
(Grant No.NCET-08-0835), Beijing Excellent Talents
Program (20071D1600700414), Key Research Project
of Chinese Ministry of Education (No.109034).
REFERENCES
Cai, M.F., 1993. Commentary of principles and techniques
of rock stress measurement. Chinese Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 12, No.3:275283(In
Chinese).
Cai, M.F., 2000. Principles and techniques of in-situ stress
measurement. Beijing: Science Press (In Chinese).
M.F. Cai, X.O. Xia, H. Peng & X.M. Ma. 2008. Stress field
characteristics and prediction of rockburst in the tunnel
area. Boundaries of Rock Mechanics in Beijing, China.
Hou, F.L., Jia, Y.R. 1986. the relations between rockburst and
surrounding rock stress in under-ground chamber. In: Proceedings of the Inter-national Symposium on Engineering
in Complex Rock Formations. Science Press, Beijing,
China, 11: 497505 (In English).
ISRM. 1987. suggested methods for rock stress determination. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. Vol.
24, No. 1:5573 (In English).
Ma, X.M., Peng, H., Li, J.S. et al. 2005. application of
hydraulic fracturing in situ stress measurements in tunneling in west xinjiang. Journal Geo-mechanics, Vol. 11,
No. 4:386393(In Chinese with English abstract).
Peng, H., Cui, W., Ma, X.M. et al. 2006. Hydrofracturing in
situ stress measurements of the water diversion area in
the first stage of the south-north water diversion project
(western line). Journal Geomechanics, Vol. 12, No. 2:182
190 (In Chinese with English abstract).
Bo Liu, Renshu Yang. Burst-prone experiments on combined coal-rock of 1100 m level in Suncun Coal Mine,
Journal of China Society of Rock Mechanics & Engineering, 2004, 23(14), 24022408 (In Chinese with English
abstract).
411
Measurements and research of in-situ stress near the fault structure filed
C.H. Zhou, J.M. Yin & G.Q. Xiao
Key Laboratory of Geotechnical Mechanics and Engineering of the Ministry of Water Resources, Changjiang
River Scientific Research Institute, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
ABSTRACT: By analyzing the results of several typical projects hydrofracturing in-situ stress measurements
near the engineering fault structure field, the relativity between the in-situ stress and tectonics space distribution,
motive mechanism and lithology is obtained. The in-situ stress magnitude general decreases or increases in the
tectonicsdepth direction and the orientations of maximum horizontal principal stress is almost parallel or vertical
to the faults trend influenced by the motive mechanism. It is helpful to evaluate the stability of engineering
rockmass scientifically and to provide the base of project location by analyzing the distribution of geo-stress
near the fault structure field.
INTRODUCTION
2 TEST PRINCIPLES
Hydrofracturing method is often applied in a number
of engineering rock mass stress test studies with the
benefits of high testing depth, avoiding the error by
using uncertain elastic constants,by the same time, the
stress distribution under the assumption in the twodimensional analysis.
The principle of hydrofracturing method is to use
a pair of inflatable rubber packer, which packers the
scheduled depth of a borehole, and then fluid pressure
is pumped into the drilling in the segment. At last, the
geo-stress is calculated according to the eigenvalue of
the process fracturing curve.
The several basic formula is commonly used as
follows:
The maximum horizontal principal stress
Tensile
413
Table 1.
Borehole
number
Depth downhole
(/m)
Pb
(MPa)
Pr
(MPa)
Ps
(MPa)
H
(MPa)
H
(MPa)
h
(MPa)
ZK27
37.7
47.0
56.5
66.0
75.5
85.0
93.8
36.9
46.9
56.9
66.9
76.9
86.9
96.9
104.0
110.0
6.0
9.5
10.7
14.0
11.5
8.0
11.3
8.2
8.8
14.0
13.0
16.2
19.2
16.5
14.3
10.9
3.2
3.0
7.8
3.0
3.5
6.2
7.9
6.9
4.4
10.1
9.0
9.3
15.4
12.3
9.4
8.2
1.5
1.9
3.8
1.8
1.7
3.2
4.1
4.2
3.1
5.9
4.8
5.8
11.0
9.3
5.8
6.6
2.8
6.5
2.9
11.0
8.0
1.8
3.4
1.3
4.4
3.9
4.0
6.9
3.8
4.2
4.9
2.7
2.1
3.4
4.7
3.7
2.8
4.8
5.9
6.0
5.3
8.1
6.0
8.8
18.4
16.5
9.1
12.7
1.9
2.3
4.4
2.5
2.4
4.1
5.0
4.6
3.6
6.5
5.5
6.6
11.9
10.3
6.8
7.7
ZK28
414
Azimuth of H
( )
85
92
125
110
The tunnel is located in the south of Daiyun mountains and the moutains bearing of trend is mainly
northeastsouthwest. According to regional geological data,the regional tectonic of the testing zone is
Table 2.
Borehole
number
Depth downhole
(/m)
Pb
(MPa)
Pr
(MPa)
Ps
(MPa)
H
(MPa)
H
(MPa)
h
(MPa)
Azimuth of H
( )
ZK1
92.0
100.0
104.7
110.5
112.5
114.2
9.8
5.8
2.4
4.2
5.1
4.7
3.0
3.2
1.9
3.4
3.9
4.0
1.8
2.0
1.5
2.2
2.4
2.6
6.8
2.6
0.6
0.8
1.2
0.7
3.4
4.0
3.9
4.6
4.8
5.1
2.7
3.0
2.5
3.3
3.6
3.7
310
415
305
316
CONCLUSION
Limited to the authors knowledge, the above understanding is introduced. How to deeply and organically study the relationship between the site stress
test results and the near faultsgeological conditions,
mechanical motion(such as numerical simulation and
physical models) awaits further field tests and theoretical analysis. Its helpful to understand the deep crustal
fault structure activity features by studying the problem, hoping to get colleagues and research staff on the
concerns and discussion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was financially supported by Scientific
Research Foundation of Changjiang River Scientific
Research Institute (No.CKSF2010018). The support
is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
C.H. Zhou & K. Ai, J.M. Yin et al. 2006. Experimental study
of geo-stress field and rockmass mechanical characters in
buxi hydropower stations dam site slope Chinese Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Engineering. Vol.25. Supp.2P.:
39593964.
C.H. Zhou & J.M. Yin, Y.K. Liu et al. 2007. Geostress Measurement and Evaluation for Ahai Hydro-power Stations
Dam Site, Jinshajiang River. Journal of Yangtze River
Scientific Research Institute. 24 (3).
C.H. Zhou, F. Jin. 2006. The Report of Geo-stress Measurement in Yunnan Ahai Hydro power Stations Right
Bank in Down Dam site [R]. wuhan: Changjiang River
Scientific Research Institute of the Yangze River Water
Conservancy Committee.
H.W. Zhou & H.P. Xie, J.P. Zuo. 2005. Deep Heights mechanical behavior of rock under stress research [J]. Mechanics.
35 (1): 9199.
K. Ai & C.H. Zhou, F.G. Wang et al. 2005. The Report
of Geo-stress and Borehole Deform Measurement in Ya
416
X.F. Yu, & Y.R. Zheng, H.H Liu et al. 1983. Underground
engineering rock stability analysis [M]. Beijing: Coal
Industry Press.
Y.F. Liu. 2000. Geostress and engineering construction[M].
Wuhan: Hubei Scientific Technology Publishing Company.
Y.Y. Tang & Y.X. Cao. 2002. Study on the Outburst Prone of
Different Fault Sides[J]. Journal of China Coal Society.
8(1):710.
Z.Q. Sun& G.B. Zhang, J.H. Zhang. 2000. Study of in-situ
stress state evolution in geologic fault structure. Petroleum
exploration and development. Vol.27 No.1: 102105.
417
ABSTRACT: Jiulong mine is a typical inundation coal mine in China, in the working face several water
inrush disasters has occurred during the process of deep mining so far. Working face water inrush disasters in
Jiulong mine is taken as the research object, by means of the Hollow Inclusion, deep rock mechanics character
measurement and on-site investigation, this paper has discussed the influencing factors of the stability of the
floor in deep mining working face and come to the conclusion of distributed characteristics of stress field.
Combined with numerical simulation, it inverses the distributed discipline of the stress field, studies the stability
characteristics of the floor in the deep mining working face under the effect of in-situ stress, confined water, and
mining disturbance. The research results show that the integral floor heave in the deep mining working face of
Jiulong mine is due to the influence of multi-field coupling, which includes in-situ stress field, the pressure of
confined water under strata, the mining disturbance stress, and so on. Among these, the tectonic stress field, the
recovery method and the size of working face are key elements of floor heaving and breaking. By the appropriate
selection of mining method and the size of working face, such water inrush disasters can be prevented effectively.
And mining area in-situ measurement also plays an important role in the research of the working face floor water
inrush mechanism.
INTRODUCTION
419
420
The stress meter used in measuring named KX2003, which developed by Institute of Geological
1
2
3
1
2
3
27.2
16.3
15.0
24.4
22.7
10
93
2
238
109
13
212
5
3
83
22
52
28
15.1
20.3
Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Science, the mounting depth is 10 m approximately. From the strain curve
of foil gauge at 4# measuring point in Jiulong mine, it
is found that strain capacity at each foil gauge is zero
at the beginning of drilling, then varies larger with the
increase of drilling distance, when it reaches near the
foil gauge, which is in compression state, and strain
capacity wanes gradually, expresses as a negative value
on the curve. In case the relief distance reaches 20 cm,
strain larges abruptly when the core drilled the location of the strain gauge, and changes into positive value
from negative on the curve, the foil gauge is on a process of sudden release of the stress. Subsequently, the
strain capacities of all foil gauges stabilize along with
the increase of relief distance, which is consist with
actual situation. Only results of 4# and 5# measuring points are concerned in this paper, on account of
unsuccessful measurements on 1#, 2#, 3# point for a
variety of reasons.
What is found from the analysis of the ground stress
measuring results in Jiulong mine: (Table 1).
(1) The directions of maximum principal stress at
each measuring point are close to the horizontal
direction, which is corresponding with the tectonic
stress field in Chinese mainland;
(2) Maximum principal stress in the horizontal direction, and the value is about 1.21.8 times to its
self-weight stress, which indicate that horizontal
421
Number of
measuring
point
Depth (m)
4
5
560
750
15.4
24.8
14.6
21.8
15.3
21.4
5
tectonic stress field is on dominant position in this
mining area;
(3) The trend of the maximum principal horizontal stress is North-west-west to South-east-east
overall.
(4) In substance, the vertical stress is equal to the
weight of overlying rock.
4
422
Figure 5. The maximum principal stress and vertical displacement along vertical slicing of working face.
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our appreciation to Project 2010CB226801
supported by National Key Basic Research Development Program (973 program); Project 50704034
supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China;
Project supported by Beijing Education commission
Jointly Construction Project construction plan; Project
supported by State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources
and Mine safety independent research topic.
REFERENCES
[1] Li B Y. Theory and practice of working face floor water
rush. Beijing: China Coal Industry Publishing House,
1989. (In Chinese)
[2] Peng S P, WANG J A. Safely coal mine on the confined
aquifer. Beijing: China Coal Industry Publishing House,
2001.(in Chinese)
[3] Li B Y. Research on mining pressure and floor water
inrush. Coal Geology and Exploration, 1986(6): 3036
(In Chinese)
423
parameter evolution with shearing, International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002)
789800
[8] Li J X, Li D P. The relations of initial geostress and
water irruption of seam floor. Chinese Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering, 1999, 18(4):419423(In
Chinese)
[9] Shi L Q, Song Z Q. A analyses about the conditions and the site of water inrush from mining floor.
Coal Geology and Exploration, 1999, 27(5): 4951(In
Chinese)
424
Yang Henglin
CNPC Drilling Research Institute, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: The equation of Mohr-Coulomb salt dilation criterion has been developed obtained from the
triaxial compression and extension laboratory tests of bedded salt. Numerical stimulations of the natural gas
storage caverns in bedded salt formation are carried out by FLAC3D to evaluate the effect of cavern design parameters on the minimum permitted operating gas pressure necessary to maintain cavern stability. The influences
of cavern depth, cavern roof span, roof salt thickness, overlying shale thickness and overlying shale stiffness on
the minimum permitted operating pressure are studied. In order to compare the calculating results conveniently,
the minimum permitted operating pressure is expressed in terms of a pressure gradient at the casing shoes. The
comprehensive study results indicate that the minimum permitted operating pressure gradient has a proportion
with cavern roof span, and an inverse proportion with overlying shale stiffness. The roof salt thickness and
overlying shale thickness have little or no influence on the minimum permitted operating pressure gradient.
INTRODUCTION
425
Table 1.
In order to get the influences of cavern design parameters on the minimum permitted operating gas pressure
necessary to maintain cavern stability, numerical stimulations of the natural gas storage caverns located at
eastern of China in bedded salt formation, are carried
out by FLAC3D . Several design parameters are investigated in the numerical simulations, including: cavern
depth, cavern roof span, roof salt thickness, overlying
shale thickness, and overlying shale stiffness. Results
of the numerical analyses are presented in terms of
the pressure gradient at the casing shoe to provide
a convenient method for comparison of the results,
particularly those obtained for the caverns at different
depths (Fig. 2).
NO.
Length/mm
Diameter/mm
R-1
R-3
R-4
S-1
S-2
S-3
S-5
160.13
161.32
160.20
86.70
100.07
100.92
85.55
75.60
74.96
75.15
50.15
49.65
48.71
50.92
conservancy and hydroelectric engineering (SL2642001), the experimental data of H-1 well shown in
table 2.
The equation of Mohr-Coulomb salt dilation criterion is obtained by the H-1 well salt samples
experimental data, written as:
Test items
Density tests
Brazilian tests
Test contents
Density
/g.cm3
Tensile splitting
strength t /MPa
Strength
c /MPa
Youngs modulus
E/MPa
Poisson
ratio
Cohesive
force C/MPa
Friction
angle /( )
Non-salt
Salt
2.363
2.182
4.864
41.34
29.45
27.29
5.54
0.277
0.293
5.84
40.27
426
Figure 3. Failure zone distributions of natural gas storage under different operating pressure.
427
(3) The numerical calculating results show the minimum permitted operating pressure gradient of
natural gas storage has a direct proportion relationship with cavern roof span and buried depth,
which has an inverse proportion with overlying
shale stiffness. The roof salt thickness and overlying shale thickness have little influence on the
minimum permitted operating pressure gradient.
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
428
Wang Xin
CNPC Research Institute of Petroleum Exploitation and Development (Langfang Branch), Langfang, Hebei, China
ABSTRACT: During the large-scale hydraulic fracturing of thin interbedded sandstone reservoir (short for
TISR), the fracture is propagated greatly along the fracture height direction, leading the length/height ratio of
fracture usually smaller than 4. Because the interlayer is thin and weak, this can not afford strong restrictions
on the height of fracture propagations. In this condition, the traditional pseudo-3D model only considering the
fluid flowing along the length direction of fracture does not agree with the actual situation. In this study, a new
pseudo-3D model of predicting the fracture development with 2D flow is built up according to the hydraulic
fracturing characteristics of TISR. In the new model, the flow along the fracture height direction is considered.
The precise solutions of fracture length and height dimensions are calculated by the new model. The numerical
calculating software is obtained based on the new model, which is used to stimulate the fracture development
during hydraulic fracturing in TISR. The results show that the new model has a perfect performance in analyzing
the fracture development during large-scale hydraulic fracturing in TISR.
Keywords: pseudo-3D model with 2D flow; large-scale hydraulic fracturing; thin interbedded sandstone
reservoir (TISR); fracture; length/height ratio
INTRODUCTION
429
2.1
Figure 1. Stress on the fracture and related parameter diagram when stress distribution in upper and lower bed is
symmetrical.
Where, =
6q
.
b3
Substituting = 0 into equation (4), the stress intensity factor of fracture end in length direction (x = Lf ),
KIL , is expressed as the following simplified forms
Similarly, the value of = 90 and y = hf are substituted into equation (4) to give the stress intensity
factor of fracture end in height direction
430
2.3
ht 2
.
2hf
The total pump volume of fracture fluid is equal
fracture volume and leakoff volume according to mass
balance theory, written as
Where, Lh = Lf
431
3.2
Comparison of results
CONCLUSIONS
432
M.K. Rahman, M.M. Rahman, and A.H. Joarder. 2007. Analytical production modeling for hydraulically fractured
gas reservoirs. Petroleum Science and Technology, 25(6):
683704.
Muskat, M. 1982. The flow of homogeneous fluids through
porous media. IHRDC Publications, Boston: 181186.
Palmer ID, and Darroll HB Jr. 1983. Three-dimension
hydraulic fracture propagation in the presence of stress
variations. SPE 10849-PA.
Prats, M. 1961. Effect of vertical fractures on reservoir behavior-incompressible fluid case. SPEJ(June):
105118.
Qiu Weide, and Lu Lianjun. 2002. A new pseudo threedimension flow field model for predicting height of fracture. Journal of the University of Petroleum China (edition
of natural science, 36(5): 4851.
S. Amini, D. Ilk, and T. A. Blasingame. 2007. Evaluation
of the Elliptical Flow Period for Hydraulically-Fractured
Wells in Tight Gas SandsTheoretical Aspects and Practical Considerations. SPE 106308.
Shah, R.C., and Kobayashi, A.S. 1971. Stress intensity factor for an elliptical crack under arbitrary normal loading.
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 3: 71-96.
XU Yun1ong and GE Hongkui. 2005. Status of the study on
the technology of controlling fracture in near wellbore.
Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering,
24(Supp.1): 51895193 (in Chinese).
433
ABSTRACT: A sectional optimization algorithm of perforation parameters of casing in horizontal water injection wells is established on the basis of triaxial in-situ stress of formation and the characteristics of flow fluid
in porous medium. The triaxial in-situ stress of formation is obtained from acoustic logging information. Many
affecting factors are included in the optimization algorithm, such as formation heterogeneity, pore pressure,
pressure drop of oil reservoir, wellbore pressure drop and injection flow rate. The program of the sectional optimization algorithm is compiled by Visual Basic computer language, which is used to optimize the perforation
parameters of casing of an actual horizontal well named W73-P7. The results show that the sectional optimization
algorithm of perforation parameters in horizontal water injection wells can effectively optimize the distribution
of perforation density along the wellbore, quantify the injection rate of each perforation section and improve
the water injection efficiency. The optimization method lays a foundation for the analysis of injection effect and
produces degree of surrounding oil well.
1
INTRODUCTION
435
2.2
the horizontal well is homogeneous; the whole injection capacity in a day is Q and injection process meets
Darcy Law and steady-state flow condition.
In figure 1, we separate the wellbore into N parts.
The length of each part along the horizontal well is
L.
On the basis of stable percolation, each infinitesimal section can be substituted by a vertical well.
When they have the same producibility, the equivalent
wellbore radius, rew , can be written as follows:
PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION
436
On the basis of these theoretical analysis and algorithm above, the program of sectional optimization algorithm of perforation parameters along the
horizontal water flooding well in heterogeneous reservoir is compiled by Visual Basic computer language, which is used to optimize the perforation
parameters of casing of an actual horizontal well
named W73-P7. The range of analysis length is
2050 m to 2400 m, mean thickness of the oil reservoir
is 8.3 m, = 1.0 m1 , w = 1 g/cm3 , = 1.0 mPa.s,
Q = 120 m3 /d, Rp = 0.006 m, Lp = 0.895 m.
5.1 Triaxial principal stress and permeability based
on logging information
4.4
Taking formation heterogeneity, pore pressure, wellbore pressure drop and injection flow rate into consideration, injection density of each section can be derived
on the basis of permeation fluid mechanics:
437
5.2
After sectional optimization of perforation parameters, the perforation density is properly reduced in
high permeability block and enhanced in low permeability block. The near wellbore zone in the horizontal
well with segmental perforation is easily to form nearly
linear displacement system, as is shown in Fig. 8 (the
length of the blue rectangular is the length of perforation, while the width stands for the average density of
perforation along all the perforation sections).
6
CONCLUSIONS
Table 1. The results of water injection rate after sectional perforation optimization.
Hole section
number
Length range
m
Rate of water
injection m3 /d
Hole section
number
Length range
m
Rate of water
injection m3 /d
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
20502060
20602070
20702080
20802090
20902100
21002110
21102120
21202130
21302140
21402150
21502160
21602170
21702180
21802190
21902200
22002210
22102220
22202230
3.12
2.75
3.67
3.43
3.96
2.36
2.57
2.49
3.67
3.15
4.36
3.28
3.92
3.17
3.48
2.33
2.94
3.62
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
22302240
22402250
22502260
22602270
22702280
22802290
22902300
23002310
23102320
23202330
23302340
23402350
23502360
23602370
23702380
23802390
23902400
3.52
4.16
3.59
3.21
4.18
3.62
3.83
3.77
3.96
3.32
2.79
3.66
3.14
3.25
4.69
3.56
3.48
438
7 NOMENCLATURES
r = the space between well center and arbitrary point
M, m
rw = wellbore radius, m
rew = equivalent wellbore radius, m
zw = vertical distance between well center and reservoir bottom, m
h = thickness of oil reservoir, m
Rp = radius of perforation channels, m
Lp = depth of perforation channels, m
C = constant, MPa
pz = gravity stress, MPa
Pw = critical fracturing pressure of formation, MPa
pw = boundary pressure of oil reservoir, MPa
pf = well hole pressure, MPa
439
Li Gensheng
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource and Prospecting China University of Petroleum Beijing,
Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: According to the relationship of the percolation ability and the pore pressure of coal reservoir, an
interpretation method of analyzing the pressure attenuation testing data is derived by use of the Duhamel principle.
Consequently, the pore pressure of coal reservoir is obtained by the method. Depending on mechanics of porous
elastic medium and rock mechanics, mechanical mechanism of borehole instability is analyzed for underbalanced
drilling. Based on Hoek-Brown strength failure criteria, the limit drilling pressure difference mathematical model
for keeping borehole stability is established. By calculating the annular pressure loss of drilling fluid in the laminar
flow, the method for determining the proper drilling fluid density is proposed combined with the pore pressure
of coal reservoir and drilling negative pressure difference. Comparing the measured values with the theoretical
results of pressure difference and drilling fluid density of a coal-bed methane well in QinShui basin, the result
shows the high degree of coincidence, verifies the correctness of the method and model in this paper, and supplies
the theoretical basis for parameter design during underbalanced drilling.
INTRODUCTION
441
Where
where K is the permeability when pore pressure is p;
K0 is the permeability when pore pressure is p0 ; is
the dimensionless coefficient.
2.2 The determination of coal reservoir pore
pressure
In the pressure decay testing of coal-bed methane, for
reducing the well testing cost, it usually use very short
injection time, thus the impact of injection stage on
reservoir pressure system can be ignored. So in the
process of pressure decay testing, the change of bottom
hole pressure can be regarded as a special variable flow
testing. The pressure decay testing can be explained
using the convolution formula.
According to the Duhamel principle, the formula
can be obtained.
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the pw (t)
t
relationship curve is obtained by using (8), the intercept in the curve is the pore pressure.
3 THE DETERMINATION OF NEGATIVE
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE IN
UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
In the process of underbalanced drilling, the bottom
hole pressure is lower than the formation pore pressure, the pressure difference forms the under voltage,
which can protect the coal-bed methane reservoir. But
if the pressure difference is too large, the formation
442
Where 1 , 2 are the maximum and minimum principle stress respectively; mb , s, a are the Hoek-Brown
constants of coal rock; ci is the uniaxial compressive
strength of integrated coal rock.
Inserting (9) into (10), the solving formula is:
For conventional overbalance drilling or nearly balanced drilling, the pump displacement is designed
according to the principle of maximum water power
of drill bit or impact force in jet drilling. But the displacement should not be too large in underbalanced
drilling, for reducing the equipment load of drilling
443
CASE STUDY
444
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Value
89 mm
152.4 mm
590 m
980000 Pa
14 L/s
3.0 mPas
The authors are very much indebted to the Peoples Republic of China 973 Projection (Contract
No. 2010CB226706) and the China National Science and Technology Major Project (Contract No.
2008ZX05036-001) for the financial support.
REFERENCES
6 CONCLUSIONS
1) Considering the relationship of coal reservoir permeability and coal reservoir pressure, the testing
data of pressure damping test in well testing is
explained, which can determine the permeability
and pore pressure of coal seam.
2) Using the mechanics of porous elastic medium and
rock mechanics, the mathematics model of keeping
wellbore stability in coal-bed methane underbalanced drilling is established, and the principle of
determining the reasonable pressure difference is
proposed.
3) In the process of underbalanced drilling, the
premise is the drilling fluid should meet the requirement of carrying coal rock, the drilling fluid displacement should not be too large, and the flow
state should be laminar flow.
4) The design flow and calculation method of drilling
fluid density suitable for coal-bed methane underbalanced drilling is proposed, supplying the basis
for the choice of drilling fluid density.
445
ABSTRACT: Calculation formulas of geological strength index(GSI) and jointing parameter(JP) of rock
strength index(RMi) are derived, and the GSI-JP modified analysis method for coal fracture in wellbore direction
is given. Considering wavelet neural network, coal principal stresses with reservoir plane is analyzed, consequently coal seam plane fracture classification method is presented based on Hoek-Brown criterion. According
to GSI-JP value, coal seam fracture coefficient size and energy method, four grades of A,B,C,D are divided
for coal fracture degree at wellbore direction and reservoir plane, and coal fracture classification stan-dard is
determined. Appling the classification method and standard, the distribution regularity of coal fracture is studied
for ZP-1 Well and JinCheng region in QinShui basin. The research results show that coal GSI value of ZP-1
well is among 3050, and JP value of RMI is 0.10.25, so coal fracture of ZP-1 is considered as grade B. Coal
seam fracture degree of YangCheng, DingDian, FanZhuang, FanZhuang, ChangYe, ZhangZi in JinCheng block
is defined as grade A, but northwest region coal seam is belong to grade D. The prediction results agree well
with the measured values, therefore the classification method and standard are proved. Depending on research
results, computer program is corresponding developed.
INTRODUCTION
Because of coal anisotropy of physical and mechanical properties, as well as the presence of cleat and
fissures, the integrity of coal is undermined, and coal
is easily broken. Drilling occurs to collapse in coal
seam fracture zone, so pre-drilling accurately prediction that is the distribution of the fracture zone with the
direction of wellbore and coal plane can greatly reduce
the drilling risk. Existed rock mass classification standards for home and abroad are determined based on
qualitative descriptions and subjective experience of
individuals to achieve rock mass classification. This
classification standard is not applicable for coal seam
with depth of a few hundreds meters, thereby the distribution of coal fracture prediction results is affected.
Because coal classification method and standard are
yet been established for the current domestic to guide
coal seam fracture zones forecast, internal factors and
external factors of coal fracture is not comprehensive
enough, and the safety requirements can not be met
for coal seam drilling. Appling Hoek-Brown criterion
and modified GSI and JP(RMi) parameters, coal fracture classification method and standard are proposed
with the direction of plane and wellbore, and the distribution regularity of coal fracture is studied for ZP-1
Well and JinCheng block in QinShui basin. The results
HOEK-BROWN CRITERION
447
Coal
qualitative
Corresponding
representation strength
JP value
Coal fracture
classification
Much low
Low
Middle
High
Fractured
Strong fracture
Weak fracture
Unfractured
Much weak
Weak
Middle
Strong
00.05
0.050.25
0.250.5
0.51
Where
3.1
448
3.3
030
00.05
3050
5070
0.050.25
0.250.5
70100
0.51
Where
The optimal parameter is solved by conjugate gradient descent algorithm, where is vector including wj ,
aj and bj (j = 1, 2, L).
449
fracture coefficient
>1.0
1.00.8
0.80.5
<0.5
Key Points
11.82
5.82
11.88
5.7
10.54
6.47
10.86
5.58
0.025
2.03
0.236
0.74
2.91
2.16
1.86
2.33
FanZhuang H
h
DingDian H
h
FanZhuang H
h
PanZhuang H
h
4.3
Key Points
Simulation
Value ( )
Measured
Value( )
Absolutely
Error ( )
FanZhuang
ZhangZi
NE53.737
NE32.771
NE55
NE32
1.263
0.771
5
5.1
450
6 CONCLUSION
451
452
ABSTRACT: In-situ stress field inversion is to find a model or parameter, which can fit practical data as much
as possible.According to the fundamental equations of elastic mechanics, the optimization constraint model based
on the least square method is established. The optimization method of in-situ stress field of low permeability
reservoirs is proposed. Depending on sequential unconstrained minimization technique, the problem of multiobjective constraint is transformed into unconstrained optimization problem by adding penalty function, and
numerical model related with finite element calculation is derived. Reasonable objective function is selected to
solve minimum value by applying optimization method to adjust and search design parameters, thus boundary
loads are obtained. By use of the inversion boundary loads, finite element forward solution is carried out, so
in-situ stress field is determined. According to in-site stress size and direction in typical well for GaoYou W8
fault block of SuBei Basin as constraint, the area stress field is calculated. The example shows that the method is
reliable and has high precise, and overcomes disadvantages of regression method and boundary adjusting method.
Therefore, the optimization method put forward in this paper can effectively solve the inversion problem of in-situ
stress field for low permeability reservoir.
1
INTRODUCTION
In the process of low-permeability reservoir development, the stress field distribution is needed to know.
According to the fundamental equations of elastic
mechanics, the basic theory of stress field inversion
is established. Mixed-penalty function is adopted, and
the multi-well constrained optimization model and
method are established, so the numerical inversion
method combined the constrained optimization with
the finite element method is proposed. According to a
small amount of measured stress data of the research
area to optimize the stress field, the calculation results
of stress field agree well with measured values. The
method can make up the defect of the existed inversion methods and the boundary load adjustment and
enhance calculation accuracy.
2
453
Layer
E/MPa
Density/g/cm3
Top
E1 f 3
E1 f 2
E1 f 1
Bottom
Fault
Boundary
21710
21760
22400
25200
31000
15120
29500
0.25
0.20
0.21
0.29
0.27
0.41
0.25
2.30
2.47
2.42
2.59
2.62
2.25
2.30
CALCULATION MODEL
If q is equal to 1, then:
454
Table 2.
Sites
Depth/m
Measurement method
h /MPa
H /MPa
Direction/0
W5-5
W8-1
W8-4
W8-5
W8-6
W8-7
1049.8
1435.0
1152.9
1190.7
1160.4
1187.0
Hydrofracturing AE;
Hydrofracturing
Hydrofracturing AE;
Velocity Method AE;
Velocity Method AE;
Velocity Method
18.9
17.6
18.7
17.5
16.8
16.3
25.8
29.4
29.0
30.5
31.8
33.3
E27.5 S
E5.7 S
E3.0 N
E3.1 N
E1.4 N
E3.5 S
Key
Points
Stress
Component
Simulation
Value
(MPa)
W5-5
h
H
h
H
h
H
h
H
h
H
h
H
18.843
28.957
17.075
30.965
17.060
30.083
17.079
30.044
17.475
29.925
17.903
29.901
W8-1
W8-4
W8-5
W8-6
W8-7
Measured
Value
(MPa)
Relative
Error
(%)
18.937
25.771
17.566
29.417
18.659
28.964
17.509
30.525
16.785
31.782
16.255
33.277
0.496
12.363
2.795
5.262
8.570
3.863
2.456
1.576
4.111
5.843
10.138
10.145
Key
Points
W5-5
W8-1
W8-4
W8-5
W8-6
W8-7
Simulation
Value
( )
E13.98 S
E6.44 S
E6.66 S
E6.25 S
E7.19 S
E6.88 S
Measured
Value
( )
E27.5 S
E5.7 S
E3.0 N
E3.1 N
E1.4 N
E3.5 S
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5 P6 P7 P8
Boundary
load (MPa) 13.9 13.9 27.5 27.5 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
Relative
Error
( )
13.52
0.74
9.66
9.35
8.59
3.38
4 INVERSION RESULTS
Compared the principal stress inversion results with
the measured values from Table 3 and 4, the results
show that the maximum and minimum principal stress
relative errors between the simulated and measured
values are less than 10% for the key points in the
region; W5-5 is an exception, the principal stress relative errors is 12.363%; its direction difference of
principal stress is less than 10 ; so the inversion calculation accuracy is higher. The stress field results that
are obtained by inversion calculation are desirable, and
precision can meet the engineering requirements.
455
results of E1 f 1 and E1 f 2 layers, and strain energy density increases with depth increasing. That is to say,
fracture development of bottom layer is better than top
layer. Also, the results show that fracture development
increases with vertical depth.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
5.3
REFERENCES
Formation fracture pressure is predicted by use of fracture mechanics criteria to provide reference for drilling
and hydraulic fracturing design. Based on formation
fracture pressure results of W8 (Fig. 4), the values are
among the 1636 MPa. The scope of fracture pressure in northern is 1630 MPa, and western is higher
than eastern. Fracture pressure increases with depth
increasing. Also, it changes 4MPa within 200 meters.
Through the calculation of strain energy density,
the region of fracture development can be predicted.
For strain energy density high-value areas of stress
field, rock permeability is usually good, and the area
is conducive to enrich for oil and gas, so it is the priority development area for development and arrange of
wells.
6
CONCLUSION
Wang Ren. 2000. Mechanics inversion and inversion mechanics. Mechanics and Engineering 22(1): 7174.
Ahn B S, Park K S, Han C H. 2000. Multi-attribute decision
aid under incomplete information and hierarchical structure. European Journal of Operational Research 125(2):
431439.
Guo Ming-wei, Li Chun-guang, Wang Shui-lin. 2008. Study
on inverse analysis of 3-D initial geostress field with optimized displacement boundaries. Rock and Soil Mechanics
29(5): l2691274.
Chen Shu-ping, Dai Jun-sheng, Song Quan-you. 1998. Features of tectonic stress fields in Jiaolai basin. Journal of
China University of Petroleum 22(3): 1925.
Tan Cheng-xuan, Wang Lian-jie, Sun Bao-shan. 1997. An
approach to numerical simulation of 3-D tectonic stress
field of the oil-gas-bearing basin. Journal of Geomechanics 3(1): 7180.
Zhu Bo Fang. 1994. Back analysis of initial stresses in rock
masses. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 28(10): 3035.
456
Yang Henglin
Institute of Drilling and Technology (CNPC), Beijing
ABSTRACT: Based on the fractured-porous elastic and seepage theory, considering the orthotropic physical
properties of coal cleats and different seepage characteristics in the orientation of the face and butt cleats, the
orthotropic dual media mathematical model for fluid-solid coupling is established. The finite element equation
is derived on the basis of the orthotropic dual media mathematical model, and also the relative two dimensional
program of finite element method is developed. Taking the ZP-1 well in Qinshui Basin as an example, the effect of
the permeability orthotropic coefficient on the pressure distribution in the borehole wall is simulated. According
to the mathematical model, the various parameters which effect the collapsed pressure for borehole stability
are analyzed in detail, including non-uniform in-situ stress coefficient, hole size, permeability, pore pressure,
internal friction angle and cohesion. The results shows that the pressure distribution in the borehole wall decreases
with permeability orthotropic coefficient increasing between 0 and 45 , whereas it increases between 45 and
90 . Collapsed pressure increases with non-uniform in-situ stress coefficient, hole size, permeability and pore
pressure increasing, and decreases with friction angle and cohesion increasing.
INTRODUCTION
The formation fluid flows into the borehole unceasingly during the under balanced drilling. After the
borehole is formed, the stress around the borehole
will be distributed again accompanied by the percolation of the formation fluid which influences the
borehole stability. Over the years, a lot of valuable
results have been gained by many domestic and foreign scholars according to the large number of studies
on borehole stability. Fjaer presents the elastic stress
solution in the borehole wall under non-uniform insitu stress. Fonseca shows the porous linear elastic
stress solution in the borehole wall subjected to fluidsolid coupling, considering the effect of the uniform
in-situ stress and radial porous flow. However, coal
bed methane reservoir is considered as naturally fractured reservoir because of the presence of face and
butt cleats. They usually align orthogonal to each other,
which creates permeability anisotropy. Generally, face
cleats have larger permeability compared to the butt
cleat, therefore it is assumed as the maximum permeability direction. Because of the different seepage
characteristics in the orientation of the face and butt
cleats, the water inside the cleats system is considered
as non-uniform flow. On the basis of the orthotropic
physical properties of coal cleats and different seepage characteristics in the orientation of the face and
butt cleats, the orthotropic dual media mathematical
457
2) Geometric equation
We can obtain the numerical solution although it is difficult to solve the exact solution for the above coupling
equations. Under the assumption that the displacement
field and pressure field are represented by the value of
the discrete points, then they can be written as
458
matrix, [S] =
NE
e
e=1 A[S] ; [K ] = the general seepage
NE
matrix, [K ] = e=1 A[K ]e ; {F1 } = the equivalent node
load, [F1 ] = NE
A[F1 ]e ; {F2 } = the equivalent node
e=1
NE
flow, [F2 ] = e=1 A[F2 ]e ; NE = the total number of
elements; A = the combination operator.
It is assumed that tm , tm+1 are two points in time
domain, then the corresponding field variables are
{Um }, {Pm }, {Um+1 }, {Pm+1 }. The differential term dU
dt
and dP
are approximately equal to U
and P
respecdt
t
t
tively within the time step t = tm+1 tm . The linear
interpolation formulas are described as:
Table 1.
ID.
Parameter
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
62.1
1.15
0.95
31200
0.23
3.5
47.5
2
5.1E-3
3.2 E-3
0.5 E-3
Where 1 = the maximum principal stress in the borehole wall; 3 = the minimum principal stress in the
borehole wall.
5
t
0 t d
t 0t t d
(16)
By setting a reasonable boundary condition and initial condition and using the finite element program, the
stress distribution in the borehole wall under the coupling action can be calculated, and then the borehole
stability is analyzed based on Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion.
4
EXAMPLE ANALYSIS
459
pressure in the borehole wall. As it can be seen in Figure 7 and 8, the collapsed pressure in the borehole wall
decreases with cohesion increasing, 2 MPa decreasing
amplitude approximately, whereas it increases with
internal friction angle increasing,0.4 MPa increasing
amplitude approximately. According to the figure 9,
the collapsed pressure in the borehole wall is almost
unchanged as the porosity rises. Figure 10 shows that
the collapsed pressure in the borehole wall presents
nonlinear growth with an increase of the hole size in the
hole size range from 20 cm to 50 cm, 1 MPa increasing amplitude approximately, whereas it keeps almost
unchanged in the hole size range from 50 cm to 70 cm.
460
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are very much indebted to the China
National Science and Technology Major Project (Contract No. 2008ZX05036-001 and 2008ZX05037-004).
REFERENCES
Fjaer, E., Holt, R., Horsud, P., Raaen, A., and Risnes,
R. Petroleum Related Rock Mechanics.Elsevier Science
Publishers, 2008.
461
462
ABSTRACT: One week before the occurrence of Wenchuan Ms8.0 Earthquake the maximum horizontal principal stress measured by hydro-fracturing technique in the seismogenic fault zone of Wenchuan Earthquake
(Yingxiu-Beichuan fault) at 400 m depth was 21 22 MPa, which was 8 10 MPa higher than the values
measured in the nearby footwall. The repeated measurements after the great earthquake at the same locations
indicate that the maximum and minimum horizontal principal stress in the fault belt decreased by 29% and 23%
respectively; while in the footwall the stresses did not change after the earthquake. The analysis of the measured
result indicates that anomalous high stress in an active fault belt provides a reliable basis for determining the area
of high seismic risk, and it is a warning sign of generation and occurrence of strong earthquakes. Therefore the
in-situ stress measurements have quite important function and significance in the strong earthquake prediction
research.
1 PREFACE
In-situ stress status is the most important character of
crust. All kinds of geological phenomena (include the
occurrence of shallow earthquakes) inside and outside crust and all concomitant physical phenomena
are associated with in-situ stress. Pregnant and occurrence of strong destructive earthquakes are the result
of strong tectonic stress, and also an express of strong
crust movements. The strength pushed the movement
which was existed in crust, will gradually increase
at special conditions, and destroy the crust at any
fragile place, lead to vibration, it is the cause and process of earthquake (Li 1977). Therefore, Professor Li
Siguang suggests to study and prediction earthquake
by measuring in-situ stress status.
However, it is impossible to predict accurately when
and where a strong destructive earthquake may occur.
And its difficult to fulfill the aspirations of measuring the in-situ stress in the pregnant seismogenic zone
just before earthquake, Therefore, up to now there is
no report on in-situ stress measurement in the epicenter area before a large earthquake anywhere in the
world. And its impossible to identify the in-situ stress
contribution state of seismogenic fault zone before
earthquake.
On May 12, 2008 a great shallow focus earthquake
of magnitude 8.0 occurred at Wenchuan in west China;
it killed about 80000 people and caused tremendous
economic loss. The sudden release of tectonic stress in
the crust resulted in an earthquake fracture zone about
300 km long (Ma et al. 2008, Xu et al. 2008, Zhang
et al. 2008). The intensity of the earthquake and the
severity of the disaster are rarely seen in the world.
463
464
Table 1.
Result of in-situ hydro-fracturing stress measurements before and after the great earthquake.
Stress (MPa)
Date
Bore-hole
Depth/m
SH
Sh
Date
Bore-hole
Depth/m
SH
Sh
08.05.
0407
ZK1
08.05.
2528
ZK5
08.05.
0104
ZK3
08.10.
0815
ZK3
390.60391.40
408.80409.60
417.60418.40
359.80360.60
369.10369.90
378.40379.20
358.90359.70
406.12406.92
15.73
15.91
16.00
15.18
16.73
17.07
10.42
11.88
10.33
10.01
10.10
9.03
9.64
10.49
7.32
8.48
08.04.
0508
ZK4
12.83
13.01
13.60
8.57
10.48
10.36
7.52
8.48
8.82
8.93
9.26
9.87
ZK1
ZK2
21.11
21.78
21.87
13.04
13.95
15.28
10.02
11.98
12.22
13.29
13.52
14.73
08.06.
2629
08.04.
2225
390.60391.40
408.80409.60
417.60418.40
312.84313.64
355.00355.80
378.39379.19
358.90359.70
406.12406.92
420.00420.80
349.50350.30
363.00363.80
394.50395.30
08.07.
0205
ZK6
318.32319.12
332.29333.09
362.00362.80
318.32319.12
332.29333.09
362.00362.80
15.67
13.81
15.60
11.97
10.81
12.30
9.12
9.26
10.05
7.72
6.86
7.95
09.12.
2326
of 300 380 m in borehole ZK2, the maximum horizontal principal stress was 13 14 MPa, with slightly
higher value in the bottom section. The minimum
horizontal stress in every measuring section was obviously larger than the vertical principal stress; the
relations between the three principal stresses were
SH > Sh > SV .
In borehole ZK3 at depths 400m the maximum horizontal principal stress was generally 12 MPa,
whereas the minimum horizontal principal stresses
from various measuring sections were obviously lower
than the vertical principal stresses, the ratio between
the two was about 0.8. The relations between the
three principal stresses were SH > Sv > Sh , the vertical
stress was intermediate.
Between depths 350 m and 400 m in borehole ZK4,
the maximum horizontal principal stress values were
generally 14 0.5 MPa; the values of minimum horizontal stress and vertical stress were quite close. The
relations between them were SH > Sv Sh , the vertical stress is greater than or equal to the minimum
horizontal stress.
The measurement result from borehole ZK1 shows
that in this borehole the horizontal principal stress is
dominant, vertical principal stress SV is the minimum
principal stress. The relations between the three principal stresses are SH > Sh > SV , this further indicates
that the in-situ stress field is characterized by strong
horizontal stress action.
From Table 1 it is seen that the principal stress
values measured in the three sections in Borehole
ZK1 are consistent with each other, the differences
are not significant. At a depth about 400 m the maximum horizontal stress reached a value as high as
2122 MPa, which was obviously much higher than
the stress in normal stress state, indicating that this
465
3.3
466
467
Wang Tongtao
College of Storage & Transportation and Architectural Engineering, China University of Petroleum,
Dongying, Shandong, China
Zhang Gang
China Petroleum Engineering & Construction Corporation, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: The salt cavern gas storage is attracting more and more attentions in the world wide natural gas
storage for its special advantages. And also it is a complex and systematic project to build a certain shape salt
cavern in formations by water solution. According to the mechanical properties, solubility and in-situ stress
distribution of salt rocks formation in China, this paper fully discussed the key technologies of gas storage cavity
design and construction. The cavity-making process, shape control and detection of salt storage are described
and analyzed. A number of construction technologies are proposed, such as the corresponding well type to
salt cavern, circulation measure, steps of solution mining, adjusting of leaching pipeline, shape control, roof
protection, sealing detection, cavern stability, and etc, to improve the efficiency of storage construction. The
pipe string assembly and circulation rate are optimized to keep cavern stability during the solution. This paper
can provide the reference and theoretical basis to the design and construction of salt cavern gas storage.
Keywords: salt rocks formation; in-situ stress; gas storage; construction technologies; parameter optimization
1
INTRODUCTION
The underground natural gas storage is an irreplaceable role in guaranteeing the gas providing safety and
adjusting gas peaking during the natural gas productions and consumptions (P. Brest et al. 2003; YANG
Chunhe et al, 2008; Bao-you Zhao et al, 2009). So,
the construction of underground gas storage is always
regarded by many natural gas productions and consumptions gigantic countries, which is also considered
as an important component of the overall natural gas
usage process.
There are 4 kinds of underground gas storage at
present (A. Suat Bagci, 2007), including (1) depleted
reservoirs in oil and/or gas fields, (2) aquifers, (3) salt
caverns, and (4) waste mine pits. As the salt caverns gas storage which has many advantages over
other types of characteristics of gas storage has been
more and more used and studied, for example, high
adjusting peak capability, safety, reliability, complying
with environmental and ecological protection requirements, economical, volume expansion convenient and
so on.
Salt caverns for gas storage are mostly man-made,
which are constructed by pumping the fresh water
(surface water or groundwater) to solute salt from the
formations and routing the saline water to the ground.
469
Although there are many different well styles of carven construction, the type of a cavern with single well
is still widely used because it is simple and safe except
time-consuming. While the other well styles of cavern
construction are feasible and even more efficiency, but
the cavity shape control, roof protection, low security, and large investment are insurmountable in the
practical engineering.
The combinations of leaching string have greatly
influence on the shapes and sizes of salt caverns, which
should be optimized. During the optimization of leaching string combinations, several optimized criterions
should be satisfied, e.g., controlling cavity shape easily, roof protections, dewatering, constructions time
requirements, and operability.
Two kinds of leaching string combinations are usual
used at present, one is single leaching string, and the
other is double-leaching strings. The single leaching
string combination is very simple in operations, but is
impossible to control the cavern shapes, which will
lead the instability of cavern. The double-leaching
string combination is composed by two concentric
leaching pipes, one is for fresh water injection, and
the other is for dewatering. Although double-leaching
string is more expensive than single leaching string, it
is much stronger in controlling the cavern shapes than
single leaching string. So, the double-leaching string
is the predominant in the salt cavern constructions at
present.
During the cavern constructions by double-leaching
string, the diameters of outer pipe and inner pipe
should cooperate to obtain big water flow rate, low
pump pressure and high density brines. The ratio
of inner pipe area and annular area is an important
reference parameter in pipe diameters combinations.
The proper value of the ratio is recommended about
1.112 3.79 by calculating.
The flow pressure loss is greatly influenced by water
flow rate, which is increasing exponentially as the
water flow rate increasing. In the same time, the water
flow rate determines the times of cavern constructions.
So, it must integrally consider the times of cavern constructions, pump pressure and tube working conditions
to optimize the pipe diameters.
470
3.1
avoid barrage. Although the degree of the actual cavern shapes satisfied the design shapes is proportion
with the times of water injection pipe location change
in theory, the location changes need more times and
moneys. So, the water injection pipe location change
should be optimized considering various factors in
practical engineering. When the upper layer of salt
starts to dissolve by change the location of water
injection pipe, the lower salt layer also continues dissolving and expanding the cavern. So, the second stage
solution should begin before the last solution completion with design dimensions to achieve the cavern
shape and size exactly. In order to make even more
accurate, simulations should be done before cavern
constructions.
Additionally, the salt cavern could be constructed
without protective materials if the characteristics of
salt layer are well studied and the thickness of salt is
enough, ensuring not dissolving out the required top
of salt cavern. Many parameters are needed during the
practical operations, so the assistances of computer are
indispensability.
471
advantages are easy controlling cavity shapes, keeping stability and protecting cavern roofs. The inverses
circulation method is good at to increase the brine density and improve the efficiency, but difficult to control
cavity shape, stability and roof protection.
In order to meet the design requirements, the
two methods could be used together in one cavern
construction, but at the beginning, direct circulation
method must be adopted to avoiding pipes blocking.
3.2.2 Water flow rate
The fresh water flow rate is a fatal parameter to control the cavern construction speed, which is determined
by these basic criterions (1) meet the optimum working state of tube, (2) the concentration of ejected
brine as close as saturated brine, (3) low water and
energy consumptions, and (4) satisfy construction
times requirements.
From above demonstrations, the mainly parameters should be included salt corrosion rate, side
angle of solution, solution pressure, diffusion coefficient, injection flow state, streamline distribution,
non-solution out rate and so on besides fresh water
flow rate. It is difficult to get all parameters in fields,
for there are no accurate data and experimental results
for all parameters. So, a preliminary design can be
only made by the existing data and conclusions for
field use.
If the leaching string combinations and temperatures are given, and the average dissolution rate
considered basically equal, the fresh water flow rate
can be determined by the sizes of effective dissolution
areas, written as:
472
473
constructions and productions. The water hammer, pressure excitement and salt creep should be
highlighted during cavern constructions.
REFERENCES
474
ABSTRACT: The construction of increasing deep-buried underground projects, especially large mines, leads
to more and more geological hazards. The surrounding rock of some 450 800 m deep iron mine deforms
severely, with local support failures. Most of deformation failures occur at the cross between side wall and
crown (or floor). In-site stress tests results of hollow inclusion triaxial strain gauge shows that these tunnels
are affected greatly by modern tectonic stresses, with maximum principal stress of 13 21 MPa, and the field
geostress generally features V H > h . Surrounding rock of large deformation is fissured rock. The FEM
simulation of typical cross-section tunnel shows that the maximum stresses, about 40 MPa, occur at crosses
between side wall and crown (or floor), which fits the deformation failure positions by field survey. The research
indicates that the large deformation of surrounding rock of tunnel is caused jointly by strong tectonic stress and
gravity stress, with continuous large rheological deformation latterly. In addition, the common shotcrete-bolt
support is hard to ensure the stability of the fissured surrounding rock under high stress. Through the analysis
of deformation mechanics of surrounding rock and defects of prophase support system, this research finding is
of great significance to the reinforcement and repair of surrounding rock of the mine.
1
INTRODUCTION
475
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Geology
476
Table 1.
Stress measurement result shows that, of the three principal stresses, inclination of 1 is sub-vertical while 2
and 3 are less than 24 . The value of 1 is between
16 and 20 MPa, it means that, test area is in a comparatively high stress level. Vertical stress Z is almost
equal to the overlying rock mass, which privide the
reliability of test (Liu 2000).
In order to analyze stress field characteristic better,
maximum horizontal principal stress H and minimum horizontal principal stress h are by calculated
table 1, a comparison is made among the rock selfweight v , H and h , which shows v H > h
in large. This means that testing area stress field is
self-weight stress field, but the difference between
v and H are less than 1 MPa. A comparatively
large horizontal stress shows that though H is little smaller than v , but the effect of tectonic stress
field is obvious in testing area. Fault in the area is
mainly normal and strike-slip fault, macroscopic stress
field characteristics is consistent with tested geostress
characteristics.
Depth of test
point/(m)
magnitude/
MPa
dip/
azimuth/
magnitude/
MPa
dip/
azimuth/
magnitude/
MPa
dip/
azimuth/
550
672
16.91
19.52
66.3
65.0
139.0
169.0
14.06
16.31
3.4
12.7
237.4
238.0
4.85
7.40
23.2
23.1
328.7
342.1
477
Table 2.
FEM.
Mechanical
parameters
Youngs
modulus/GPa
Poissons
ratio
Density/
kgm3
Magnitude
4.5
0.26
27
A = 42.4 Mpa B = 39.2 MPa C = 36.1 MPa D = 32.9 MPa E = 29.7 MPa
F = 26.6 MPa G = 23.4 MPa H = 20.2 MPa I = 17.0 MPa
In order to understand the mechanism of surrounding rock deformation and the influence of geostress,
considering that the included angle of tunnel axial
and H is about 30 , horizontal stress vertical to the
tunnel axial is about 12 16 MPa by transformation
of coordinates. Linear elastic material constitutive
model is utilized, basing on rock homogeneity and
isotropy, under the condition that tunnel vertical stress
is 18 MPa and horizontal stress is 14 MPa, the surrounding rock stress distribution is simulated by Finite
Element method. According to geological data and
similar engineering experience, calculating parameters are showed as Table 2 and maximum principal
stress isoline is showed as Figure 5.
Numerical simulation shows that tunnel stress concentration appears at the connection of sides and crown
or floor, and the value is about 40 MPa, which indicates
that high stress exists at tunnel sides.
Surrounding rock of tunnel is broken, the fracture
spacing is among 10 20 cm, and the biggest breadth
is up to 2.1 cm and filled with soil. According to
qualitative division in Standard for Classification of
Engineering Rock Masses (GB50218-94), surrounding rock quality should be divided into IV class (The
Ministry of Water Resources of Peoples Republic of
China 1994.). According to the standard, it is advised
that angle of internal friction of type IV rock mass
is 25 35 , cohesive force is 0.1 0.4 MPa, and the
uniaxial compressive strength of rock estimated is
low, which maybe related to the conservativeness of
advised value in standard.
For further discussing the quality of surrounding
rock, some rock strength test as well as argillaceous
siltstone strength and creep test are added. Laboratory
478
479
ABSTRACT: By analyzing the stress characteristics and simulating numerically the law of the stress distribution on the roadway face in coal mine, the mathematical model is established and calculated to determine the
stress relaxation zone and the forming process and evolution rules of the stress relaxation zone were discussed.
The stress distribution on the roadway face was measured with the electromagnetic emission (EME) technology.
The testing results are in good agreement with the theoretical calculation results on the whole. The research
results show that stress relaxation zone of the roadway face is related with the height of roof-floor and the inner
frictional angle of the coal and the calculating model is accurate. The results can provide the technical support
for preventing coal and gas outburst, roof disaster, rock-burst and so on.
1
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
481
Where, = tan , is the interface frictional coefficient between the coal and the roof and floor.
2.2.3 Computation of stress relaxation
zone distribution
y is related to the mined length of the roadway,
the burying depth of the roadway, crustal stress, the
482
is: near the coal wall, EME has lower intensity, from
the coal wall to the depth of coal, the intensity abruptly
increases, and after a distance, the intensity tends to
slow down. After that, EME intensity again decreases.
Where EME intensity decelerates is just the boundary
of stress relaxation zone. It can be seen from the figures below that in front of the roadway face, the width
distribution of the stress relaxation zone is 1.5 m away
from the coal wall.
3.4 Analysis
The stress relaxation zone of roadway face is the
barrier against coal and gas outburst. Exact understanding of the distribution width of stress relaxation
zone can effectively prevent occurrence of coal and
gas outburst. From the research in this paper, it can be
concluded that the distribution width of stress relaxation zone is directly associated with the burying depth
of coal seam, the height of roadway, the residual stress
of coal and and b. At the same time, EME monitoring technique can be adopted to correctly measure
the distribution width of stress relaxation zone. For
this reason, water injection to the coal seam in roadway face and deep-hole blasting can be used to release
stress so as to expand the width of stress relaxation
zone and eventually effectively prevent and control
coal and gas outburst occurrence.
The shortcomings of the research include: no consideration is taken into the effect of gas pressure and
483
Technology Project(2006BAK03B0303), New Century Excellent Talents Program from the Ministry
of Education of China(NCET-07-0799) and Beijing
Science & Technology New Star Plan(2006A081).
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Zhai Shengrui, Nie Baisheng, Song Yimeng, et al. 2007.
Application of EME monitoring technique to ascertain
impacting area of coverages island abutment. Safety in
Coal Mines 38(5):14.
He Xueqiu. 1995. Rheological dynamics of coal or rock containing gas. China University of Mining and Technology.
Xuzhou.
Wang Enyuan. 1997. Study on the effect and application
of EME & AE of coal and rock containing gas. China
University of Mining and Technology. Xuzhou.
Qian Minggao, Liu Xincheng. 1991. Rock pressure and its
control. Beijing: China Coal Industry Publishing House.
Nie Baisheng, He Xueqiu, Wang Enyuan, et al. 2002. Experimental study on EME during the shearing process of
coal. In Huang Ping, Wang Yajun, Li Shengcai et al
(eds), Process in Safety Science andTechnology: 492496.
Beijing/New York: Science Press.
Nie Baisheng. 2001. Study on the effect of stress and
electricity and its mechanism of coal or rock containing gas. China University of Mining and Technology.
Xuzhou.
484
Qi Mi
College of Earth Science, Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: In order to realize the geostress state of a new pattern hydroelectric project in southwest china,
demonstrate the scheme design of the air-cushion surge tank for the hydroelectric project, the hydraulic fracturing
technology has been adopted to define the In-situ stress and related rock mechanics parameters of rock mass
around the high pressure cavern, and utilizes the data of stress measurements, together with numerical simulation
and regression analysis to synthetically analyze the ground stress field at engineering sites. The results show
that the direction of maximum principle stress at engineering sites is N33 52W, the elevation is N26 39W,
the value is 7.358.16 MPa; that the maximum principal stress in the rock mass around the high-pressure
cavern is 10.63 MPa, the minimum principal stress is 4.45 MPa, The tensile strength is about 4.48.6 MPa, the
permeability under the pressure of 35.0 MPa is less than 2.0 Lu; the jacking strength is <1.05.5 MPa. In
the main the rock mass suit the air-cushion surge tank. Whereas the rock of the vertical bore at the air-cushion
surge tank is fragmentation, It is suggested that increasing the depth of the cavern in order to enhance carrying
capacity of the rock. In addition there exist some tensile fissures in the rock mass of high-pressure cavern,
which have poor bearing strength, good connectivity and severe water permeability, and which are a huge hidden
trouble for the non-supported high-pressure cavern construction. The effective high-pressure grouting measures
shall improve the integrity of rock mass structures and enhance the high-pressure sealing function, which is a
key point for the establishment of the project.
INTRODUCTION
485
decides project success or failure. This article introduces the room adjacent formation in-situ stress and
the related rock mechanics parameters survey and the
findings of the new pilot type hydroelectric power station project area and the air cushion accent presses in
southwest of China, and has carried on the analysis to
it in the projects application.
486
Table 1.
Measuring
point
Name
Quantity
H
value/MPa Azimuth
1#
H
h
8.05
4.94
N3241 W
2#
H
h
H
h
6.76
4.70
6.18
4.92
N2831 W
4#
H
h
4.45
2.69
N4150 W
5#
H
h
4.80
3.00
N3955 W
3#
N3240 W
3D stress measurement
Name
Quantity
value/MPa Azimuth/
Component of stress
Obliquity/
Normal
stress/MPa
Shear
stress/MPa
1
2
3
\
8.16
6.12
4.20
327
98
224
\
26
52
24
\
x
y
z
\
6.48
5.79
6.20
\
xy
yz
xz
\
1.53
0.08
1.20
\
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
7.35
6.15
4.17
10.63
6.62
4.98
7.13
5.46
2.70
308
148
46
320
61
155
327
236
145
39
49
10
58
6
31
63
0.8
26
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
5.54
5.57
6.57
5.97
6.80
8.93
4.18
4.85
6.26
xy
yz
xz
xy
yz
xz
xy
yz
xz
1.30
0.71
0.14
0.05
1.54
2.26
0.88
0.97
1.47
*: In the table x axial South; y axial East; z axis on; azimuth clockwise from north is positive; inclination is positive upward.
in two points, which revealed rock conditions are relatively close to the original state of stress, the minimum
and maximum level is relatively close to the principal
stress value.
3 Dimension measuring and calculating the stress
direction of maximum principal stress N3352 , The
maximum principal stress level 55 direction for
N28N41.5 azimuth, N41.5W. The results obtained
with this epicenter mechanisms of extrusion stress
direction, and the Chinese continental crust, which
should be tried to reflect the regional tectonic stress
field direction also match.
More comprehensive reveals the crustal stress area,
the general characteristics of the project site as the
center, take east-west length, length of north-south
487
Rock permeability
Water percolation rate < 1.0 Lu Test paragraph
1.0 Lu < Water percolation rate < 3.0 Lu Test paragraph
Water percolation rate > 3.0 Lu Test paragraph
Water percolation rate < 1.0 Lu Test paragraph
1.0 Lu < Water percolation rate < 3.0 Lu Test paragraph
Water percolation rate > 3.0 Lu Test paragraph
Water percolation rate < 1.0 Lu Test paragraph
1.0 Lu < Water percolation rate < 3.0 Lu Test paragraph
Water percolation rate > 3.0 Lu Test paragraph
Table 3.
Horizontal
hole 1
Horizontal
hole 2
Vertical
hole
\
\
\
25%
25%
50%
25%
75%
0%
100%
0%
0%
\
\
\
50%
50%
0%
\
\
\
37.5%
62.5%
0%
100%
0%
0%
Measuring
point
Drilling
4#
Horizontal 1
Horizontal 2
Vertical hole
Depth of test
paragraph/m
Cleavage
pressure/
MPa
3.004.25
5.006.25
14.0015.25
24.025.25
3.004.25
5.006.25
9.0010.25
3.004.25
8.5
5.5
6.0
<1.0
3.0
<1.0
<1.0
3.5
488
3.3
The dam, surge shaft and the surrounding water conveyance tunnel of a power station with a high-head
are subjected to the long standing role of high water
stress. Whether the fractured rock mass at high water
under pressure is opened, how its permeability is, is
directly related to the stability of surrounding rock sexual. 8 sections hydraulic-order up tests were carried
out at the station # 4 at the measuring point of the three
drilling (Table 3).
It can be seen from Table 3, 4 # measured points
near the fractured rock mass hydraulic rock bands
hold the value of three conditions, sub-high, medium
and low: first, high-value areas, the area in fractured
rock bands hold the value of hydraulic resistance at
more than 5.5 Mpa. At the 3.04.25 m, 5.006.25 m
and 14.0015.25 m test paragraph three months of
bored ZK51, the two cores of test paragraph are
mainly pillar and long columnar with tiny fissures,
good cementation, and extrusion close, high loadbearing capacity of rock; Second, low-value areas,
the area in fractured rock band Anti-hydraulic shoring
value <1 MPa, bored at 24.0025.25 m of ZK51 and
ZK52 of 5.006.25 m, 9.0010.25 m paragraph. This
pilot paragraph fissures are relatively general development, fracture filling cementation poor performance,
the fractured rock mass hydraulic anti-bad-order hold
capacity, carrying capacity is relatively low, the serious water leakage; three are in the equivalent area in
fractured rock hold the value of hydraulic resistance
band 3.03.5 MPa, a total of 2 for 3.004.25 m of
ZK52 and ZK53 of 3.004.25 m, the cementation of
this kind of rock is generally relatively good.
489
(2) The minimum principal stress nearby the air cushion surge chamber is 4.98 MPa, the minimum
principal stress nearby the high-pressure water
hole is 2.70 MPa. Because of the rock of the measuring point is relatively fragmentation, the actual
value of the test is smaller.
(3) There are the less permeable rate rock near the air
cushion surge cavern, the micro-permeable rate
rock near the high-pressure water line hole and
the middle-permeable rate rock near the diversion
tunnel segment.
(4) The hydraulic hold-order value of fractured rock
mass surrounding near the air cushion surge
chamber divided into sub-high, medium and low
three situations: the high-value areas more than
5.5 MPa,the median area is about 3.03.5 MPa,
and the low-value area less than 1 MPa.
(5) According to the test results of a comprehensive analysis of the view that air-cushion surge
chamber rock with its own basic-situ rock stress
and related physical and mechanical properties,
Whereas taking into account the hydraulic jacking low-value area is smaller than 1 MPa, It is
suggested that increasing the depth of the cavern
and using the corresponding lining work plan in
order to enhance carrying capacity of the rock and
enhance the safety coefficient.
(6) The core idea of the new pattern hydroelectric is
the use of rock stress field and its role to safeguard the stability of chamber works and security,
it is the innovative applications of rock mechanics at the practical engineering, it is bound to
face many new issues and challenges and also
will actively promote the development of rock
mechanics research and advances and application
of the testing technological.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the support from the Ministry of Science and Technology, China (SinoProbe06), and the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (NO. 40704018).
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
490
491
ABSTRACT: Non-mining rupture of coal mine shaft is a new kind of mine geological disaster. There are some
standpoints on the reason of the shaft lining rupture, but a new option that the horizontal tectonic stresses lead to
the rupture of the mine shaft is appeared after the shaft lining rupture occurred in the Yanteng-Xuhuai diggings.
This paper analyzes the relationship between geostresses and the shaft lining rupture in the diggings. The results
demonstrated the rupture of the mine shaft and horizontal tectonic stress is not very closely linked.
1
INTRODUCTION
Since the 1980s, a new mine geological hazardnonmining fracture of shaft has appeared in YantengXuhuai Area, China, that is, under the condition that
coal mine shaft is not affected by underground mining,
serious deformation and rupture with the shaft.
The shaft is the throat of mine, the non-mining sudden rupture of shaft inYanteng-Xuhuai Area has posed
threat to the safety of ten thousands of people under the
mine, which seriously affects the normal production of
coal mine. For many years, a lot of science and technology workers who work on mine construction, mining,
geological study have carried out extensive investigation and research work on non-mining rupture of shaft
in Yanteng-Xuhuai Area[15] .
After the vertical shaft for coal mine in YantengXuhuai area has broken, there is a view thinking that
the vertical shaft rupture is related with earthquake
occurrence in this area and activities of Tan-Lu fault,
the vibration force generated by earthquake and dislocation resulting from movement of active faults (i.e.,
the horizontal tectonic stress) are the main causes for
rupture of vertical shaft. However, from the view of
earthquake and active fault condition, this view is not
desirable. This is because: (1) During the shaft rupture,
no catastrophic destructive earthquake takes place in
the study area. (2) According to the fact of slight
destruction of coal mine shaft wall when the Tangshan
Earthquake took place in 1976 (When the earthquake
occurs, the degree of destruction to buildings on the
ground is more serious than deeper location), for
Yanteng-Xuhuai mining area, some minor earthquakes
since 1980 are not enough to cause such serious shaft
rupture. (3) Because the duration of each time earthquake is only a few seconds, in such a brief time, it
is impossible to cause such extensive rupture of shaft
wall in the study area, even harder to explain causes for
repeated rupture of some mineshafts. (4) Although the
relative displacement dislocation in east and west plate
2 ANALYSIS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF
IN-SITU STRESS FIELD IN
YANTENG-XUHUAI MINING AREA
2.1 Basic theory of in-situ stress field analysis
Theory of plates can better explain the global crustal
movement and features of overall distribution of in-situ
stress field, but it seems to be rough and general for
the analysis of internal in-situ stress of plates, especially the analysis of in-situ stress field distribution
in smaller area, e.g. a mining area. The author uses
theory of ellipsoid with balanced density proposed
by Professor Yu Shuangzhong of China University of
Mining and Technology to analyze the types of macroscopic in-situ stress field of mining area[6] , and has
achieved very good effect. This theory thinks that
crustal blocks with high crust density tend to move
towards the two poles of the earth, while crustal blocks
with low density tend to move towards the equator
(Fig. 1). When the mining area is located in front of
the moving crustal block, it will suffer strong squeezing force, and shows the characteristic of big tectonic
stress; when the mining area is located in the rear of
the moving crustal block, it is in tensile state with
small tectonic stress, and the stress of deadweight is
the maximum principal stress (Fig. 2).
493
2.2
relative to east side, namely, it shows the characteristic of left-handed rotation. On the whole, it suffers
horizontal squeezing in the nearly east-west direction,
and there exists certain action of tectonic stress all
in the horizontal direction. However, the presence of
difference in intensity of movement trend, especially
the southward shift of negative anomaly of gravity
in the southern Dabie Mountain and southward shift
of negative anomaly of Yiyuan in southwest Shandong Province (stopped by the nose-shaped positive
anomaly along Shangqiu Fengxian zone) causes relatively big variation in the magnitude of horizontal
tectonic stress in nearly east-west direction within the
region and difference in direction. Huainan mining
area in the south is located in the northern of the Dabie
Mountain crustal block, influenced by the tension in
the nearly north-south direction, the value of tectonic
stress in the nearly east-west direction is larger than
that of Huainan area in horizontal plane, which may
exceed the value of deadweight stress of superstratum,
and thus macroscopically presents the characteristic of
tectonic stress field type. Horizontal tectonic stress
of Yanteng mining area in the north is larger than
the former two, and the direction will deflect toward
north, which is the NEE-SWW direction, macroscopically showing the characteristic of tectonic stress
field type.
494
Table 1. Comparison between calculated values and the measured values of in-situ stresses of part of mines inYanteng-Xuhuai
mining area.
The value of in-situ stress
Mines
Location
Zhuangshuanglou Prospecting
holes of 17-3
Buried
depth/m Lithology
1075.5
1040.5
Zhangshuanglou
Wangzhuang
Return airflow
600
dip of 500 m
horizontal plane
the 3th 533
500
horizontal plane
of 500 m
horizontal plane
Belt diphead
608
of 500 m
horizontal
plane
Prospecting holes 272
of 11
Prospecting holes
of 15-1
305
Method
Fine
Acoustic
H
sandstone
emission h
T
v
Fine
H
sandstone
h
v
T
Sandy
Acoustic
H
mudstone
emission h
v
T
Medium
H
sandstone
h
v
T
Medium
H
sandstone
h
v
T
Medium
Stress
H
sandstone
relief
h
v
T
Sandy
H
mudstone
h
v
T
Calculated Measured
Relative Stress
values/MPa values/MPa error(%) state
29.32
15.33
26.89
20.45
26.14
14.37
26.01
17.56
8.01
5.96
15.0
3.06
17.17
7.83
13.33
13.18
14.8
7.61
15.2
10.26
6.32
1.55
6.80
5.57
6.85
4.52
7.63
4.91
27.73
19.84
5.7
22
Elasticity
28.57
13.49
8.5
6.5
Elasticity
9.32
5.7
14.1
4.56
Elasticity
16.9
8.7
1.60
10.0
Elasticity
15.9
5.1
6.92
49.2
Elasticity
6.51
1.42
8.50
5.45
7.11
5.16
9.34
4.90
10.3
8.38
20
2.20
3.66
12.4
18.3
0.2
direct relation with the magnitudes of elastic modulus and strength of rock and soil medium due
to occurrence of it. For the rock and soil layer
in the same unit of tectonic crustal block, the
higher the elastic modulus and strength of the
rock and soil layer, the bigger the accumulated
tectonic stress; and vice versa. Shaft rupture of
Yanteng-Xuhuai mining area mostly takes place
in the soil layer section at the connection between
soil and bedrock or in the strong weathered zone
of bedrock, within which large horizontal tectonic
stress wont be accumulated, its maximum horizontal stress is only possible to be approximately
equal to the dead weight of superstratum soil layer,
the analysis is as follows.
Illustrates
For deep rock-soil layer, if it stays under the horizontal tectonic stress, its maximum in-situ stress
component 1 is in the horizontal direction, suppose
its minimum principal stress 3 is in vertical direction,
and the intermediate principal stress 2 is in horizontal
direction and perpendicular to 1 . When the tectonic
stress is relatively small, and the rock-soil layers
495
Generally, suppose the strain 2 and 3 in the vertical and horizontal direction are zero, i.e., taking into
account of uniaxial strain elastic solution, then we get
from equation (2) through arrangement:
4
Where
EXAMPLE ANALYSIS
The stress of shaft wall calculated according to Equation (9) has been taken into account in the design of
shaft wall thickness, take Xifeng Shaft of Huainan
Panji No. 3 Mine with thickest soil layer in the study
area as an example, its related basic data are a = 3.5 m,
b = 5.2 m, H = 441 m. According to the construction
engineering practice of vertical shaft in the deep
top soil layer, calculate the ground pressure of vertical shaft according to the heavy liquid theory,
p = H , generally where = 0.011 0.013 MN/m3 .
Here, = 0.012, then we get the maximum ground
pressure at bottom of the thick top soil of Xifeng Shaft
of Panji No. 3 Mine p = 5.29 MPa. The maximum
stress on inner side of shaft wall obtained by calculation according to Equation (9) = 19.36 MPa, it will
not lead to rupture of shaft wall.
496
REFERENCES
Wang Hongtu, Xian Xuefu,Yin Guangzhi. Study on crustal
stress measurement of rock mass by the kaiser effect
of acoustic emission in rock[j]. Journal of China Coal
Society 1997, 22 (5): 486488
Li wenping. Deep topsoil of Engineering Geology of Coal
Mine Shaft broken[M], Xuzhou:China University of Mining technology Press[M], 2000
Wang Shuchang, Ge Hongzhang. Causes and Preventions of
Shaft Wall Fracturing in Yanzhou Mining Area[J], Journal of China University of Mining & Technology, 1999.
28(05): 494498
ZhangYin and ZhouYuhua. Shaft Lining Fracture and Curing
in Thick Alluvium[J], Journal of Qingdao Construction
Engineering Institute, 2001. 22(2):1013
Lu Henglin, Cu i Guangxin. Mechanical Mechanism of Shaft
Lining Structure Fracture in Thick Alluvium[J], Journal of China University of Mining & Technology, 1999.
28(6):539543
Yu Shuangzhong. New Inquiring of Force to Drive Crustal
Movement:Density Equiliberium Ellipsoid Thory, Jour
Geol & Min Res North China, 1994. 9(1):2133
S. Serata, S. Sakuma, Skikuchi, and Y. Miznta, Double Fracture. Method of In Situ Measurment in Brittle Rock. Rock
Mechnics and Rock Engeering, 1992. 25(2)|: 2328
M.Seto.D.K and V.S.Vutukuri. In-situ Rock Stress Measurement from Rock Cores Using the Acoustic Emission
Method and Deformation Rate Anaysis. Geotechnical and
Geological Engineering. 1999, 17(3/4)
497
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with the evaluation of the stress state in an white marble underground quarry
(Lasa, Bolzano, Italy), where new exploitation activities are currently in progress. In addition to the geomechanical study, which has shown the influence of the joint pattern on the potential structurally controlled instabilities,
particular attention has been given to in situ stress evaluation by means of the stress overcoring method. The
measurements were carried out by using the classical CSIR strain cell and a newly developed cell. The results
offered by the two devices appear to be in acceptable agreement and suggest a rather high stress level in the
natural supporting structures. The new stress measurement device is able to autonomously supply power, perform
signal conditioning and continuously acquire data during the overcoring phase.
INTRODUCTION
499
Figure 1. Map of the Lasa underground quarry and the mountain topography. Dashed circle = new exploitation zone. Bold
line = location of the section of the FEM model. Equal-area projection (Rocscience Dips code) showing the density levels
of the rock joint poles. Upper diagram: survey over the entire underground quarry. Lower diagram: survey in the new rooms,
12 and 15.
GEOSTRUCTURAL AND
GEOMECHANICAL SETTING FOR
STABILITY AND STRESS EVALUATION
Since the beginning of the underground marble quarrying, the quarry site has been the subject of technical
evaluations related to the exploitation technique and
to stability requirements for permanent excavations
(Consiglio 1964). In this quarry, rock bolts were used
for the first time to stabilize a roof (Atzeni 1934) of the
excavations. Many studies dedicated to geostructural
rock mass characterization, rock testing and monitoring have been carried out with the aim at attaining
the stability of excavations (Ribacchi 1969, Cravero
et al. 1991, Cravero & Iabichino 1997, 2009). More
recently geomechanical evaluations have been conducted, concerning the excavation of an experimental
exploitation panel, funded on the CEE Brite Euram
III CAD-PUMA research project (Cravero et al. 2002,
Ferrero et al. 2002, 2007) and these evaluations are
still under way.
3.1
Geostructural characterization
500
Em
(GPa)
m
()
mb
()
sb
()
80
25
0.3
2.9
0.02
knl
(GPa/m)
ksl
(GPa/m)
j
( )
cj
(MPa)
25
2.5
35
b)
Et
(GPa)
t
()
tb
ci
(MPa) (MPa)
81 10 60 11 0.25 0,05 8 2
19
i
( )
mi
()
36
b)
4
j
( )
cj
(MPa)
b
( )
JRC
( )
kn
ks
(GPa/m) (GPa/m)
39
0.2
30
12
35
Lasa marble to be made. The characterizing mechanical parameters of the marble, obtained from uniaxial
and triaxial compression tests, brazilian and direct tensile tests, are reported in Table 1a, while the strength
and stiffness parameters of the rock joints submitted
to direct shear lab. tests are given in Table 1b. As
far as the mechanical qualification of the rock mass,
whose geomechanical quality was rated by RMR 60
(Bieniawski 1989) and GSI 65 (Hoek 1994), and of
the large sized rock joints is concerned, the following parameters where adopted and used for modelling
(Table 2).
STRESS MEASUREMENTS
501
Figure 4. a) the CSIR strain gauge cell and the newly developed cell and the miniaturized data logger; b) the micro4
layout: Red arrow represent digital link between blocks;
Green arrow represent analogical link between blocks.
ty
1
(MPa)
2
(MPa)
1
( )
2
( )
C1L
C1R
C2L
C2R
C3R
C3L
C4R
C4L
C5R
C5L
C6R
C6L
n
o
n
n
n
o
n
o
n
o
o
o
17,82
20,55
11,6
12
27,5
21,17
18,99
17,16
18,89
16,29
9,26
9,19
3,88
3,9
0,15
1,27
0,79
1,4
3,61
3,38
2,5
0,48
1,3
0,36
84,88
83,68
87,32
85,05
89,15
85,02
82,24
83,12
81,53
87,37
89,5
80,31
5,12
6,32
2,68
4,95
0,85
4,98
7,76
6,88
8,47
2,63
0,5
9,69
502
CONCLUSIONS
503
The stress computed along the room walls, by a simplified 2D FEM model, has pointed out a stress ratio
of 2, which is far from that of 3 suggested by the
stress measurements. In this sense the experimental
stress investigation has proved essential.
REFERENCES
Amadei, B. & Stephansson, O. 1997. Rock stress and its
measurement, Chapman & Hall, London, 490 pp.
Andreatta, C. 1951. Carta geologica delle Tre Venezie, Foglio
9 M. Cevedale, 1:100.000, Ministero dei lavori Pubblici,
Ufficio Idrografico del Magistrato delle Acque, Venezia.
Atzeni, F. 1934. Le Cave di Marmo di Lasa nella Val Venosta
(Bolzano). Relazione sul Servizio Minerario nellanno
1933 Parte Prima Statistica. Ministero delle Corporazioni, Direz. Generale Industria Corpo Reale delle
Miniere, Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, Libreria, Roma,
Italy.
Bertilsson, R. 2007. Temperature effects in overcoring stress
measurements, Master Thesis, Lulea University of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Division of Rock Mechanics, 241, CIV ISSN:
1402 1617 ISRN: LTU EX 07/241 SE.
Bieniawski, Z.T. 1989. Engineering rock mass classifications, Wiley, New York, 251pp.
Brady, B.H.G. & Brown, E.T. 1985. Rock Mechanics for
Underground Mining. 1st ed. London: George Allen &
Unwin.
Consiglio, A. 1964. Le Cave di Lasa e di Covelano,
LIndustria Mineraria, 15, 1521.
Conti, P. 1994. La falda dellOrtles: struttura interna
e suo ruolo nellevoluzione tettonica delle Dolomiti
dellEngadina (Prov. Sondrio, Bolzano e Cantone dei
Grigioni). Ph.D Thesis, Universit di Ferrara, 95pp.
Cravero, M., Iabichino, G., Sambuelli, L. 1991. Geomechanical and geophysical measurements in and underground marble quarry, in Proc. Field Measurements in
Geotechnics, Sorum (ed.), Balkema, 663671.
Cravero, M., Iabichino, G., 1997. Geomechanical Study for
the Exploitation of an Underground Marble Quarry, Int.
J. Rock Mech & Min. Sci. 34(34), paper 058.
Cravero, M., Ferrero, A.M., Gull, D., Iabichino, G. 2002.
Behaviour of experimental panels of underground marble
exploitation by means of in situ monitoring and computation. in Proc. 5th Notth Amer. Rock Mech. Symp. and the
17th Tunnell. Assoc. Canada Conf. (NARMS-TAC 200),
Toronto 2 (CA), 713720.
Cravero, M., Iabichino, G., Gull D. 2003. Comparative
mechanical characterization of marble by means of laboratory testing. in Proc. 12th Panamerican Conf. Soil Mech.
and Geotechn. Engng. and 39th U.S. Rock Mech. Symp.
MIT Cambridge (Mass), 473478.
Cravero, M., Iabichino, G., 2009 Indagine geo-strutturale,
analisi di stabilit, misure e monitoraggi nel sotterraneo
dellAcqua Bianca (Lasa, Bz), con particolare riferimento al proposto nuovo lavoro di scavo del marmo nelle
adiacenze delle cave 12 e 15, Rapp. Int.
Dunnicliff, J. 1993. Geotechnical instrumentation for monitoring field performance. Ed: Wiley & Sons.
Ferrero, AM. 2002. Development of an integrated computer
aided design and planning methodology for underground
marble quarries. Final Report, Politecnico di Torino,
Contract No. BE-5005.
Ferrero, A.M., Godio, A., Sambuelli, L., Voyat, I.H. 2007.
Geophysical and geomechanical investigations applied
to the rock mass characterization for distinct element
modelling, Rock Mech. Rock Engng. 40(6): 603622.
Goodman, R.E. and Shi, G.H. 1985. Block theory and its
application to rock engineering, Ed.: Prentice Hall Inc.,
London, 338pp.
Gregnanin, A. 1980. Metamorphism and Magmatism in the
Western Italian Tyrol, Rend. S.I.M.P., 36(1): 4964.
Hakala, M., Sjberg, J. 2006. A Methodology for Interpretation of Overcoring Stress Measurements in Anisotropic
Rock, Posiva OY Working Report 2006-99, Nov. 2006.
Hoek, E. 1994. Strength of rock and rock masses, ISRM
News Journal, 2(2): 416.
Hoek, E. & Brown, E.T. 1982. Underground Excavations
in Rock. Ed. London: The Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy.
Iannacchione, A.T. & Prosser, L.J.. 1997. Roof and rib hazard
assessment for underground stone mines. SME preprint
97113, SME Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, Feb. 2427,
5pp.
ISRM. 1978. Commission on Standardization of Laboratory
and Field Tests, Suggested Methods for the Quantitative
Description of Discontinuities in Rock Masses, Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 15: 319368.
Leeman, E.R. 1964. Absolute rock stress measurements
using a borehole trepanning stress relieving technique, 6th
Symp. on Rock Mechanics, USA., 407426.
Leeman, E.R. 1969. The doorstopper and triaxial rock
stress measuring instruments developed by the C.S.IR.,
Journal of the South African Institute of Minig and
Metallurgy, 69: 305339.
Ribacchi, R. 1969. Misure dello Stato di Sollecitazione
nei Pilastri della Cava di Marmo di Lasa, LIndustria
Mineraria, 117130.
RocScience Inc. Toronto (Ont. Canada): Dips, http://www.
rocscience.com/products.
RocSience Inc. Toronto (Ont. Canada): Unwedge,
http://www.rocscience.com/products.
RocScience Inc. Toronto (Ont. Canada): Phase2,
http://www.rocscience.com/products.
Van Heerden, W.L. 1968. The effect of end of borehole
configuration and stress level on stress measurements
using doorstoppers. Report Council Scientific Industrial Research South Africa, Mag. 625.
Wiles, T.D. 1995. MAP3D, User Manual, Mine Modelling
Ltd., Copper Cliff, Ontario, Canada.
504
ABSTRACT: Numerical experiments modeling different three-dimensional mine layout were performed, using
two boundary condition sets defined by presence or absence of horizontal additional stress. The determined
stress/deformation states were used afterwards for quantitative characterization of the effect of horizontal tectonic
stress on system behavior. Local rock mass load intensity and the related failure possibility were assessed using
the indicators called safety margins related to several well known failure criterions such as: the maximum
principal stress, Coulomb-Mohrs, and true triaxial strength theories. The safety margins spatial distribution
served then as a basic measure helpful in identifyng areas of higher failure risk. The analysis permitted selecting
the safest mining layout of the three considered, and recommend it for the practical development in one of the
Polish underground copper mine.
INTRODUCTION
505
One phase room-and-pillar methods is generally practiced in Polish deep copper mines. (Fig. 4). In this
method the ore is mined out by one longer face
consisting of numerous room faces connected by
As a basic physical model for the problem, the multiplate overburden model has been accepted with the
following simplifying assumptions (Fig. 5):
506
where:
and A, B and C are positive material constants dependent on angle of internal friction in rock mass:
507
Rock
Thickness
m
Quaternary
Tertiary
Sandstone
Clayey shale
Anhydrite
Dolomite III
Dolomite II
Dolomite I
Copper ore
Gray sandstone
Red sandstone
56
347
311
103
183
4
10
2
2.4
7
200
Strength
Co
MPa
Deformation
cm
MPa
parameters
deg
E
GPa
76.5
36.0
93.1
121.8
149.2
214.7
116.0
25.1
17.9
11.5
1.7
19.5
40.7
63.9
149.6
32.4
26.2
35.2
39.3
45.8
60.4
0.07
0.07
5.0
3.4
14.0
13.2
14.6
24.1
8.2
4.7
2.6
0.30
0.30
0.15
0.18
0.25
0.25
0.26
0.25
0.23
0.16
0.13
Compression strength and angle of internal friction in rock mass assessed acc. to Hoeks (2007)
approach (see Fig. 6)
Rock
C
MPa
Sandstone
Clayey shale
Anhydrite
Dolomite III
Dolomite II
Dolomite I
3.31
2.58
3.72
4.69
6.07
14.3
0.615
0.488
0.673
0.780
0.888
1.154
3.06
0.53
4.82
8.23
11.2
12.9
Figure 7. The model loaded by additional uniform horizontal displacements in x-x and y-y directions (Lx, Ly)
resulting in the same stress tensor components as in the field
measured within the dolomite strata.
CONCLUSIONS
508
509
510
REFERENCES
Bresler, B. & Pister, K.S. 1957. Failure of plane concrete
under combined stresses. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs, 122:
10491068.
Fabich, S. & Pytel W. 2003. Okreslenie naprez en w grotworze w rznych warunkach geologiczno-grniczych
na podstawie badan in-situ, Res. Rep. CBPM Cuprum,
Wroclaw.
Jaeger J.C., Cook N.G.W. & Zimmerman, R. 2007. Fundamentals of rock mechanics. Blackwell Publ.
Hoek, E. 2007. Practical rock engineering. www.rocscience
.com/hoek/Hoek.asp (2010).
Katulski A., Bugajski W., Bryja Z., Mike Fabjanczyk. 1997.
Pomiar przedeksploatacyjnego pola naprez en w KGHM
Polska Miedz, O/ZG Rudna. Proc. Underground Exploitation Workshop, Szczyrk: 6775.
Pytel, W. 2003. Rock mass mine workings interaction model
for Polish copper mine conditions, Int. J. of Rock Mech.
&Min. Sci. (40): 497526.
511
J.-P. Tournier
Hydro-Qubec, Ingnierie de production, Direction principale Expertise, Montral, Qubec, Canada
ABSTRACT: Since 1997, more than 250 hydraulic jacking tests have been conducted as part of the site
investigations for different Hydro-Quebec projects in the Canadian Shield. All of these projects are located in
the Grenville and Superior Geologic Province where the bedrock consists of crystalline igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Hydro jacking tests serve the objective of identifying an increase in transmissivity of the rock mass with
water pressure to define the upstream limit of pressure tunnel lining. A study of different test results demonstrates,
for depths less than 150 m, that the tested rock masses of massive crystalline rocks behave similarly. Analysis
of statistical data of minimum stress from shut-in curves and P-Q graphs are presented and compared with
the leakage of a pressure tunnel in operation. Interpretation methods certainly play a role in minimum stress
interpretation. It is also proposed that the ratio of initial fracture resistance to breaking and fracture reopening
pressure is a parameter to consider in the analysis of results.
1
INTRODUCTION
HYDROPOWER PROJECTS
All of the recent projects are located in the Northern part and in the North Shore of Quebec (Fig. 1).
Table 1 presents the list of projects that includes the
use of hydraulic jacking tests. SM-3, Toulnustouc and
Romaine-2 are intake tunnel of 8, 10 and 5 km in
length respectively and other project tests are related to
inclined penstocks. Also presented in this table is the
year of the test programs as they may be conducted over
513
Table 1.
Tests
boreholes
SM-3
1997
2003
2003
2004
2003
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2008
2009
13
41
83
4
12
18
250
3.2
145
1.6
30
13
14
12
19
9
12
20
5
1
4
3
2
1
3
6
100
0.9
60
80
85
60
150
0.8
0.8
0.6
1.1
1.7
Pribonka
EM-1
EM-1A
Romaine-1
Romaine-4
Romaine-2
Criterion modified by Broch (1984). As a first estimate, during preliminary design stage, a safety factor
of 1.3 is considered. After conducting the tests, this
factor maybe adjusted depending on results quality,
quantity and rock mass properties.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
Reservoir
pressure
MPa
Project
Toulnustouc
Test Depth
(max)
m
Sector
UCS
MPa
T0
MPa
E
GPa
E/UCS
Eastmain-1
Eastmain-1A
Romaine 2
Toulnustouc
Pribonka
244
219
154
118
174
20
19
9
8
12
70
70
53
59
49
0.20
0.25
0.21
0.24
0.20
288
320
344
500
282
The equipment used and test set-up is typical and similar to what is described in standards (ASTM, 1989),
suggested methods (ISRM, 2003) and in the literature
(Amadei et al. 1997): double packer systems, pumps,
pressure sensors and high frequency data acquisition
system.
4.1 Test planning
Boreholes are drilled to reach the presumed location of
steel liner section of penstock, for the purpose of rock
mass characterization but also to conduct hydraulic
jacking tests. For the optimization of the lined portion of intake tunnels, boreholes are made sequentially
along the tunnel axis and their number depends on the
514
Table 3.
Authors
Graph Type
P - t (inflexion)
P-log (t0 + t)/t
P - log t
log P-t
log
P - log t
Zoback & Haimson (1982)1
P- t
Sookprasong (1986)1
Tunbridge (1989)
dP/dt P
Hayashi & Sakurai (1989)
Max. curvature
Aamodt & Kuriyagawa (1983) log (P-Pa) - t
Enever & Chopra (1986)
P-t intersect
Lee & Haimson (1989)
P-t curve fit
PQ
Doe & Korbin (1987)
P Q min
Hartmaier (1998)
P-Q intersect & max
Rutqvist & Stephansson (1996) P Q at 0-flow
1
Figure 3. Typical P-T curve showing 4 test cycles; maximum breakout (Pb max) pressure and maximum third cycle
pressure (P3 max) are shown.
H-Q
515
Min
Max
Avg
Std. Dev
Eastmain 1
Eastmain 1A
Romaine 1
Romaine 2
Romaine 4
Toulnustouc
Pribonka
15
12
12
12
5
67
26
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.0
0.6
1.0
2.6
2.8
2.0
3.3
1.8
2.8
4.3
1.5
1.8
1.5
1.8
1.4
1.5
1.7
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.7
Min
Max
Avg
Std. Dev
Eastmain 1
Eastmain 1A
Romaine 1
Romaine 2
Romaine 4
Toulnustouc
Pribonka
15
12
17
10
9
76
43
5.4
3.0
5.3
2.6
2.3
1.4
2.4
12.8
8.8
11.0
5.8
8.9
12.9
10.2
7.8
4.7
8.4
4.9
5.3
4.7
6.6
2.2
1.9
1.7
0.9
2.4
2.3
2.3
As mentioned in the previous section, different methods are used for minimum stress determination
Project
Min
Max
Avg
Std. Dev
Eastmain 1
Eastmain 1A
Romaine 1
Romaine 2
Romaine 4
Toulnustouc
Pribonka
15
12
19
30
8
78
35
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.0
0.6
0.8
2.7
2.1
3.7
3.1
4.2
8.2
3.1
1.6
1.4
2.5
2.1
2.5
2.6
1.8
0.4
0.3
0.8
0.5
1.0
1.7
0.6
516
Project
Mean
Depth
m
P3
max
MPa
P-Q
Intersect.
MPa
ISIP
Inflex
MPa
ISIP
min
MPa
Eastmain 1
Eastmain 1A
Romaine 1
Romaine 2
Romaine 4
Toulnustouc
Pribonka
60
70
70
100
60
130
100
4.3
2.1
4.3
5.2
5.5
5.6
4.1
2.7
1.7 (2.2)
3.8
2.7
3.8
2.8
3.8
3.1
1.9
4.0
3.3
3.9
2.6
2.5
1.6
1.4
2.5
2.1
2.5
2.6
1.8
6 DISCUSSION
It is interesting that comparison of the breakout pressure and the maximum pressure of 3rd cycle of tests
leads to the determination of a relatively constant average ratio ranging from 1,4 to 1,8 (Tab. 6). One could
assume that, for the crystalline rock masses studied,
the average value of ratio Pb max/P3 max represents
a typical signature of the fracture initiation/reopening
process to be used in overall assessment of rock mass
behavior to hydraulic jacking test. The values that are
used to calculate this ratio are not affected by data interpretation methods because they are raw data from tests.
Also, it is observed that the different values in
Table 7 for all projects are generally in the same range:
P3 max value is averaging around 5 MPa, P-Q intersect
and ISIP inflexion is averaging around 3.5 MPa and
average ISIP min (and minimum interpreted stress) is
around 2 MPa. As mentioned in previous section, ISIP
min corresponds generally to the interpreted value of
minimum stress (Tab. 6) for a given project.
For studied projects, P-Q intersect. and ISIP min
are certainly the ones that serve most for the design of
the lined section of pressure tunnels. ISIP min value
is, in most of the cases, lower than P-Q intersection
value and ISIP inflexion. On a statistical basis, it is
seen that the inflexion point of the shut-in pressure
graphs agrees with the P-Q intersect value. Inflexion point may then serve for a preliminary evaluation
or validation of the P-Q intersect. value for stress
determination.
In evaluating the minimum stress acting perpendicular to a fracture, ISIP min maybe seen as a more
conservative value of minimum stress. The particular
case of the Toulnustouc project may serves to illustrate
this aspect.
For the Toulnustouc tunnel, which has a length of
10 km, two areas of low stress were identified: Zone 1
near the powerhouse, related to a topographic nose, and
Zone 2 related to the presence of a river valley with a
shear zone near the tunnel alignment. Table 6 presents
517
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Hydro-Quebecs Management teams of different projects for the permission
to publish the results. Also, the support of the personnel at investigations sites was essential in conducting
the in situ tests. Special thanks to M. Dominic Babin
of Qualitas who conducted the tests and prepared all
the data reports.
REFERENCES
Aamodt, R., Kuriyagawa, M. 1983. Measurement of Instantaneous Shut-in Pressure in Crystalline Rock, in Hydraulic
518
Numerical modeling
Hiroya Matsui
Crystalline Environment Engineering Group, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Japan
ABSTRACT: Japan Atomic Energy Agency has developed a method for accurate evaluation of the distributions
of actual in situ stress state at any point using limited results of in situ stress measurements from surface based
investigations. We assumed that the actual stress components are formed by a combination of overburden pressure
and plate tectonic force, and constructed two types of model, three-dimensional finite element and boundary
element models that considered the presence of geological heterogeneities, such as variations in rock type and
faults. Afterwards, as a validation of these models, we applied this method to in situ stress state evaluation for
some locations around the Mizunami Underground Research Laboratory (MIU).
1 INTRODUCTION
521
G
and xy
are added and at the boundary of an area, these
stresses are defined by Eq. (2);
where, ij0 (x, g) is the local stress caused by the overburden pressure at point x, and the effect of gravity.
Y
XY
G
G
Also,ijX (x, G
xx ), ij (x, yy ) and ij (x, xy ) are the local
stresses at an arbitrary point x determined by adding
the displacement equivalent to the normal strain, G
xx ,
G
G
yy and the shear strain, xy at the boundary of an area,
and the term related to the regional strain.
Eq. (4) can be rewritten as Eq. (5) because of linear
ship;
522
where,
where,
523
where,
By using the calculated regional stress field in Section 4.4, we calculated the in situ stress field around
524
5.2.1
5.2.2
1.99
3.45
0.755
0.778
0.674
0.168
where, p = x, y, z q = x, y, xy
If the measured stress at point i is shown as
( mi )(i = 1 N ), it can be defined by Eq. (12), and
the observation equation is defined by Eq. (13).
By using the calculated regional stress field in Section 5.4, we calculated the in situ stress field around the
MIU to compare the estimated stresses with the measured stresses. Calculation of the in situ stress field
was applied using a forward analysis by the finite
difference method. The model analyzed is shown in
Fig. 8.
The results of the calculated in situ stresses around
the MIU are compared in Fig. 9. There is little difference between calculated and measured stresses.
The calculated stresses basically increase with depth
and this trend is consistent with the change of measured stresses. The calculated stresses fluctuate even
though the properties of Toki Granite are assumed to
be homogeneous. We infer that the reason for this is
the presence of the fault included in the model.
6 CONCLUSION
In this study, we developed two different numerical simulation methods to estimate the in situ stress
field based on limited stress measurements around
525
Stress measurements at greater depths will be carried out and comparison made with the calculated
in situ stress around the MIU. In addition, threedimensional mechanical models will be improved
using new mechanical and geological data obtained
during continued excavation of the MIU and the
influence of large discontinuous will be studied for
estimates of the in situ stress field.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study acknowledges the studies of Dr. MIZUTA1
and Dr. KANEKO2 , supported by JAEA. We are
indebted to them for help.
REFERENCES
526
ABSTRACT: The sudden and unexpected Wenchuan earthquake occurred on the Longmen Shan Fault. The
dynamic mechanisms of the event remain enigmatic although much work has been done by scientists. In order
to know more about the behaviors of the Longmen Shan thrust fault, we simulate the occurrence of earthquakes
on the fault by means of viscoelastic finite element method, with gravity being included in the model. The
result shows that the average earthquake recurrence time on the Longmen Shan fault is very long, 3,257
years. Basically, the modeled coseismic displacements have characteristics of ones for a typical thrust fault. The
distribution patterns of the coseismic changes of stresses and energy are consistent with ones of aftershocks,
which occurred mainly in the region where the coseismic changes of stresses and energy are increased, or possibly
on the region where the coseismic changes of stresses and energy are not released completely. Moreover, The
model results indicate that the earthquake initiated from slip on a fault plane dipping 30 40 northwest in depth
range from 15 to 20 km, and triggered slip on the high-angle segment of the fault at depths shallower than 15 km
to form large earthquakes such as the Wenchuan earthquake.
Keywords: Wenchuan earthquake; dynamic mechanisms; Longmen Shan fault; finite element.
1
INTRODUCTION
On May 12th 2008, the devastating Wenchuan earthquake (Ms = 8.0) struck the densely populated Chinas
Sichuan Province (31.0 N, 103.4 E) (CENC, 2008).
The earthquake occurred by slips on multiple, imbricate, high-angle (60 to 80 ) reverse faults. The surface
rupture is 240 km long with maximum vertical offset 9.0 m and 4.9 m right-slip. More than 80,000
people were killed, and over 370,000 people injured
in the earthquake. It is the most disastrous event in
China since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake, which
killed more than 240,000 people.
The sudden and unexpected Wenchuan earthquake
occurred on the Longmen Shan thrust belt, dividing line between the Tibetan Plateau and the Sichuan
Basin. Although the steep western margin of the
Sichuan basin is known to be seismically active, few,
if any, earth scientists anticipated an event of this
magnitude there. At least 3 main observations were
responsible for this biased viewpoint. First of all, on
the Longmen Shan fault belt, there have been no earthquakes with magnitude greater than 7 occurred in the
long history of human civilization. In this area, the earliest sensitive earthquake recorded in local literature
occurred in 278 AD, more than 1700yr ago. Since then,
there have been no strong earthquakes recorded with
seismic magnitudes exceeding 7.0 in and around the
Longmen Shan fault zone (Wen, et al., 2009). In addition, the area around the main shock has been a high
civilization, as early as in 256 BC, the world famous
hydraulic engineering, Dujiangyan, was constructed
527
GEODYNAMIC SETTING
India began colliding with Eurasia over 50 million years ago, progressively accommodating at least
1,400 km of north-south shortening (Yin & Harrison,
2000). This plate collision uplifted the highest mountains in the world and also a vast flat region to the
north known as the Tibetan plateau. This plateau has an
average elevation of over 5,000 m, maintained in part
by a 6575-km-thick crust with a complex and heterogeneous three-dimensional structure inferred from
topographic studies (Rapine et al., 2003; Yao et al.,
2008; Hubbard & Shaw, 2009).
On the eastern side of the Tibetan plateau, the
Longmen Shan rise 6,000 m above the Sichuan basin,
exhibiting greater relief than anywhere else on the
plateau. The active Longmen Shan fault zone marks
a predominantly convergent boundary with a rightlateral strike slip component. This fault system was
reactivated during late Cenozoic time along a Mesozoic orogenic belt (Burchfiel et al., 1995, 2008; Kirby
et al., 2002, 2008). To the west of the Longmen Shan,
eastern Tibet (SongpanGanzi Terrain in geological
terminology) actively deforms by both right-lateral
shear parallel to and convergence perpendicular to the
Longmen Shan fault (King et al., 1997; Chen et al.,
2000; Shen et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2004; Gan et al.,
2007). Tectonic activity in the Sichuan basin, east of
the Longmen Shan, has been mild during late Cenozoic
time (shown in Fig. 1).
The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake is a consequence
of interactions among multiple geological units under
a tectonic background in which the eastward growth
of the Tibetan Plateau has been impeded by tectonically stable Sichuan basin (Burchfiel et al., 1995,
2008; Royden et al., 1997; Clark and Royden, 2000;
Clark et al., 2005). The rheologically soft material
in the middle and the lower crust of the eastern Tibet
(Royden et al., 1997, 2008; Clark and Royden, 2000;
Clark et al., 2005; Liu Q. et al., 2009) has been thickened, while the brittle upper crust has been obliquely
pushed against the effectively rigid Sichuan basin on
a high-angle reverse contact, the Longmen Shan fault
zone.
Unlike strain accumulation along a single fault,
the Wenchuan earthquake involved three geological units: the eastern Tibet, the Longmen Shan, and
the Sichuan basin (Zhang P-Z et al., 2009). Interactions among them caused strain accumulation in the
Longmen Shan, and finally released to form the devastating Wenchuan earthquake. The three units behave
differently during both interseismic and co-seismic
periods.
The entire crust of eastern Tibet appears to be relatively weak (Wang C., 2007; Yao H. et al., 2007; Xu L.
528
529
Upper mantle
Sichuan basin
Pengguan massif
all area
Euc
uc
uc
Elc
lc
lc
c
Em
m
m
vm
Es
s
s
Ep
p
p
g
fr
MODEL RESULTS
description
value
Youngs modulas
Poisson ratio
density of upper crust
Youngs modulas
Poisson ratio
density of lower crust
viscosity of lower crust
Youngs modulas
Poisson ratio
density of upper mantle
viscosity of upper mantle
Youngs modulas
Poisson ratio
density of crust
Youngs modulas
Poisson ratio
density of crust
gravitational acceleration
coefficient of friction
7.0 1010 pa
0.28
2.6 Mg m3
6.8 1010 pa
0.32
2.7 Mg m3
5.0 1017 pas
7.3 1010 pa
0.30
3.2 Mg m3
5.0 1020 pas
7.2 1010 pa
0.23
2.65 Mg m3
7.3 1010 pa
0.20
2.7 Mg m3
9.8 m s2
0.60
Coseismic displacements
530
In the model, we only consider one main ruptureYingxiu-Beichuan fault, neglecting the other two ruptures. However, how the main fault ruptures remains
unclear. As for the thrust fault with dipping angle of ,
it can slide only if the coefficient friction () on the
fault surface is ctg() theoretically. Therefore, the
upper steep fault segment may slide when ctg
(70 ) 0.364. It cannot slip/slide or produce earthquakes in the case of = 0.6 which we used in the
above model in the paper. In order to know how the
Longmen Shan thrust belt ruptures in higher coefficient friction, we perform computation by means of
modifying the boundary conditions on the base of the
aforementioned model, in which we apply a 100 m of
the displacement on left side of the model in a very
short period of time (10 days) just before the model
is in a critical state in which fault is about to slip by
100,000 computational steps. Fig. 9 is the curve showing the displacements on typical nodes the same nodes
as in Fig. 4 varying with time. We can see that there
exists a step or earthquake in each of the curve. But,
attention should be paid that it is impossible for the
model to be applied 100 m of the boundary displacement in 10 days based on GPS measurements. This
is because that if we apply the boundary condition of
displacements of which the surface moves in 10 days
at the speed of GPS vector (5 mm/yr), the model give a
straight line for displacements varying with time, not
occurring any steps or earthquakes. Therefore, the data
of the curve shown in Fig. 7 are the results scaled both
in the domains of time and displacements, respectively.
Clearly, Fig. 9 displays that slips, corresponding to
displacements increasing suddenly, begin in different
time in different curve, the one in lower curve begin
before that of the upper 60 s. That is to say, the steep
high angle of upper section of the Longmen Shan fault
does not rupture until the lower gently part of the fault
slips. Thus, the high angle of the Longmen Shan fault
was triggered to rupture by its lower segment of the
reverse fault with dip angle of 40 . Then, the rupture
propagates form bottom to top. At the same time, we
see that the accumulated slips on the upper segment of
the fault are larger than the ones on the lower.
Therefore, the Wenchuan mainshock may take place
initially on a ramp dipping northwestward at 30 40
in the depth range from 15 to 20 km, and at shallower
depths the fault steepens to 70 to form prominent
surface ruptures with significant displacements along
the main rupture.
Contrasting with other reverse faults, the geometry and the style of fault rupture of the Longmen
Shan fault are very special and unique. The most
devastating, great reverse or thrust faulting historic
earthquakes commonly rupture gently dipping thrust
531
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by Special Project for Basic
Research on China State Level (Grant No:ZDJ2009-1,
ZDJ2007-1), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (40774024, 40974020) and by State Key
Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics (LED2008B02).
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and C. Li, (2008). Primary analysis of in-situ recurrence
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et al. 1997. Surface deformation and lower crustal flow
in eastern Tibet. Science. 276: 788790.
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533
ABSTRACT: Mechanized longwall mining is considered as one of the best choices for excavating low dip coal
seams. In this method, the position and movement of power supports play an important role in production, safety
and performance. In this article we surveyed stress condition around the longwall face based on a numerical
simulation using FLAC3D software. Then the effect of stress distribution and geomechanical condition of roof
and floor strata in longwall face on power supports function has been studied too. As a case study we chose First
panel of mechanized Tabas coal mine in Iran. The study result shows that instances like increasing of power
support pressure on roof, irregular stress distribution pattern, situation of roof cavability and also geomechanical
quality of floor are all effective on how the power support system functions. The approach that has been used in
this paper could be considered as a new systematic observational method, especially for second panel of Tabas
coal mine.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Location and Situation of Tabas coal mine
1.2
Roof strata
strata to cave after the shields move forward, so it prevents from concentration of stress in the mines roof
strata. Accordingly with a higher rate of development
the vertical load on the roof strata reduces effectively.
If the immediate roof is more competent than it is supposed to, it will be harder to cave in non-mechanized
situation; in such circumstances, by applying appropriate amount of force to the roof in supporting process,
using shields, we can speed up caving after the supporting shields move forward. In this method we apply
concentrated pressure to the immediate roof and considering the fast development rate a refraction line
forms on immediate roof.
2.2
Floor strata
535
2.3
There are 3 different zones of turbulence in overburden strata of longwall mines. Although each zone can
be characterized considering its form of refraction,
the thickness of each zone is diverse and not determinable. These zones are Caving zone, Fractured zone,
and Continuous deformation zone (Peng 2006).
Caving zone is the immediate roof after caving.
Generally each seam may has a high yield strength,
which leads it to severe refraction or displacement
because of shear stress.
When a longwall panel develops in a coal seam
the support for upper strata will reduce, that disturbs
the primary equilibrium; the pressure of overburden
weight force will deform and displace the roof strata.
This will create seat pressure on the two sides of the
panel and working face, also it causes the convergence
of the roof toward the floor in gateroads and working
faces (Malyan 2003).
Specification
ton
Open height
Closed height
Maximum
Minimum
0.89
1.8
1.18
2.68
310
316
Yield strength
1.6
3.61
226
280
189
224
width of the working face. As a result of this refraction the immediate roof in the back of supporting
shields will cave; after this caving process the pressure on immediate roof will transform to the caved
area that maximizes the caving. This condition is very
favorable for mechanized longwall mining with a high
development rate.
The two leg shield supports that are being used
in Tabas mechanized coal mine has special specifications. These specifications and limitations are as
mentioned in Table 1.
GEOMETRICAL SIMULATION
FOR ANALYZING WITH FLAC3D
536
6
35
50
CONCLUSIONS
537
ABSTRACT: Siah Bishe pumped storage power plant with capacity of 1000 MW is the first pumped storage
power plant that is located in the northern part of the Alborz mountain range in Iran. There are two parallel
pressure shafts in the slope which both of them are 450 m long and their diameters are 6 m with 65 degree
inclination relatively south-north trend. The pressure shafts slope is highly tectonically disturbed. The site area
and especially the area of the pressure shaft are characterized by the presence of three important thrust faults
which cut through the whole stratigraphic series. The shafts are arranged in sedimentary and volcanic highly
jointed rocks of Triasic and Jurasic ages. In addition, based on several results of site investigations, there are
lithologically varied rock masses. These have led to complicated situations and complexities for the project,
especially for excavating the pressure shafts. In order to predict and also analyze the stability condition of
the shafts, numerical modeling has been used. The results show instabilities within the slope, especially the
boundar of Elika and Nesen formations which have highly different permeabilities. The permeabilities diversity
has prevented underground water discharge in the boundary. This has led to instabilities in the shafts excavation
process. Also, this boundary was severely techtonized; hence, it was very potential to have such huge instabilities.
Numerical modeling results show the same instabilities, and they prove that by means of numerical modeling, it
is possible to predict and estimate instabilities in geotechnical projects.
INTRODUCTION
Iran Water and Power Resources Development Company was entrusted 1983 with the design of Siah
Bisheh pumped storage scheme. The waterways of the
plant, which are now under construction (Fig. 1), are
located in the northern part of the Alborz Mountain, at
a distance of 80 km from the Caspian Sea (Moshanir
Consultant Engineer, 2002).
The pumped storage plant passes through Jurassic
Shemshak, Triassic Elika layers, and the strata of Permian age, called Dorud, Ruteh, and Nessen formation.
The Main Thrust Fault (MTF) separates the Jurassic
formation from the Triassic one (Darvishzadeh, A.,
2003). The shafts are being constructed in Elika,
Nesen, Routheh, and Doroud formations. These formations consist of shale, slightly sandy siltstone,
sandstone and thin layered limestone and intrusions of
igneous rock such as spilitic basalt partially bedding
parallel orientated.
The stability of pressure shafts slope of Siah Bisheh
Dam is discussed in this paper. The geology of the pressure shaft slope continuously raised discussions since
end of 2003. An extensive investigation program was
thereafter initiated in April/May 2006 by authors with
the aim to investigate the geological conditions of shaft
area in more detail. A few boreholes were drilled from
539
Figure 2. Collapses happened in the boundary of Elika limestone and volcanic rock fragments, shown zone by black
circle (Hassani, H., Arshadnejad, 2009).
540
for raise boring and the reaming of the left upper pilot
shaft to diameter of 2.4 m:
The First problems were recorded during the drilling
of the 11 pilot hole in the upper part of the left shaft.
The hole had to be grouted and re-drilled at several
locations. After the pilot hole reached the intermediate adit, reaming of the pilot shaft diameter expanding
to 2.4 m started from the intermediate adit upward.
The first 160170 m was reamed without major difficulties. At approx. 170 m from the intermediate adit,
the reamer was blocked. Consequently, the reamer
was lowered down to the intermediate adit for maintenance and cleaning. At that time, a major collapse
happened. Based on oral information, first, some limestone fragments (Elika limestone), and later volcanic
rock fragments (melaphyre and tuffites) plunged into
the intermediate adit. The collapsing material broke
the rods of the reamer and buried it.
While removing the material out of the shaft, new
material continued to flow down. A camera was then
lowered through the pilot shaft from above. It showed
a cavity at a depth of approx. 75 m from the upper bent.
The size of the cavity could however not be determined
(Iran Water and Power Resources Development Co.,
2006).
Feb. 17, 2006: Another collapse happened 2 days
later. The collapsed material consisted mainly of dark
reddish-green volcanic rock fragments with some
limestone and dolomite blocks. The material was
highly water saturated and emerged like a mudflow
from the shaft into the intermediate adit.
It was reported that exceptionally heavy rains
occurred in the previous 2 days (Iran Water and Power
Resources Development Co., 2006).
Feb. 18, 2006: The downbreak of material slowed
down and the pilot shaft was finally blocked by
the material. The total amount of collapsed material
is reported to be between 500 to 1000 m3 . Some
510 l/min of water continued to flow through the
material.
The remaining cavity in the upper part of the pilot
shaft was filled with 360 m3 of concrete from the top
through the pilot hole (Iran Water and Power Resources
Development Co., 2006).
3.4
Due to several geological and geotechnical uncertainties in projects, numerical modeling is used to
estimate ground reaction against diverse activities
such as underground excavation activities. In such situations, numerical modeling results can help prevent
some unfavorable events during projects and economic
hazards. In the following section the aim is to predict and show the process of instabilities, plastic zone
progress around the shafts, the effect of water on
the shafts stability and different geological formations
consequences.
Among numerical models which are used in
rock engineering, finite element method (FEM),
finite difference method (FDM) and discrete element
method (DEM) may be the most commonly applied
approaches.
541
Table 1.
Shear zone
Elika Formation
Shemshak Formation
Nessen Formation
Doroud Formation
Ruteh Formation
Limestone
Bulk
Modulus
(Gpa)
Shear
Modulus
(Gpa)
Density
(kg/m3 )
Cohesion
(Mpa)
Friction
Angle
(degree)
Dilation
Angle
(degree)
Tensile
Strength
(Mpa)
0.63
22.6
0.6
10
2.5
3.8
0.156
0.38
11
0.36
6
1.7
2.9
9.4
2300
2750
2700
2680
2700
2800
2400
0.168
6.72
43.3
25.4
43.3
17.2
5.9
33.08
42
45.37
36.1
50
35.08
38.1
1.74
0
2.4
0
2
2
0
0
1.58
18
1.5
13.7
7.5
14.6
The finite difference method is perhaps the oldest numerical technique used for the solution of sets
of differential equations, given initial values and/or
boundary values. In the finite difference method, every
derivative in the set of governing equations is replaced
directly by an algebraic expression written in terms
of the field variables (e.g., stress or displacement) at
discrete points in space; these variables are undefined
within elements (Itasca Consulting Group).
The steps recommended for performing a geomechanics analysis include of:
Grid generation;
Boundary and initial;
Loading and sequential modeling;
Choice of constitutive model and material properties;
Ways to improve modeling efficiency; and
Interpretation of results
FDM is applicable for continuous media; therefore, it was necessary to estimate equivalent rock mass
mechanical parameters for continuous media. To estimate them, Rocklab from Rocsicence programs was
used (Rocscience, 2002, Dips 5.1. Software). These
parameters are shown in table 1. To make the model
geometry, the cross section of the slope was used
(Fig. 2), considering the rules of proper modeling
which are shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the initial
model geometry.
542
REFERENCES
obvious by purple color in the figure. The instabilities are more in the shafts location. Instabilities initiate
dramatically within the boundary and are less within
Nesen formation.
Moreover, displacement vectors show high instabilities in the shafts location (Fig. 7).
CONCLUSION
Arshadnejad, Sh., poshtvan, H., Parsaee, H. (2006) Determination of Optimum pillar size by empirical and numerical
methods based on ground reaction curve Case study,
Soltan abads underground salt mine, In 7th tunneling
conference in Iran, 849865, Sharif university.
Darvishzadeh, A. (2003) Geology of Iran, Tehran Univ.
Publisher.
Moshanir Consultant Engineer (2002) The Siah Bishe
Pumped Storage Project in Iran, Report NO: 39.
Hassani, H., Arshadnejad, 2009, BEHAVIOR OF POP-UP
STRUCTURES IN THRUST WEDGES ON THE RIGHT
PRESSURE SHAFT COLLAPSE OF SIAH BISHEH
DAM, NORTH IRAN, J. Tunneling and Underground
Space Technology, 23: 531538.
Hassani, H., Arshadnejad, Sh., Hajhassani, H. R. (2008) Optimum static and dynamic design of displacement chamber
of headrace tunnel with bedding parallel shear zones in
Siah Bishe Dam, Iran, J. Tunneling and Underground
Space Technology, 23: 531538.
Iran Water and Power Resources Development Co., 2006,
Update on the Geology in the Pressure Shaft Slope, Basic
design documents Volume III.
Iran Water and Power Resources Development Co., 2005,
Field and Laboratory Investigations, Additional Investigation Programme for underground structures, Basic design
documents Volume III.
Itasca Consulting Group, FLAC, Users Manual.
Rocscience (2002) Dips 5.1. Software; Plotting, analysis and
presentation of structural data using spherical projection
techniques.
543
ABSTRACT: Initial geostress is indispensable to the design and the construction of rock engineering. Based
on the measured data of geostress and engineering-geological conditions in the region of Wendeng Pumped
storage power station, a geological model is developed to express the physiognomy of the research area and
rock mass structure. The established 3D simplified geological model is calculated by Fast Lagrangian Analysis
for Continuum of FLAC3D. A multivariate regression model is established between the actually measured
and corresponding calculated results of geostresses. According to multiple regression analysis, the optimum
regression coefficient can be received. Through the comparison between computed and measured geostress
values of measuring points, found that they are similar in values and directions, which suggests the accuracy and
reasonability of the geostress field. The results offer for reasonable geostress field for excavating simulation and
analysis on stability of the underground workshop of Wendeng Pumped storage power station.
1
INTRODUCTION
This method is mainly used in underground engineering small range of rock initial geostress inversion [2].
Another kind is stress regression analysis methods,
namely the combination of regional stress field, the
regularity of the conditions for the regional stress field
of three-dimensional geological model. According to
the project area small data of stress field to deduce
the initial geostress field and make the calculation of
stress field and measured optimum [35].
According to the stress measuring results of Wendeng Pumped storage power station nearby, and the
engineering geological conditions of the study area,
adopt the regression analysis method, to simulate the
initial stress field of Wendeng Pumped storage power
station. It is the basis for the design and construction
of underground workshop.
545
f
c (MPa)
type (g/cm3 ) (MPa) (GPa)
II
IV
jk
Where
is the value of k observation of j stress
components; jki is the finite element calculation of
k observation of j stress components for I condition.
According to the principle of least squares, the
equation for minimum S is:
ENGINEERING PROFILE
2.63
2.1
Table 2.
120
100
25
1
0.25
0.45
1.2 1.6
1
0.05
Parameters of faults
Type
occurrence
trend
tendercy
dip
position
Width
f202
f203
f1-55
f1-56
280
296
287
275
75
81
75
75
1720
1695
1435
1442
56
0.050.3
0.92.5
22.5
SW
SW
SW
SW
546
6 CONCLUSIONS
(1) From the regression result, using multivariate linear regression with FLAC3D program combining
calculation method of inverse regression initial
geostress field can be rational distribution, value
and the actual return inversion stress value is good,
fitting that the inverse regression method is an
accurate and reliable method.
(2) On the basis of the measured by regression analysis can predict the stress state of the project area,
the structure stability of underground engineering
analysis provides a convenient use stress boundary
conditions.
(3) Measured results and the calculation results show
that the stress on the overall project, with the
level of structural stress along the river section
or whatever direction along the ridge directions,
rock initial geostress field distribution are similar, principal stress isoline and slope to parallel,
and with the horizontal and vertical buried depth
increases. The lower cavity namely stress level
obviously higher than top arch, this means that
the lower cavity excavation unloading effect more
significantly, should cause enough attention.
REFERENCES
547
[1] Guo Huaizhi (1983). The analytical method of the initial stress field for rock masses. Chinese Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 5(3):6475
[2] Zhu Bofang (1994). Back analysis of initial stresses in
rock masses. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, (10):
3035
548
ABSTRACT: To understand and master the evolving patterns of mining-induced stress is a key issue to control
and utilize the action of rock pressure in deep underground mining. In-situ observation and numerical modeling
test were carried out to investigate the redistribution patterns of stress in the rock surrounding a fully mechanized
top-coal caving (FMTC) face of unsymmetrical disposal. The characteristics of mining-induced stress were open
out based on the comparative and integrated analysis between in-situ observation and numerical simulation. There
is a macro-stress shell (MSS) composed of high stress exists in the rock surrounding and it bears and transfers the
loads of overlying strata by acting as the primary supporting system of forces. Its evolution is a mined-induced
high stress developing and dynamically equilibrating process that form and influence the abutment pressure
redistribution in spatial rocks during mining. Within the low-stress zone inside the stress shell, which only bears
parts of the load from the lower-lying strata, has been proved by in-situ observation. The results show that the
face is protected by the stress shell of the overlying surrounding rock and strata behaviors are under control of
the stress shell.
Keywords: deep mining; macro stress shell; stress development; unsymmetrical disposal; in-situ observation;
numerical simulation; fully mechanized top-coal caving
INTRODUCTION
Based on special mining and caving characteristics compared with other mining methods, the fully
mechanized top-coal caving (FMTC) results in much
distinctiveness of stress redistributing & developing
that influence different characteristics on deep and
superficial deformation laws of gates, support pressure changing laws of gates and stress redistribution
laws of rock surrounding face. Maintenance and stability control of gates has been a difficult problem
and impacts on safely mining, especially dissymmetrical disposal. Hence, large numbers of investigations
have been done and developed a certain degree in the
domain of abutment stress development and rock pressure control in recent years[110] . In order to figure out
the characteristics of 3D mining-induced stress, in-situ
observations and numerical modeling tests have been
synthetically and comparatively applied to research on
the laws of mining-induced stress redistribution under
the conditions of deep and thick seam mining.
STRESS REDISTRIBUTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL SEAM
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
AND OBSERVATION SCHEME
Xieqiao Mine FMTC Face 1151(3), from the switchyard below Section E-C in the west to the cut connecting road in the east, works Seam C131 which averages
5.4 m thick, averaging 13 .The mining height is 2.6 m,
549
3.2
9138.7
The figure 5 shows that the original coal stress of maingate side increases during face advancing and there is
not peak value in face frontage along the strike, but
550
SPL (m)
k
Maingate
11m
14m
17m
10m
15m
20 m
16
2.04
15.2
1.90
20.2
1.77
15.6
1.74
17
1.75
16
1.78
Location
SPV(MPa)
SPL(m )
RI(m)
Up-face
Middle-face
Bottom-face
Coal pillar
Original coal
131
43.6
54.1
40.04
42.2
8.6
2.76
3.34
2.65
2.6
18.8
13.8
13.8
21.3
8.1
150
80100
80100
200
150
551
Figure 9. The principal stress field of surrounding rock at different location to the dip(MPa) (a) at 150 meters distance ahead
of face; (b) at 15 meters distance ahead of face; (c) at face; (d) at 15m behind face; (e) at 100 m behind face; (f) at 100 m
behind face.
552
(1) The stress development laws are obvious differences in different location of rocks surrounding face
and gates. The stress redistribution of face frontage
coal is unsymmetrical that the peak value of abutment
pressure, the stress reduced area and peak location to
face of tailgate side coal are more than maingate side.
The peak value of abutment pressure in original coal
is located rear of face along the strike.
(2) There is a macro stress shell composed of high
stress in the surrounding rock of an FMTC face.
The stress shell, which bears and transfers the loads
of overlying strata, acts as the primary supporting
structure.
(3) The research findings are of guiding significance and theoretical basis for the following engineering practice. Reasonable design and choice of
support must be consistent with the characteristic of
the distribution of stress development of FMTC face.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by and the Science and Technological Fund of Anhui Province for Outstanding
Youth Grant (No. 08040106839), the Natural Science
Research Project of Anhui Province for Colleges and
Universities (No. KJ2009A139), the National Basic
Research 973 Program (No.2005cb221503), and the
553
[5] XIE Guangxiang. 2005. Study on mechanical characteristics of fully mechanized top-coal caving face and
surrounding rock stress shell[J]. Journal of China Coal
Society, 30(3):309313. (in Chinese)
[6] XIE Guangxiang, YANG Ke, CHANG Jucai. 2006.
Analysis of site measurement of support pressure distribution law for seam of fully mechanized longwall top
coal caving mining[J]. Coal Science and Technology,
34(3):13. (in Chinese)
[7] CHEN Zhonghui, XIE Heping, WANG Jiachen. 2002.
Numerical simulation of three-dimensional deformation and failure of top coal caving[J]. Chinese Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 21(3): 309313.
(in Chinese)
[8] Xu Z.Q. 2001. Study of several problems concerning selection of physical and mechanical parameters
of rock used for numerical analysis, MS Thesis, University of Science and Technology Beijing, China, (in
Chinese)
[9] J.A. Wang, H.D. Park. 2003. Coal mining above a confined aquifer [J]. Int. J. of Rock Mech. & Min. Sci.,
40:537551
[10] N.E. Yasitli and B. Unver. 2005. 3D numerical modeling of longwall mining with top-coal caving [J]. Int. J.
of Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 2: 219235
554
ABSTRACT: Silt mudstone lied in deep field underground is the immediate roof of roadway and coal mining
face, which mechanical properties may be important to corresponding engineering. By uniaxial mechanical test
in laboratory for rock specimens, average instantaneous ultimate strength of the silt mudstone is 9.841 MPa.
Plastic-viscous constitutive model (Pwipp) has been constructed to simulate uniaxial creep properties of the
silt mudstone. Basic creep parameters have been got by numerical simulation with six steps loading methods
separately. The ratio of long-term strength to instantaneous strength is 96.79 percent and that of creep strength
to instantaneous strength is 97.05 percent, which have special differences with traditional viewpoints. Results
have given extrude rheological features of soft rock in deep site to be used in supporting design of underground
engineering. That is, instantaneous strength, creep strength, and long-term strength of unstable soft rock with
strong rheological properties will decrease in turn, but their values are closed one another.
GENERAL INTRODUCTIONS
Universal creep features of rock masses with increasing depth have been recognized in coal mining engineering. That rock mass whose ultimate strength is
beyond 25 MPa can bring large plastical deformation
is typical creep properties of general rock in deep
site (Gasc et al. 2004, He et al. 2002, Sun. 1999,
Zhang et al. 2004). Under the condition of higher
initial stresses, rock masses have distinct volumeenlarged creep features and enlarging degree increases
with higher stress grade or smaller enclosed pressure.
Influenced by complicated geological environment,
high stresses, rock cracks and water, rock masses surrounding roadways in deep field may present creep
properties. That is, stable state and standard of rock
masses in engineering will change with development
of time or controlling factors (Deng et al. 2002, Karato
et al. l993, Sun. 2005, Wang et al. 2001). Especially to
soft rock in deep site, the old supporting plan and actual
experience can not answer problems in existence,
which states that support to roadway surrounding with
soft rock masses in deep site is a difficulty. Depending
upon rock mechanical test to study creep properties of
soft rock masses, deformation control for roadway in
deep field would become a possibility, which is an
important foundation of coal mining security (Li et al.
2004, Mao et al. 2006, Yuan et al. 2006).
Experimental mechanics provides effective theories
for engineering application of rock masses. Generally,
mechanical testing methods must include physical test
in laboratory and numerical simulations by calculating
555
2.2
Triaxial rock mechanics testing system is composed of vertical loading mainframe, servo-controlled
hydraulic pressure source, enclosed pressure system,
monitoring system, and host computer. Equipped with
self-balanced triaxial pressure chamber, the testing
system may be used to study compressing strength,
creep properties, relaxation, and lower frequency loading features of rock or concrete materials under three
dimensional stresses state. With servo-controlled pore
water pressure system, pore water pressure test including evolving laws of osmotic ratio with different
stresses can be completed. Testing device of SAW2000 from Changchun Kexin Ltd. Is mainly makeup
of three EDC controllers from Germany DOLI Ltd.
And D633 servo-valve from MOOG Ltd. Three dimensional displacement meters include vertical and radical
sensors which may measure displacements of four
positions at one time and their average value can be
get. Inspecting range of displacement meter is 5 mm in
vertical direction and 4 mm in radical direction. Stiffness of SAW-2000 electro-hydraulic servo-controlled
rock mechanics testing system is up to 2 1010 N/m
and its responding frequency is higher. So it may
be used in uniaxial and triaxial test of rock, which
complete strain-stress curves can be protracted. From
this testing system, some rock mechanical parameters
may be calculated automatically, including compressing strength, elastic modulus, shear modulus, Poissons
ratio, ultimate strength, and remaining strength.
556
Table 1.
ial test.
Size
46 80
46 91
46 97
Average
16.39
17.06
15.72
16.39
9.862
10.26
9.400
9.841
2417
2564
2454
2478
0.38
0.36
0.41
0.38
0.65
2.40
3.80
2.28
Referring to initial state of silt mudstone in Binhu colliery, element distribution and boundary conditions of
numerical model are illustrated in figure 8.
Rock specimen in uniaxial compressing creep
model is a cylinder, which height is 100 mm and its
ratio of height to diameter is 2:1. Rock specimen
is plotted into 40 layers evenly in vertical direction.
From the center of rock specimen, 10 cirques are dispersed by ratio 0.85 in radical direction. 40 sectors
are evenly disparted surrounding the rock specimen.
Therefore, one rock specimen will be dispersed into
16000 elements when calculating and include 16441
nodes.
Boundary conditions: vertical displacements are
fixed at underside boundary and the upper boundary
is applied with vertical stresses.
Viscoplasticity of rock is modeled in FLAC3D by combining the viscoelastic model with the Drucker-Prager
plasticity model. Because they are both formulated in
557
3.4
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
INSTANTANEOUS AND CREEP
STRENGTHES OF SILT MUDSTONE IN
DEEP SITE
From uniaxial creep curves of silt mudstone by numerical simulation, its long-term strength and ultimate
creep strength are 9.525 MPa and 9.55 MPa respectively, which states that the soft rock mass in deep site
should be with strong rheological features.
By uniaxial mechanical test in laboratory for rock
specimens, average instantaneous ultimate strength
of the silt mudstone is 9.841 MPa, so the ratio of
long-term strength to instantaneous strength is 96.79
percent which is different from traditional recognition
about ratio ranging from 60 percent to 80 percent.
Meanwhile, ratio of creep strength to instantaneous
strength is 97.05 percent which has special differences
with general viewpoint that creep strength should be
less than instantaneous strength obviously. Research
results have given extrusive rheological features of
soft rock in deep site to be used in supporting design
of underground engineering. That is, instantaneous
strength, creep strength, and long-term strength of
unstable soft rock with strong rheological properties
will decrease in turn, but their values are closed one
another.
5
CONCLUSIONS
558
REFERENCES
Deng, G.Z. & Zhu, W.S. 2002. An experiment research on the
crack propagation in rock mass. Journal of Experimental
Mechanics 17(2): 177183.
Ding, X.L. Fu, J. Liu, J. Sheng, Q. Chen, H.Z. & Han, B.
2005. Study on creep behavior of alternatively distributed
soft and hard rock layers and slope stability analysis. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering 24(19):
34113418.
Gasc, B.M. & Chanchole, S. 2004. Creep behavior of bure
clayey rock. Applied Clay Science 26(1): 449458.
Han, B. Wang, Z.Y. Ding, X.L. & X, P. 2007. Numerical simulation for rheologic characteristics of interbedded strata
of soft and hard rock. Journal of Yangtze River Scientific
Research Institute 24(2): 2529.
He, M.C. Jing, H.H. & Sun, X.M. 2002. Engineering
Mechanics of Soft Rock. Beijing: Science Press.
Karato, S.I. & Wu, P. l993. Rheology of the upper mantle: a
synthesis. Science 260: 77l778.
Li, H.M. Li, Z.H. & Su, C.D. 2004. Testing study on
creep characteristics of marble. Chinese Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering 23(22): 37453749.
Liu, J.H. Zhu, W.S. Li, S.C. & Yang, F.Y. 2005. Analysis
of rheological characteristics and stability of surrounding rock masses of Xiaolangdi hydrojunction underground
caverns by using FLAC3D . Chinese Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering 24(14): 24842489.
559
ABSTRACT: It is the key important problems in the world to research on rockburst disaster mechanism and
control countermeasure of the deep mining tunnel under high stress conditions. The principal stresses distribution
and energy dissipation were analysed according to the cases of the excavated radius, the stress level, and the nonuniform stress field of the tunnel with UDEC technique. The growth curves of the energy dissipation quantity
and the energy dissipation ratio were concave with stress level increasing and the non-uniform stress field
aggravating. The growth curve of the energy dissipation quantity were also concave, but the energy dissipation
ratio with the excavated radius increasing was almost holding constant. The concentrated zones of the principal
stress difference were extended and gradually migrated from the outside to the inside in the tunnel surroundings
rock with the non-uniform stress field aggravating. When the horizontal stresses are greater than vertical stresses,
the concentrating zones of principal stress difference in the roof are usually having serious consequences than
these in the both sides of the tunnel.
1
INTRODUCTION
561
stress distribution and energy dissipation characteristic of the surroundings rock during the circular tunnel
excavation were analyzed along with variation of the
excavated radius, stress level and stress uneven degree,
which has some referential value to revealing the
rockburst mechanism and its evolutionary behavior.
2
2.1
M. D. Salamon (1974) holded that after tunnel excavation, the energy balance equation due to excavation
unloading is:
Figure 1. Computional model and meshes.
3.1
562
3.1.4
563
As the magnitude of maximum principal stress difference (to represent shear stress) and its location are
closely related to the phenomenon of rockburst, consequently, the gradual increase and further concentration
of the principal stress difference from the near to the
distant to its wall in the surroundings rock of the
excavated tunnel will be the potential direct factors
to induce rockburst.
3.2.2 Concentrating zones distribution of the
principal stress difference
As shown in fig. 5, keeping the vertical stress of the
surroundings rock invariance at 25 MPa, as the horizontal stress rising from 25 MPa, 35 MPa, 45 MPa, to
55 MPa, the concentrating zones of the principal stress
difference come about in horizontal direction of the
surrounding rock both sides, and the scope and magnitudes of the concentrating zones show growth trend
along with the horizontal stress increment. Meanwhile,
the concentrating zones also can be seen in the roof and
have greater scope and magnitude than those in horizontal direction of the surrounding both sides. Thus we
can say that with the gradual increase of the horizontal
stress in surroundings rock, strengthened attention and
rockburst monitor should be given to the tunnel roof.
The numerical simulation results show that, when
quasi-static instability occurs after the circular tunnel
excavated, the accumulation, migration and dissipation of the energy in the surroundings is a process of
gradual gestation, and then development and finally
outburst, along with the time incresing. Engineering
practices demonstrate that rockburst generally lags the
excavation several hours to dozens of hours (Xu &
Wang, 2003); besides, after tunnel being excavated,
the generation of the principal stress concentration
phenomenon and the redistribution process of the principal stress are both related to the stress conditions and
geological environments of the excavated tunnel.
4
CONCLUSIONS
1. In the process of the circular tunnel being excavated in deep mining, the growth curves of the
energy dissipation quantity and the energy dissipation ratio were concave with stress level increasing
and the non-uniform stress field aggravating. The
growth curve of the energy dissipation quantity
were also concave, but the energy dissipation ratio
with the excavated radius increasing was almost
holding constant.
2. After excavation of the circular tunnel, the concentrating zones of the principal stress difference
are extended and gradually migrated from the
564
565
ABSTRACT: We employ a three-dimensional finite element model to study the relationship between the tectonic stress-strain fields and seismic activities inYunnan area, basing on the updated GPS-derived displacement as
the boundary constraints. Through comparing the stress-strain fields, strain energy density with the Ms 6 earthquakes distribution in recent one hundred years. We found that the strong earthquake distribution corresponds well
with the stress high value or transitional sections, also the upper strain energy density regions, especially the magnitude above seven. Finally, the potential seismic risk regions are given based on the relationship between them.
1
INTRODUCTION
Table 1.
area.
Fault
Strike
Dip
Rake
Anninghe
Zemuhe
Xiaojiang
Lijiang-Xiaojinhe
Yuanmou-Lvzhijiang
Nanhua-Chuxiong-Jianshui
Honghe
Zhenyuan-Puer
Weixi-Weishan
NS
NW
NS
NE
NS
NW/NW
NW
NW
NW
E/W
NE
NE
SE/NW
N
WNE/SW
SW/NE
NE
NE
vertical
6070
vertical
vertical
7080
vertical
6085
vertical
vertical
Geometry
Material properties
567
vp
(km/s)
vs
(km/s)
(kg/m3 )
10
30
50
85
5.88
6.45
7.75
8.00
3.43
3.74
4.35
4.35
0.25
0.25
0.28
0.28
2685
2682
2835
3270
Middle crust
Lower crust
Number of
Subzone
Youngs modulus
104 MPa
Poissons
ratio
1
2
3
4
13
14
15
5
6
7
8
16
17
18
9
10
11
12
19
20
21
8.3
7.7
7.2
6.5
2.3
2.5
2.66
7.9
8.5
9.3
9.9
2.7
2.9
3.15
13.3
12.6
11.3
11.9
3.8
4.1
4.3
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
layers consisting of the upper crust (015 km), middle crust (1530 km) and the lower crust(3050 km).
Now the model has 21 medium subareas and the
medium parameters of each subarea are shown in
Table 3. The Youngs modulus parameter is deduced
from the equation below (Wang R, 1980):
finite element model. Figure 1 shows the results of discretization model consisting of 197901 elements with
65514 nodes. The coordinate system of finite element
model is a right-hand rectangular oxyz with the positive x axis directing to the due east, the positive y axis
directing to the due north, the positive z axis directing
up and the origin locating at the southwest corner of
the model.
All modeling presented here are conducted using
the ANSYS finite element program from the numerical simulation laboratory of the Institute of Crustal
Dynamics China Earthquake Administration. ANSYS
employs the Newton-Raphson approach to solve nonlinear problems. In this method a load is subdivided
into a series of increments applied over several steps.
Before each solution the Newton-Raphson method
evaluates the out of balance load vector, which is the
difference between the restoring forces (the loads corresponding to the element stresses) and the applied
loads. A linear solution is performed, using the out of
balance loads, and check for convergence. If convergence criteria are not satisfied, the out of balance load
vector is reevaluated, the stiffness matrix updated, and
a new solution is obtained. The system of equations
is solved through direct elimination of equations until
the problem convergence (sparse direct solver).
With the updated GPS datum as the boundary conditions (Wang Q, 2001, 2002; Jiang Z S, 2003). And
also we assumed that the deformation only exist in
the elastic scope, the boundary is uniform in the vertically, the model base is free to move laterally but
cannot move vertically, the model free surface is fully
deformable,all velocity constraints are imposed on the
model edge.
568
results with the GPS datum; the fault friction coefficients are modified slightly to match the observed
long-term slip rates. And therefore, we believe that the
three dimensional finite element model established in
the paper is reasonable and feasible.
Due to the uncertainty of the background stress
state in the deep crust, we choose the regional relative
change of stress field as the target. As the model is subjected to the load for a 1000-year period, the stress and
strain energy density is given. From the earthquakes
catalog with magnitude above six that happened from
1900 to 2007, also the epicenter depth is about ten to
twenty km. Through comparing the earthquakes location with the stress and strain energy density in the
fifteen km, the relationship between them is discussed
in the end.
In this article, we choose the maximum principal
stress, the maximum shear stress, the equivalent stress
and the strain energy density to represent the stress
field, and the equivalent stress f and strain energy
density w are defined as follows (Chen L W, 2007):
maximum shear stress distribution is distinctly asymmetric, due to the effect of the faults and medium
ununiformity. The strong earthquake is mainly on the
western, southwestern, northeastern of the Yunnan
area with comparatively high value of the maximum
shear stress. Meanwhile, in the southern segment of
the Honghe fault, the stress is also relatively high, but
the seismic activity is weak, and the concrete reason
is good for the further investigation.
569
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 5. Relationship between the strain energy density
and strong earthquakes distribution (Unit: J/m3 ).
We would like to express our heartfelt thanks to Professors Lu Yuan-zhong and Jiang Zai-sen for their
instruction and help in this study.
REFERENCES
Chen L W, et al, 1999. Evolution of 3D tectonic stress field
and fault movement in North China. Acta Seismologica
Sinica, 21(2):140149.
Chen L W, et al, 2007. Regional loading-unloading effects
induced by boundary force change on stress field in North
China. Journal of Geodesy and Geodynamics, 27(6):916.
Jiang Z S, et al, 2003. Horizontal strain field and tectonic
deformation of China mainland revealed by preliminary GPS result. Chinese Journal of Geophysics, 46(3):
352358.
Jiao M R, et al, 1999. Numerical calculations of tectonic stress
field of Chinese mainland and its neighboring regions and
their applications to explanation of seismic activity. Acta
Seismologica Sinica, 12(2):137147.
Lin ZY, et al, 1993. Research on the velocity structure feature
of the crustal and upper mantle in western Yunnan area.
Acta Seismologica Sinica, 15(4):427440.
Liu C Q, et al, 1998. Numerical simulation of the crustal
stress field by using data of deep geophysical exploration
in the northern part of North China. Acta Seismologica
Sinica, 11(3):283294.
570
571
ABSTRACT: Wave propagation process and shallow spallation of rock slope under the dynamic loads is
numerically simulated to investigate the applied incident compressive stress wave on the fracturing process and
failure induced in the rock mass. Heterogeneity of the rock materials is taking into account and the RFPAdynamics is firstly briefly described. Then, the propagation of compressive stress wave along a one-dimensional
rock bar is performed to validate the effectiveness of the RFPA-dynamics code. Furthermore, the shallow
spallation of rock slope under the dynamic loads is carried out. Numerical simulations capture the whole process
of the propagation of incident compressive stress waves in the rockmass and the reflection of stress wave upon
rock slope surface and the shallow spallation of rock slope induced by the reflected tensile stress wave, which is
obviously different from the failure pattern of rock slope under static loads, where a circular slip failure surface
normally formed in the rockmass. The approach suggested in this paper also can be used generally for estimating
dynamic load influ-ences on the development of stress and displacement fields around rock slopes.
1
INSTRUCTIONS
573
Model set-up
where M, C and K are the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices; R is he vector of externally applied
loads; and U , U and are the displacement, velocity,
and acceleration vectors of finite elements. A lumped
mass analysis is assumed, where the structure mass is
the sum of the individual element mass matrices plus
additional concentrated masses which are specified at
Setting
Rock bar
Youngs Modulus
Uniaxial compressive strength
Uniaxial tensile strength
Poisons ratio
Homogeneity Index
Density
40 GPa
200 MPa
10 MPa
0.25
100
2500 kg/m3
574
3.2
Modeling results
Figure 3 shows the induced shear stress wave propagation and reflection process along the rock bar with
a fixed end at different time 0.25us, 5us, 10us, 15us,
20us, 25us and 27.5us. Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure
6 illustrate the corresponding stress wave curves, vertical and horizontal displacement along the rock bar.
It can be clearly seen that the stress wave front propagates along the rock bar with the time duration and the
magnitude of the stress wave is about 5 MPa, which is
equal to the magnitude of the applied incident stress
pulse. Meanwhile, the vertical and horizontal displacement of the particles at the left end of the rock bar both
Figure 3. Induced shear stress wave propagation and reflection process along the rock bar with a fixed end.
Figure 8 shows the selected propagation of the incident stress wave from the left side in the rock mass
and the induced spallation process of rock slope. Correspondingly, the propagation of incident stress wave
curves along the rock slope at the cross-section A-A is
given in Figure 9. As shown in the Figure 8, the level
contours of stress magnitude are defined as the relative value of maximum shear stress. A fully fractured
surface is smeared in black, whereas the zones that are
intact or failed but not fully fractured remain in the
color of level contours of stress magnitude. It can be
clearly seen that the propagation and reflection process of stress wave front in rock mass and the tensile
575
Setting
Rockmass
50 MPa
5 MPa
50000 MPa
0.25
100
2500 kg/m3
576
Figure 8. Continued.
Figure 9. Continued.
validated by a rock bar sample with a fixed end subjected to a triangle pressure incident wave. Numerical
simulations demonstrate that the magnitude of stress
wave doubles when it arrives at the fixed end and the
magnitude of displacement is zero due to the fixed end,
which is well tallied with the theoretical results. Secondly, the shallow spallation of rock slope subjected to
dynamic loads was simulated to examine the propagation of incident compressive stress waves and study the
failure pattern and failure mechanism of shallow spallation of rock slope. Numerical simulations capture the
577
whole process of the propagation of incident compressive stress waves in the rockmass and the reflection of
stress wave upon rock slope surface and the shallow
spallation of rock slope induced by the reflected tensile stress wave, which is obviously different from the
failure pattern of rock slope under static loads, where
a circular slip failure surface normally formed in the
rockmass.
The approach suggested in this paper also can be
used generally for estimating dynamic load influences
on the development of stress and displacement fields
around rock slopes. The outcomes obtained from the
simulations, which are very rich in information concerning fracture initiation and kinetics as well as the
stress field evolution, make this method an ideal candidate for the analysis of rock slope failure under a fully
dynamic framework. The simulations not only allow
identification of model parameters but also explain
the different failure mechanisms of rocks as a function of loading waveforms. It is seen that the model
is suitable for simulating fracture processes and the
failure patterns in rock materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The joint supports provided by the Opening fund
of State Key Laboratory of Geo-hazard Prevention
and Geo-environment Protection, Chengdu University
of Technology (SKLGP2010K008), the Sino-Swiss
Science and Technology Cooperation Program-The
Exchange Program (EG22-032009), National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 50804006
and 50874020) are highly acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Ambraseys, N. & Srbulov, M. 1995. Earthquake induced
displacements of slopes. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering 14(1):5971.
Bhasin, R. & Kaynia, A.M. 2004. Static and dynamic simulation of a 700-m high rock slope in western Norway.
Engineering Geology 71(34): 213226.
Bommer, J.J. & Rodriguez, C.E. 2002. Earthquake-induced
landslides in Central America. Engineering Geology
63(34): 189220.
Brady, B.H.G. & Brown, E.T. 1993. Rock mechanics for
underground mining. London:Chapama & Hall.
578
M. Moosavi
Associated professor, School of Mining Engineering, University of Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: With the advancement of technology and the possibility of making large underground excavations
in difficult geological conditions, dynamic analysis of underground structures against earthquake waves has been
necessitated. In this research, factors affecting response of underground structures to earthquake loading has been
reviewed using finite difference numerical method. In modeling, Tabas, Naghan and El-Centro earthquakes are
used as typical earth shakes. The changes in amplitude of displacement, velocity and acceleration as a function
of changing desired model parameters are recorded and facilitated a sensitivity analysis. Results indicate that
design parameters such as diameter and depth of underground structures have greater impacts than geotechnical
parameters. Among geotechnical parameters, density and elastic modulus show greater impacts. Friction angle
and cohesion have great influence only in terrestrial environments during dynamic analysis and it can be stated
that these two parameters have little impacts in rocky environments in the process of dynamic analysis.
1
INTRODUCTION
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
be determined. The equation of motion for the simple system of Figure 1 is most easily formulated by
directly expressing the equilibrium of all forces acting on the mass using dAlemberts principle (Clough
et al. 2003).
Inherent complexity of issues related to soil structure interaction, especially for underground structures
with non-circular shape or uniform characteristics in
supporting systems makes closed form solutions to be
impossible for dynamic analysis. Therefore, numerical analysis for underground structures in such terms
seems necessary.
Given the question of what are the most important
and effective parameters of underground structure due
to dynamic loading, what solutions might an engineer
consider? In this paper, to understand and comprehend
the share of different parameters while earthquake
loading the parameters are divided into two different
groups; geotechnical and geometrical parameters. For
the first group, parameters such as density, Poissons
ratio, elastic modulus and cohesion of the host medium
were selected. For the later group the diameter, shape
and depth of underground structures were taken into
account for dynamic analysis.
579
Table 1.
580
Table 2.
Property
Range
Density
Depth of Excavation
Poisson ratio
Elastic modulus
Cohesion
Excavation diameter
Internal friction angle
15003200 Kg/m3
50600 m
0.070.49
7.570 GPa
0.252 MPa
525 m
2055 Degree
Table 3.
Earthquake
Max Acc. g
Duration Sec
Tabas
Naghan
El-Centro
0.8517
0.5277
0.3168
1.2122
0.3736
0.3842
32
21
30
3
Figure 5. Modified acceleration record of Naghan.
PARAMETRIC STUDY
581
Figure 9. Normalized maximum amplitude of acceleration around underground excavation against internal friction
angle.
Property
Acc.
Vel.
Disp.
Depth of Excavation
Excavation diameter
Elastic modulus
Density
Poisson ratio
Cohesion
Internal friction angle
45%
50%
25%
25%
20%
15%
8%
30%
7%
22%
15%
7%
1%
2%
25%
5%
12%
8%
5%
1%
1%
Table 4 presents the average changes in acceleration, velocity and displacement records caused by
changes of desired parameters based on the ranges
presented at Table 2, in three simulated earthquakes.
As it can be inferred from Table 4, Amongst the
geotechnical parameters, elastic modulus and density
have significant impact on dynamic behavior of underground structures during earthquake. However, the
most effective parameters are depth and diameter of
excavation that are both geometric parameters.
4
CONCLUSIONS
582
583
Stability analysis of slope under mining for resident ore body outside the
open-pit
Zhang Ya-Bin
University of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
Hebei Polytechnic University, China
ABSTRACT: According to the characteristic of open-underground combined mining for resident ore body, the
stress change mechanism and rock mass displacements law of slope under open-underground combined mining
were researched by numerical simulation, and the research results provided scientific basis for subsequent mining
and Stability analysis of slope.
1
INTRODUCTION
fault basin, and in the short axis of ZhongGu anticline, its inner is gabbro-diorite, around are shale
and siltstone in the Triassic Department of yellow
polo team, Group sandstone of Jurassic, andesite
of early Cretaceous Gushan Group, andesitic volcanic breccia and mudstone, shale, siltstone, tuff and
so on.
The upper part of quaternary cover is sub-clay and
fine sand, central is clay layers interbedded with fine
sand, lower is the sandy gravel layer The thickness of
quaternary is between 0 m and 110 m.
The mine is developed with fracture Structure, the
fracture before ore formation is a regional northsouth thrust ZhongGu fault and east-west GuShan
steep faults. The fault activity is also very strong after
ore formation, squeezing face, schistosity zone, and
mylonite zone is quite developed, but the small size
of the ore body shape is little damaged, there are 11
post-ore faults.
Roof rock ore body is silty shale, siltstone,
and gabbro-diorite, bottom is gabbro-diorite. The
hardness factor of ore and rock is the followings, compact massive ore f = 1617, gabbro-diorite
brecciated ore f = 1011, kaolin of gabbro-diorite
f = 34.
2.2
Engineering Situation
585
Ore and
rock
E 104
MPa
T
MPa
C
MPa
F( )
Y
g/cm3
Ore
Rock
2.57
1.18
4.29
1.64
0.25
0.32
5.58
2.10
50.2
45.8
3.50
2.62
According to the actual mining situation, Firstly simulated calculation process is divided into six steps and
began to excavate for format the open pit slope, then
divided into three middle section for mining resident
orebody, every room of mining is a substep of calculation, the underground goaf formed needs into twelve
steps excavation.
586
stress, the maximum value is 0.6 Mpa. After the second middle section mining completed, the maximum
value of tensile stress is 1.28 Mpa, distributed mainly
in the roof and floor of surrounding rock of the goaf.
The range of the press stress value is little, the maximum value is 16.4 Mpa and the press stresses value
of the slope surface is present a trend of increase, the
maximum value is 0.79 Mpa. After the third middle
section mining completed, the maximum value of tensile stress is 1.32 Mpa, still distributed mainly in the
roof and floor of surrounding rock of the goaf. The
range of the press stress value is little, the maximum
value is 16.3 Mpa, and the maximum value of the press
stresses is 0.8 Mpa.
It can be seen that in the process of the resident
orebody mining, the stress state of the slope surface
rock from tensile stress into press stress, and the press
stress value increases, and is beneficial to the stability
of the slope. The tensile stress is mainly distributed in
the roof and floor rock, its values are all smaller and
will not affect the stability of underground stope.
4.2 The change of the slope horizontal
displacement field in resident orebody mining
Displacement variation in horizontal direction of slope
after open mining and resident orebody mining completed as shown in figure 69.
After open mining completed, it can be seen from
the horizontal displacement diagram of slope that on
top of the slope the maximum value of horizontal
displacement is 8 cm. After the first middle section
mining completed, horizontal displacement value of
slope surface has been significantly reduced, the maximum value is 0.6 cm, the main reason is due to the
underground goaf has been completed, the internal
587
CONCLUSION
588
X.M. Sun
State Key Laboratory for GeoMechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining
and Technology, Beijing, P.R.China
ABSTRACT: Excavation induced stress change is a significant and considerable factor to drive the brittle
failure in the underground opening. Rockburst, as a type of brittle failure, has became a great threat to the
construction of mining, traffic tunnels, hydropower station etc. With Hoek-Brown brittle parameters m = 0 and
s = 0.11, failure of the auxiliary tunnel in Jinping II Hydropower Station was analyzed using a BEM program
examine2D, and the calculated depth of brittle failure accords with the field observation very well. This paper
transformed the in situ stress at the embedded depth of about 1182 m from the principal stress coordinate system
to the tunnel coordinate system. With these stress values and brittle parameters, the brittle failure of B-auxiliary
tunnel was analyzed with examine2D program, and the depth of failure was estimated as about 2.22.3 m. This
paper also supplied an analysis on the spalling limit because of excavation based on elastic theory.
1 INTRODUCTION
The stability of underground openings can be drastically influenced by excavation-induced stress change
(Kaiser et al. 2001). Martin et al. (1999) pointed that as
in situ stress magnitudes increase, the fractures growing parallel to the excavation surface due to the induced
stress will dominate the process of brittle failure,
and the failure regions are localized near the opening perimeter at intermediate depths while at great
depths the whole boundary of the excavation may be
enveloped by the brittle fractures.
Rockburst, as a kind of brittle failure, always results
in the damage of equipment, delay of construction
and even wounds and deaths of workers. Wu (2008)
reported 67 rockbursts with the intensity of medium
or higher leading to 955 m in length of cumulative
continuous failure along the A- auxiliary tunnel in
Jinping II Hydropower Station, China. Several failure
phenomena observed in B-auxiliary tunnel are presented in Figure 1 (photographed by China Railway
Shisi Group). On Nov. 28, a very strong rockburst happened in the drainage tunnel of Jinping II and caused
7 deaths and 1 wounded (Liu 2010).
Brittle failure owing to the induced stress has been
studied by many scholars. According to more than 200
rockbursts recorded during the construction of Erlangshan highway tunnel, Xu & Wang (1999) provided the
589
3.1 Examine2D
590
591
SPALLING LIMIT
592
Table 1.
Intact rock
1
2
3
4
5
6
1.0513
1.0525
1.0528
1.0529
1.0530
1.0531
1.1055
1.1108
1.1125
1.1133
1.1138
1.1141
CONCLUSIONS
(1) As the far field in situ stresses always have uncertain angles with the axes of the tunnel coordinate
system, the measured in situ stress values can not
be used directly to analyze stability of the tunnel.
Taking the measured in situ stress around the auxiliary tunnel of Jinping II at the embedded depth
of 1182 m before excavation (1 = 38.02 MPa,
2 = 27.26 MPa, 3 = 17.49 MPa) for example,
stress is transformed in this paper;
(2) With the Hoek-Brown brittle parameters m = 0
and s = 0.11, this paper analyzed the brittle failure
of the auxiliary tunnel in Jinping II Hydropower
Station in China using a boundary element method
(BEM) program examine2D. The calculated depth
of failure accords with the field observation very
well. This study demonstrates that the elastic analysis combined with Hoek-Brown parameters is
quite a good method for the estimation of the brittle failure due to excavation induced stress in the
opening of Jinping II. With this method, the brittle
failure around the B-auxiliary tunnel of Jinping II
at the embeded depth of about 1182 m is analyzed.
The analysis gives an estimation on the depth of
failure of about 2.22.3 m;
(3) For hard brittle rock mass, the opening induced
stress may result in spalling near the excavation
surface. Combining the spalling limit from the
bi-linear failure envelope proposed by Kaiser et
al. with the stress distribution equations of circular opening under biaxial stresses based on elastic
theory, this paper derived the spalling limit (r/a)
593
594
S.Z. Xi
China HPDI Geotechnical (Beijing), Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: There exist two types of finite deformation theorems in large deformation process of deep soft
rock engineering, i.e. polar decomposition theorem and additive decomposition theorem. In this paper, referring
to the functional expression between geostress and the depth proposed by Brown and Hock, the additive module
and the polar decomposition module included in A Software on Large Deformation Analysis for Soft Rock
Engineering (LDEAS) at Great Depth were adopted respectively to simulate the effect of geostress on the large
deformation induced in the process of the excavation of Jia-he Mine at 800 m level. The results indicate that:
the sidewall shrinkage, floor heave and roof caving represent a positive linear relationship with the depth and
the increasing rate of the mount of floor heave is the fastest. Moreover, the mount of the deformation calculated
by solar decomposition module is relatively smaller than the corresponding result obtained through the polar
decomposition module.
1 INTRODUCTION
As the depth of excavated tunnels increases, the
geostress value is increasing and deformations of the
surrounding rock masses are generally large, such as
roof caving, floor heave and sidewall shrinkage, which
contribute to the increasingly difficulties of the tunnel
supporting. Therefore, the determination of the initial geostress field is essential to the design of the
tunnel supporting and construction and it affects the
economical efficiency, reliability and safety directly.
As a result, it is necessary to study the influence of
geostress in the excavation of a tunnel.
Geostress is the natural stress without any artificial disturbance and the formation is a complex
process. However, there is a certain relationship with
the depth. According to the achievement of Brown E.T.
and Hock E. in 1978, the regularity of distribution of
geostress in China is given by Equation 1.
595
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
596
Table 2.
Model
Depth (m)
Vertical
stress (MPa)
Horizontal
stress (MPa)
1
2
3
500
1000
1500
13.5
27
40.5
6.75
13.5
20.25
Rock
Stratum Rock
Bulk
Shear
Unit Weight Modulus Modulus
(Pa)
(Pa)
(Kg/m3 )
1
2
3
4,8,9
5
6
7
2637
2000
2635
1650
2625
2000
2623
Finestone
Sandy mudstone
Sandy shale
coal
Sandy shale
Sandy mudstone
Sandy stone
5.0e9
4.0e9
3.8e9
3.0e9
3.6e9
3.8e9
6.0e9
3.6e9
2.7e9
2.5e9
2.0e9
2.3e9
2.5e9
4.0e9
sidewall are 2.8 m and 2 m respectively. The calculation zone is taken as 30 m width and 30 m height. The
excavation process of the tunnel is simulated by one
step. The classification of materials is shown in Fig.1
and the mesh model is seen in Fig. 2. The boundary
conditions are given as follows: the bottom margin is
fixed in horizontal and vertical, two sides are fixed
in horizontal and acted the horizontal component of
the design geostress, and the top margin is acted the
vertical stress. Material parameters of rock masses are
listed in Table 1.
As displayed in Table 2, 500 m, 1000 m and 1500 m
are chosen as the design depths of the tunnel respectively; therefore, three sets of geostress were obtained
by Equation 1 to study the influence of geostress on
the results of numerical simulation.
Polar decomposition module and solar decomposition module in LDEAS were applied respectively to
597
where d is the component of the corresponding displacement of the surrounding rock masses, h is the
depth, a and k are the regression coefficients.
3.2
598
Polar module
Solar module
Sidewalls shrinkage
Floor heave
Roof caving
0.475
0.699
0.442
0.216
0.423
0.326
REFERENCES
4 CONCLUSION
Deformations of a tunnel with three different designed
depths after excavation were analyzed and compared through using polar decomposition module and
solar decomposition module respectively included in
LDEAS1.0. The results show that there exist similarities and dissimilarities in two large deformation
analysis modules. The similarities include: (1) the
maximum value of floor heave, roof caving and sidewall shrinkage represent a positive linear relationship
with the depth, and (1) the rate of floor heave is largest.
There are two dissimilarities, which include the following: (1) the mount of deformations of the same
model calculated by the polar decomposition module
Brown, E.T. & Hock E. 1978. Technical note trends in relationships between measured in-situ stress and depth. Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. and Geomech 15(3):211215.
Biot, M.A. 1965. Mechanics of incremental deformations.
New York: Johnwiley.
Guo, Z.H., 1980. Nonlinear Elasticity. Beijing: China Science Press.
Chen, Z.D. 2000. Rational Mechanics. Chongqing:Chongqing
Publication.
Li, P. 1991. The updated co-moving coordinate formulation
for the nonlinear large deformation finite element analysis and application. Ph.D. Dissertation. Beijng: China
University of Mining & Technology.
He, M. C et al. 2007. Software system for large deformation mechanical analysis of soft rock engineering at
great depth. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering 26 (05): 934.
Guo, H.Y et al. 2009. Comparison between two different
definite deformation theorems. Journal of Heilong Jiang
Institute of Scinece and Technology 19(2): 198201.
Truesdell, C. & Noll, W. 1965. Nonlinear field theories of
mechanics. New York: Springer Press.
599
ABSTRACT: This paper describes longwall numerical model of Tabas Coal Mine (Iran) by using commercial
code FLAC3D . The coal seam was modeled as strain softening material and its parameters were established by
calibrating separate test pillar models to common empirical pillar strength formulas. The longwall panel and the
intersection of Main-Entry and tailgate were modeled separately. For simulating gob behavior, bulk modulus
updating method, as a function of vertical strain, was used. Roof and floor remained elastic during all steps and
caving was modeled by replacing coal zones with gob material in the panel. Induced vertical stresses of two
models in two cross sections, in the middle of pillar and near tailgate, were investigated. The optimum size of
barrier pillar was determined by avoiding superposition of stress concentrations which are produced by panel
and Main-Entry extraction, on pillar in the direction of mining.
INTRODUCTION
bleeder end of the panel, and (3) roof-to-floor convergence in the gateroads and face area. The process of
caving is that a stratum sags downward as soon as it is
undermined.
When the downward sagging of the stratum exceeds
the maximum allowable limit, it breaks and falls.
(Peng, 2006)
Compaction of the fractured, particulate material,
called the gob, created by the caving of the roof in the
area from where the coal has been extracted, requires
attention in the numerical modeling of longwall mining. With continuing extraction, the upper strata and
the floor converge and gradually the vertical load on
601
NUMERICAL MODELING
Modeling was carried out with a widely used numerical software program called FLAC3D which is used
for stress and deformation analyses around surface and
underground structures opened in both soil and rock.
The software is based on the finite difference numerical method with the Langragian calculation method.
FLAC3D is commercially available software that is
capable of modeling in three dimensions (Unver &
Yasitli, 2006).
Modeling of the longwall panel is performed in
eight steps which are described as follows:
Determination of material properties,
Formation of the model geometry and meshing and
allotting the material behaviors to the model,
Applying boundary and initial conditions,
Initial running of the program and monitoring the
model response,
Excavation of tailgates and running the model to get
in equilibrium,
Consecutive coal seam extraction and caving the top
stratum,
Re-evaluation of the model and necessary modifications,
Obtaining the results.
2.1
602
Table 1.
Layer
Unit
MPa Kg/m3
Coal
23 0.5
MC interface 23 0.5
Roof & Floor 32 4.7
1600
2600
E
K
G
GPa GPa MPa
0.29 3
0.3 3.5
2.38 1.16
2.91 1.34
A FLAC3D model of a single test pillar was developed to establish the most suitable combination of coal
MCSS parameters for replicating pillar strength values
based on empirical formulas.
Table 1 presents the materials properties using in
present numerical modeling where C is cohesion, E is
the Elastic modulus, is Poissons ratio, is friction
angle and is density.
Figure 4 shows the FLAC3D model of the test pillar
in a room and pillar environment.
The model is loaded along the top boundary using a
constant displacement of 2 107 m per FLAC step.
For all pillar test simulations, the friction and dilation angles are held constant at 30 and 15 degrees,
respectively.
Three pillar width-to-height (W/H) ratios (1, 2 and
3) were modeled. For each W/H ratio, the numerical
model was run with two different combinations of peak
cohesion, 0.35 and 0.4, and a cohesion drop rate. The
strengths established from the test pillar models were
plotted against the empirical pillar strength formulas
in Figure 5 for the cohesion drop rate of 3 MPa per
603
604
between the barrier pillar and Main-Entry. This dimension resulting by numerical modeling is in a good
agreement with SME suggestion.
4 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
In this study, a three dimensional longwall model of
Tabas Coal Mine was developed using FLAC3D to
determine the optimum dimension of barrier pillar.
For more realistic simulation of coal behavior
Mohr-Coulomb Strain Softening constitutive law was
used and the parameters of it were determined by
back-analyses according to two empirical formulas
(Bienawski & Salamon formulas).
Longwall panel and junction of Main-Entry and
tailgate were modeled separately. Modulus updating
method which updates bulk modulus of gob zones
by changing in vertical strain was used for modeling the gob region behavior. This method does not
consider caving of roof but it just replaces properties
of excavated zones by the gob ones to simulate compaction and hardening phenomenon. Numerical results
showed that the crucial part of barrier pillar is the middle part of it and by trying to prevent any superposition
605
ABSTRACT: Inbetween the many factors, which will influence the distribution character of initial stress,
the slope angle of the mountain is important one. Therefore, stress distribution in mountains under different
slope angles with considering different lateral coefficients of initial stress is studied using numerical method.
The results show that the actual initial vertical stresses are usually 25 times of the gravitational stresses for
some zones. The next part of this paper shows the remarkably different plastic zones distributions after excavating
a cavern under different slope angles. Ultimately, a suggestive advice to determine the fitting areas of the in-situ
stress is proposed.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Generally situation
1.2
ESTABLISHMENT OF COMPUTING
MODEL I AND MODEL II
At the design stage of hydropower project stress measurements are conducted, then the numerical method
to fit out the initial stress field in the project areas will
to do. But under normal circumstances the measured
data are very limited, which poses discrete charater
generally. So the stress field what we get are often
not reliable. Many underground cavern of the station
are located in the mountain valleys and the initial stress
field in the project area are strongly effected by mountain slope angle. Therefore, the study on the effect of
slope angle to stress field is an important item.
2.1 Model I
According to conventional idea, a vertical initial stress
in a point should be by = h. h is the direct overburden
depth, is the rock density. But in fact it is not the
case for a mountain area. For study the question two
types of computational models are established. Model
I includes a hill slope area with different angles of it;
model II is a ground area with horizontal surface (no
angle).
The hill slope areas with slope angles of 30 , 45 ,
60 are formed respectively. The computation scope
incluedes the hill peak on right border (Figure 1). The
coordinates x and y y directions are shown in the figure
and z direction is perpendicular to the paper.
Models range is shown in the figure as well. A
cavern will be examined and the distance is about
460 m from the corner of slope. The depth of cavern roof is 200 meters. Three survey lines near the
cavern AB, CD and EF are seted for analysis (Figure 2). The thickness of z direction for model is of 30
meters, and the plane-strain stress state is assumed for
computation.
2.2 Model II
For comparison the another model with horizontal surface(no slope) is established as well (Figure 3). The
caverns depth is the same as model I and three survey
lines A B , C E and E F (Figure 4) are set up also.
The lateral pressure coefficients of initial stress in
the x direction are taken as Kx = 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 2.0,
2.5 respectively.
607
Figure 1. Model I.
4
Figure 2. Location of survey line AB, CD, EF.
608
Table 1.
Categories
Density
(m3 )
Compressive
strength
(mpa)
Deformation
modulus
(Mpa)
Poissons
ratio
Cohesion
(Mpa)
Friction
coefficient
III Class
2.65
80
30
0.20
1.5
0.85
Table 2.
Joint set
Length
(m)
Width
(cm)
Spacing
(m)
1
2
8
8
10
10
2
2
Joint set
Dip angle
( )
Azimuth
( )
Angle between
joint strike and
powerhouse axis( )
1
2
8
8
10
10
2
2
609
2. The rock stability around cavern will be very differentfor two models, when the slope angle is large,
the damage zone of the rock for model I is much
larger than that of model II, and the distribution
of former is a very asymmetrical one, the damage
degree for the side wall near the hill surface is more
serious than the other side wall.
3. In a slope with greater angle of the mountain, the
stress distribution is more complex, every component of initial stress is related to the nearby peak of
the mountain. The more steep of slope is, the more
effect is. The simulation scope for fitting stress
field should include the mountain peak as much
as possible.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of P. R. China (No. 90510019
and 50579033)
REFERENCES
Figure 8. Damage zone around cavern for Model II
(Kx = 1.5 slope angle = 60 ).
CONCLUSION
610
ABSTRACT: The research of three-dimensional initial in-situ stresses field in mine can put forward the suggestion on the production design of coal mine and the prediction of coal and gas outbursts. Based on the geological
materials about Tian-fu San-hui No.1 mine in Chongqing, the 3D FEM model is built, and the numerical modeling of initial in-situ stresses field is finished with the elastoplastic finite element method by use of ANSYS
program. According to the modeling results, the characters of the in-situ stresses both of San-hui No.1 mine and
K1 coal seam are analyzed. The study shows that by building the geological model from the earths surface, the
influence of terrain on initial in-situ stresses field has been studied; the coal and rock mass in Sanhui No.1 mine is
under complex compressive stresses, both of the maximum principal stress 1 and the minimum principal stress
3 are mainly the textural stress at horizontal direction, the middle principal stress 2 is mainly the overburden
pressure, and there is an affinity between the direction of the principal stress and the tectonization of this area.
It also indicate that the three-dimensional initial in-situ stresses field could be obtained legitimately by finite
element modelling.
INTRODUCTION
611
Complex
/
rock
L/m kg m3
E/GPa
C/MPa ( )
T1 f
P2 c
P2 l
K1
P1 m3+4
P1 m1+2
4.984
19.104
28.937
1.000
34.706
31.955
0.25
0.29
0.27
0.33
0.22
0.19
11.25
13.86
20.68
0.80
20.56
21.65
42
46
57
3
56
90
2597
2651
2622
1420
2689
2427
26.5
27.6
22.3
20.0
24.2
25.4
2.2
612
613
3.2
614
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
value/MPa
x (separation angle of
principle stress and x)/( )
y (separation angle of
principle stress and y)/( )
z (separation angle of
principle stress and z)/( )
28.86
26.4
11.24
104.8
16.96
68.6
79.64
16.9
76.8
65.9
82.0
154.5
CONCLUSIONS
(1) Based on the 3-Dcomputational model, threedimensional distribution of ground stress field can
be easily got from finite element simulation for
initial stress field in the mining area, and it provides a reference frame for further potential risk
analysis and forecast of coal and gas outburst of
mining area as well as design and construction of
mine workings.
(2) The calculation results shows that all coal and rock
mass in San-hui No. 1 mine is under complex 3-D
compressive stress, 1 and 3 are mainly horizontal tectonic stress and 2 is mainly gravity stress,
and the direction of maximum principle stress is
closely related to geological structural movement
in this area.
(3) For accuracy is the most important point to numerical simulation, its necessary to estabilish a reasonable 3-D geological model and determine the
boundary condition so as to make the result of the
simulation approach the actural value as much as
possible.
(4) Because factors that influence the stress field are
complex, it is difficult to have a comprehensive
understand of the real conditon in the worksite.
Results of this paper show the general trend of
the distribution of in-situ stresses in San-hui No.1
mine, but the paper tries its best to improve the
accuracy as much as possible.
615
ABSTRACT: The anisotropic characteristics of stratified rock mass are considered by ubiquitous-joint model.
The FLAC3D software is used to analyze the deformation, failure and the displacement of the key monitoring
points of a tunnel passing through the stratified rock with different dip and inclination. The results show that
the effect of deformation and stability of rock mass varies with the dimensional orientation of structural planes.
When the inclination of rock stratum remains invariable, with the increase of dip angle of rock stratum, the
displacements around tunnel are of a decreasing trend. When the dip angle of rock stratum remain invariable,
with the increase of inclination of rock stratum, the displacements of rock surrounding in vault and floor had
fluctuated, the displacements of side wall had increased. The study has been played an important role to assure
the safety and quality of the tunnel and can be used further for the guiding of the similar tunnel construction.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, as the country gradually implementation of the strategy for the large scale development of
the western region and the Rising in Central China,
many great basic projects had been developed rapidly,
such as water conservancy and hydropower engineering, railway engineering and highway engineering
and so on. The tunnel has become an indispensable
part of the basic projects. Tunnel is concealed in the
mountain, so the engineering geology of underground
surrounding rock and the hydrogeological conditions
will directly affect the safety of tunnel construction.
The attitude of rock stratification has a direct relationship with stability of the tunnel, especially in stratified
rock mass. The stratified rock mass have significant
anisotropic characteristics not only for deformation
and strength properties, but also failure mechanism of
rock mass and is distinctly different from other rock
(Xian 1989a, b, Hoek 2000, c, Li 2001).
Studies show that mechanical properties of stratified rock mass are very complicated as it affected
by bedding plane of spatial morphology, mechanical
properties and joint properties together. Engineering
properties of stratified rock mass have great relation
with its attitude. In plane problems, they vary with the
dip of bedding plane (Zhang 1999a, b, Zhang 2006, c,
Mei 2008). The stratified rock mass in underground
engineering and slope engineering often represent
stratified anisotropy, with significant influence on
deformation and stability of rock mass. Therefore, the
study of structure plane of stratified rock mass effect
on stability of tunnel is particularly important. The
stability of tunnel surrounding rock varies with dip
617
618
Quartz schist
Weak plane
27.6
4.0
0.23
5.0
42
0.5
0.1
24
0.01
619
(1) When the inclination of rock stratum is 0 , the displacements of surrounding rock of six key monitoring points along with increase of the dip angle
of rock stratum have different degree reduced.
(2) When the inclination of rock stratum is 45 , along
with increase of the dip angle of rock stratum,
the displacements of surrounding rock of the key
monitoring point 1 are reduced after the first
increase and they are the maximum when the dip
angel of rock stratum is 45 . The displacements
of surrounding rock of the key monitoring point 2
are increased after the first decrease and they are
the minimum when the dip angel of rock stratum is
60 . The displacements of surrounding rock of the
key monitoring point 3 and 5 are reduced after the
first increase and they are the maximum when
the dip angel of rock stratum is 45 . The displacements of surrounding rock of the key monitoring
point 4 and 6 are always reduced.
(3) When the inclination of rock stratum is 90 , along
with increase of the dip angle of rock stratum,
the displacements of surrounding rock of the key
monitoring point 1, 3, 4 and 5 are reduced after
the first increase and they are the maximum when
the dip angel of rock stratum is 45 . The displacements of surrounding rock of the key monitoring
point 2 and 6 are always reduced.
In summarize, effect of the dip angle of rock stratum
on displacement of surrounding rock around tunnel is
variable with the inclination of rock stratum. When the
inclination of rock stratum remains invariable, the displacements of surrounding rock around tunnel have a
decreasing trend. The change of the dip angle of rock
stratum had a most effect on displacement of surrounding rock of central floor, displacement of surrounding
rock of central vault the second, displacement of
surrounding rock of side wall the least.
3.2
620
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was financially supported by the Doctor Initial Foundation of Changjiang River Scientific Research Institute (No.CKSQ2010085) and
Scientific Research Foundation of Changjiang River
Scientific Research Institute (No.CKSF2010018).
Both supports are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
4
CONCLUSIONS
621
ABSTRACT: Hydraulic fracturing had been a widely applied method of measuring stresses in a drilled borehole. During the test procedure, induced forces due to the interaction between fluid flow and rock blocks
deformation overcome the in-situ least stress. Thus the coupled hydromechanical behavior of rocks having
pre-defined joints should be considered. In order to model the process, an interactive computer program was
developed. Through a numerical analysis, at first, fluid flow forces were calculated by Extended Pressure (EP)
method. Then the coupled influence of fluid on mechanical behavior of rock blocks is included using Discontinuous Deformation Analysis (DDA). The procedure was used to simulate hydraulic tests on pre-existing
fractures (HTPF). Finally having pressure-time records, the inverse calculation of in-situ stresses are compared
with conventional method. The results have a reasonable coincidence.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Fluids and rock fractures
HYDROMECHANICAL BEHAVIOR
623
which uses the first order of derivatives of h. Imagine an irregular and rectangular finite difference grids
(Fig. 1) in which S is taken as A2 A4 A6 A8 . The Eq. (4) in
finite difference form is (Bardet J.P. & Tobita T. 2002):
The mathematical derivations that establish the equivalence between the modified EP boundary value problem and the original free surface problem can be found
in Brezis et al. (1978) and Oden & Kikuchi (1980). The
finite difference equations for unconfined problem,
624
where is the fluid density, g the gravitational acceleration, a the fracture aperture and is the dynamic
viscosity of the fluid. For non-parallel smooth fractures an aperture can be calculated for an equivalent
smooth parallel plate conduit that offers the same resistance to flow as the arbitrary shaped conduit. The
equivalent aperture is given by (Barbossa R. E. 1990):
2.2
2D Formulation of DDA
in which
where pm
i,j represents the value of pi,j at the mth iteration. In general, in contrast to the other methods, the
SOR algorithm performs fewer operations as it does
not require the reforming and inversion of a tangential
matrix.
2.1.2 Hydraulic conductivity of jointed rock
It is mentioned that the hydraulic conductivity due to
the joints is much larger than that of the rock matrix.
Since the permeability of the rock matrix is negligible,
only the facture conductivity is considered in computations. The hydraulic conductivity k, of the fracture
625
626
2.3
The hydromechanical interaction includes the simultaneous solutions of motion equations (19) and flow
equation (10). Since the hydraulic conductivity varies
with blocks displacement, the global load vector
change with fluid pressures which results in new values for load vector. The solution of such procedure is
through a time marching process.
The technique applied for the flow analysis is an
iterative extended pressure method as described before
for confined and unconfined flow problems, which
is then interwoven with a time marching process of
stress/deformation analysis. So in each time step,
through the updating of stiffness and conductivity
matrices, the conductivity changes can be included
in reevaluation of load vectors. The time stepping
continues until a desired convergence is reached.
3 PROGRAM VERIFICATION
To demonstrate the validity of the hydraulic model for
networks of fractures for both confined and unconfined problems, a comparison with the experimental
Table 1. The comparison between measured (Ollos 1963) and calculated intersection heads.
Node
Calculated
Measured
(Ollos, 1963)
Node
Calculated
Measured
(Ollos, 1963)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
290
282.57
274.87
266.38
255.64
237.5
247.76
249.98
290
282.7
275.26
267.51
259.34
251.54
251.79
252.19
290
282.96
275.95
269.08
290
281.5
275.6
267.3
254.2
237.5
245.3
251.5
290
282.2
276.2
269.2
260.8
252.8
253.8
254.4
290
282.3
276.4
270.1
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
262.64
257.55
255.65
255.21
290
283.19
276.52
270.2
264.62
260.36
258.05
257.36
290
283.28
276.73
270.6
265.26
261.21
258.86
258.11
263.7
259.4
258
257.2
290
283.7
276.8
270.5
266
262.3
260.5
259.8
290
282.7
276.7
271.4
266.7
263.1
261.6
261
627
HTPF ANALYSIS
The HTPF method is the only in situ stress determination method at great depth, where the borehole doesnt
have to be assumed to be vertical and perpendicular to
a principal in situ stress component. Instead of inducing new fractures in intact rock, the HTPF method is
based on the re-opening of existing fractures found
in the borehole wall and thereby determining the normal stress across the fracture plane. First, according to
the log cores, an interval of the borehole which has a
specific joint, i.e. any weakness plane like a bedding
plane, is chosen (the geometry of the fracture must
be planar) to be attacked by hydraulic fracturing test.
The method requires a fairly large number of tests.
628
SH
SH Mpa
dS H /dz
Mpa/m
Sh
Mpa
dS h /dz
Mpa/m
( )
0.0184
0.0189
0.0175
0.0184
0.0176
0.0187
0.0188
0.0185
0.0174
0.0188
2.88
2.54
2.50
2.45
2.49
2.49
2.61
2.63
2.47
2.63
0.0102
0.0007
0.0004
0.0012
0.0013
0.0001
0.00004
0.0001
0.0003
0.0001
1.42
1.54
1.57
1.59
1.61
1.57
1.58
1.58
1.66
1.55
0.0167
0.0224
0.0259
0.0218
0.0198
0.0203
0.0196
0.0207
0.0203
0.0202
39
44
44
43
41
46
38
43
42
39
4.2
Numerical simulation
CONCLUSION
A new proposal for stress-flow calculations is presented with the aim of slower convergence rate for
large problems. The hydromechanical process of rock
masses are modeled using Extended Pressure method
coupled with Discontinuous Deformation Analysis.
The algorithm is verified with previous experimental
and numerical results. Then a back analysis is implemented through applying the obtained in situ values of
629
630
ABSTRACT: Release of the in situ stresses is often the most relevant action in underground projects. Several
different field methods are available to measure the in situ state of stress. Some allow the evaluation of the
complete state of stress at a given point, while others only supply a single stress component. The paper presents
a global methodology for evaluation of the most likely natural stress field from in situ test results. Some
case histories are presented as examples of application. One example deals with the case of an underground
powerhouse where high horizontal stresses were determined by overcoring tests, which were later confirmed by
flat jack tests performed during the construction of access adits. A second one considers the analysis of a testing
programme where overcoring and flat jack tests were both performed during the initial testing programme in
different locations. The last one refers to the results of overcoring tests in the vicinity of existing underground
caverns, which have to be adequately considered in order to estimate the natural state of stress.
INTRODUCTION
631
632
633
Figure 5. Numerical model (2D) with the terrain topography before and after the river eroding effect.
3.2
The Bemposta II hydroelectric scheme lies downstream from Picote II on the Douro River. The repowering project includes a new hydraulic circuit and
a new powerhouse, which is an 80 m high and 30 m
diameter shaft.
Test measurements for design of the excavations
took advantage of the existence of adits used during construction of the existing powerhouse. In one
of these adits, two locations were selected (Figure 4):
location 1, at the river bed level, at a depth of 95 m,
120 m from the river axis;
location 2, at a level 20 m higher than location 1, at
a depth of 130 m, 225 m from the river axis.
The adit cross section at location 1 is normal to the
river and at location 2 is parallel to the river.
At location 1, three small flat jack tests were performed on the adit wall and three overcoring tests were
performed in a borehole STT1, perpendicular to the
adit wall and dipping 45 . At location 2, three flat jack
and two overcoring tests were performed. Borehole
STT2 for the overcoring tests was also perpendicular
to the wall and dipped 45 .
The main factor that affects the in situ stress distribution within the rock mass is the topography of the
river valley. Besides, the tests were done close to the
adit, which affects the local stress field. Furthermore,
two different types of tests were used and they were
performed at two distinct locations. Estimation of the
stress field for design of the underground openings
requires, therefore, a global interpretation model that
integrates all the information.
The global interpretation method presented in section 2 was used for calculation of the in situ stresses,
with the following additional assumptions:
the rock mass is continuous, linear elastic, homogeneous and isotropic, with = 27 kN/m3 ;
634
The global interpretation method presented in section 2 was used for calculation of the in situ stresses,
with the following additional assumptions:
Figure 7. State of stress along the direction perpendicular
to the river around the new powerhouse.
the rock mass is continuous, linear elastic, homogeneous and isotropic, with = 27 kN/m3 ;
the initial in situ stress corresponds to the situation before excavation of the existing powerhouse
caverns;
plane strain conditions.
For interpretation of the three tests of borehole S13
a 2D mathematical model was used, that represents
a cross section of the existing powerhouse caverns.
Figure 9 shows the FLAC mesh, where these caverns
and borehole S13 are represented.
Application of this procedure to the tests carried out
in borehole S13 of the Salamonde II project, gave the
following results: k1 = 0.90 k2 = 1.43 and k3 = 1.05.
The high vertical stresses that were calculated (1.43
times the overburden weight) may be due to the vicinity
635
CONCLUDING REMARKS
636
G.S. Su
College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
ABSTRACT: The changes of in-situ stress magnitude and directions caused by the excavation disturbance
effect of pilot tunnel are usually neglected. An inversion regression method called region second fine in-situ
stress field is proposed. Firstly, the surrrouding stress field of pilot tunnel was inversed finely by multiple linear
regression inversion anlaysis in the local mesh model. In order to obtain the entire stress distribution of damsite
region, the inversion analysis method of second stress field for the whole damsite region was presented, which
combined the ground abrasion process of strata and support vector machine model. Considering the abrasion
process of the strata, the second stress value of measuring points is calculated in the entire mesh model. Numerial
results of real project indicate that the in-situ stress field obtained by second fine inversion method fits for the
distribution law of V-shaped vally generally.
INSTRUCTION
637
2
2.1
2.3
638
No.
Data
Dip
Data
Dip
Data
Dip
1
2
3
4
5
8.27
6.98
6.55
8.28
7.71
38.5
35.8
23.9
49.4
68.5
2.29
2.66
3.68
2.65
2.67
37.9
46.9
15.9
12.2
17.9
1.21
1.13
2.55
1.35
0.8
29.1
20.6
60
38
11.6
stress field of pilot tunnel was inversed finely by multiple linear regression inversion anlaysis in the local
mesh model. A fine sub-model for analyzing excavation effect of tunnel is established in a relatively small
area and stress concentration or relaxation, change of
principal stress direction that caused by excavation
could be remedied accurately.
Meanwhile, in order to obtain the entire stress distribution of damsite region, the inversion analysis
method of second stress field for the whole damsite
region was presented, which combined the ground
abrasion process of strata and SVM. Considering the
abrasion process of the strata, the second stress value
of measuring points is calculated in the entire mesh
model, the relationship between fine calculated stress
and second calculated stress is established by SVM.
At last, the whole region stress field distribution is
regressed.
Flowchart is as follows (Fig. 6).
One large hydropower station is located in the middle and lower reaches of Lancang River in southwest
China. The river reaches in dam site has a length of
about 2.5 km and the river direction is S35 E. The river
valley is V-shaped with strong mountains on both sides
and well-developed gullies. The left side of the valley
has an average slope angle of 45 below elevation of
850 m and a width of 700 m vertical to the slope. The
slope by the side of the Kanjie River is commonly
5 15 above 770 m in elevation, and 35 in average
below. Topography in dam site is shown in Fig. 1.
3.2 Local fine inversion
Five stress test results (Table 1) are used as data value
for local fine inversion in the two pilot tunnels located
in the two sides of the damsite (Fig. 7).
Data is obtained from in-situ measurement point
in the range where stress redistribution occurs. So a
model of 60 m 40 m 60 m in pilot tunnel segment
is established to calculate the redistributed stress state
for pilot excavation, and the stress from numerical
639
No.
Data
Dip
Data
Dip
Data
Dip
1
2
3
4
5
10.5
5.8
6.8
7.2
6.5
48
41
36
59
43
3.5
3.4
4.3
2.8
3.1
20
10
35
26
25
2.4
2.1
3.5
1.4
0.4
16
28
36
12
20
Table 4.
Boundary
Txx /102 m
Txy /102 m
G/m.s2
Value
36
1020
610
No.
Data
Dip
Data
Dip
Data
Dip
1
2
3
4
5
10
9
8
7
6
50
40
30
20
10
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
40
20
0
15
30
2
1
0
1
2
50
30
0
20
30
According to the least square method, 3 regression coefficients L are obtained. Then regression stress
of any point can be calculated by that superposition stress values derived from numerical calculation. By Formula (2), regression coefficient matrix
L = [0.42, 0.55, 0.34]T is obtained. Real in-situ stress
of measured point is calculated as in Table 3.
3.3 Regional second inversion
In order to simulate the formation process of physiognomy, the process of erosion formation with top-down
excavation calculation is simulated, and the quadratic
nonlinear inversion of stress filed is made by SVM.
During the process of inversion of stress filed, measuring the stress value is regarded as entry vector,
the boundary conditions of tectonic stress field as
the output vector and the nonlinear mapping is established between them by SVM. Analysis of the regional
geological setting shows that G(weight), Txx (the compression of X) and Txy (shear structure of level X) have
remarkable effect on modern stress field of damsite.
In order to build the learning and testing sample of
SVM, scope values of each factor, shown in Table 4,
are identified.
The boundary conditions and gravity of each group
are applied to the calculation model in the order of
weight, compressional structure in X orientation and
shear structure in X orientation. Incorporate them into
the numerical simulation software for balance calculation, shown in Fig. 9. Then the process of surface
erosion are calculated and simulated by excavating
the surface layer and finally denude to the present site
topography.The stress in test positions can be obtained,
and is taken as input vectors of SVM samples.
Finally, each measured stress value has been used
as input vector of trained SVM model; the specific
values of various components of ground stress field
are obtained (Table 5).
640
Boundary
Txx /102 m
Txy /102 m
G/m.s2
Value
4.5
16.2
9.7
Figure 12. The maximum principal stress in plane.
The boundary conditions and acceleration of gravity obtained from SVM model were put into numerical simulation software and in-situ stress field of
hydropower plant region is got.
is about 1015 MPa. The maximum value of the minimum principal stress 3 of hydropower intake slope
(shown as dashed line) is about 0.1 MPa, 3 of the
bottom of V-shaped valley is about 0.41 MPa.
3.4
Results
641
CONCLUSIONS
(1) Numerial results of real project indicate that the insitu stress field obtained by second fine inversion
method fits for the distribution law of V-shaped
vally generally. The orientation of maxmium principal stress parellells with the dip direction of
vally, magnitude is also in accordance with the
characteristic of real in-situ stress.
(2) Because the disturbance effect on in-situ stress
field by excavation is considered adequately in
local fine inversion, the ultimate initial in-situ
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is supported by Reserch fund of State Key
Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection (Chengdu University of Technology),
under grant NO. SKLGP2009Z015, and supported
by Scientific Reserch Fund of SiChuan Provincial
Education Department (NO. 09ZC026).
This work is also supported by the Open Research
Fund of State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil
642
ABSTRACT: The combined support technology of prestressed bolt and cable truss has been widely used
in coal mines, but the mechanical interaction between cable truss and surrounding rock hasnt been studied
systematically. In this paper, the development process of truss support system is briefly discussed, which is from
bolt truss to cable truss, then to high prestress cable truss. The support structure and advantages of cable truss are
analyzed thoroughly. Based on the coupling relationship between the high prestress cable truss and the roof rock,
the mechanical model of cable truss is built, and the calculation formulas of anchoring force and pre-tightening
force are drawn out. The numerical simulation and field observation results of Xinsan mine in Fengfeng Coal
Group showed that the design scheme of combined support system including high prestress cable truss was
reasonable and effective.
1
INTRODUCTION
of Mining and Technology (Beijing) has been dedicating to the improvement and optimization of both the
new-type connector and cables stiffness and strength,
and has achieved a series of profitable results.
643
Where F = anchoring force, N; g(x) = the nonuniform distributed load in plumb direction on inclined
part of cable truss, N; q(x) = the load horizontal part
of cable truss, N; f1 = friction coefficient between the
inclined part of cable truss and rock; a = half length
of the horizontal part of cable truss, m; b = inclined
length of cable truss, m; = acute angle between
inclined cable and horizontal direction; = ratio of
horizontal load to plumb load.
Whether the truss system plays effective support
role depends on the tensile strength of truss cable
644
Figure 4. The broken components of the traditional supporting system of single bolt and cable. 1 broken steel
cable; 2 locker; 3 cable plate; 4 damaged bolt plate;
5 destructive bolt anchors.
645
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Work is financially supported by National Basic
Research Program of China under Grant No.
2010CB226802, and the Scientific Research Foundation for the Returned Overseas Chinese Scholars
(20071108). The authors would like to thank the
technicians of Xinsan coal mine for the practice.
REFERENCES
Kang, Hongpu & Wang, Jinhua 2007. Rock bolting theory and
complete technology for coal roadways. Beijing: China
Coal Industry Publishing House.
Wahab Khair A. How to cope with cutter roof problem. Paper
presented at 11th International Conference on Ground
Control in Mining. The University of Wollongong, NSW,
1992.
Yuan, Liang 2007. Control of surrounding strata in deep mine
roadway and practice in Huainan area. Beijing: China
Coal Industry Publishing House.
646
ABSTRACT: When interpreting results from stress measurements using stress relief techniques, one fundamental assumption is that the rock behaves elastically. This assumption may not be verified if the stress level to
which the recovered core is submitted surpasses its strength. Local shear or tensile yielding may occur prior or
concurrently to the stress relief operation. In either case, means of identifying this yielding must be available in
order for the measurement to be rejected or treated with caution. Using an axisymetric numerical model with
a strain softening constitutive law, the drilling and stress relief drilling operations associated with the modified
doorstopper stress measurement technique are simulated to generate strain recovery curves which are then analyzed in order to detect non elastic behavior. The simulated curves are compared to actual experimental curves
obtained in the lab or in the field.
INTRODUCTION
2 NUMERICAL MODEL
Since failure is obviously present when core discing
occurs, elasto-plastic numerical analyses which simulate the coring operation in a rock were performed. As
non linear stress-strain relationships are involved, the
results are stress-path dependent and the coring operation must be entirely modeled. For this reason Flac2D
from Itasca was chosen, since it has the ability to easily null elements in the path of the drill bit to simulate
647
Boundary conditions
648
649
Figure 6. Stress recovery curves for elastic and plastic analyses with shear failure in the core with r = 140 MPa and
a = 62 MPa applied stresses.
bottom results from this localized failure. In an elastic model, the radial stress at the hole bottom would
be 143 MPa and the failed model gives a radial stress
value of 109 MPa (a 24% drop).
As in the tensile failure mode, this has a major effect
on the interpretation of rock stress measurements
using the doorstopper technique. As will be shown
in the next figures, theses stresses become locked at
the core surface where the modified doorstopper cell
would be bonded.
Figure 5b shows the core after drilling to an l/r
ratio of 47.2%. Another shear cone develops with a
geometry similar to the first, after sufficiently high
compressive stresses have built up away from the previous shear zone. This previous shear zone causes
a stress drop in its vicinity because of plastic flow
resulting in decreasing compressive strength. Figure
5c shows the core once drilled over an l/r ratio of
450% with the shear cones regularly spaced.
Figure 6 shows the stress recovery curve which in
the plastic analysis never enters the tensile regime,
explaining the absence of the characteristic peak
shown by the elastic model. The plastic model also
shows residual compressive tresses reaching values of
11 MPa remain locked in the core which again, will
affect the estimation of stresses from the recovered
strains.
Figure 7 shows the strain recovery curves which
follow closely the shape of the stress recovery curve.
The initial stress and strain recovery rates are similar
in the elastic and plastic analyses. The overall recovered strains in the plastic analysis are lower than in the
elastic reference case because of lower initial stresses
at the borehole bottom and because residual stresses
remain locked in the core. This would lead to an underestimation of the stresses assuming the results are
interpreted using an elastic approach. Fortunately, the
availability of strain recovery curves using the modified doorstopper technique would allow identifying
the abnormal shape of the curve and the measurement
would be rejected or interpreted with caution. Such an
example from actual field measurements is given in
figure 8 where the absence of the characteristic peak
prior the final plateau indicates plastic shear failure
650
respectively. Due to plastic creep strain, a stress redistribution takes place during stress relief which in turn
causes residual stresses to develop at the measurement points once the stress relief drilling is completed.
The other side effect of residual stresses is that, with
time, they will eventually relax, causing further damage to the rock. This phenomenon may be one of the
contributing mechanisms in a stress estimation technique called anelastic strain recovery (ASR) where
rock cores retrieved from their in situ environment
are instrumented to measure a delayed (visco-elastic)
strain response. Barr and Hunt (1999) had shown that
cores retrieved at depth showed longer relaxation times
than cores that had been loaded in the laboratory with
stresses of similar magnitudes as found at depth. This
is consistent with the fact that when recovered in the
field, the cores will store residual stresses, whereas
when loaded in the laboratory under a uniform stress
state, no damage mechanism with failure localization
will contribute to the creation of zones with residual
stresses.
DISCUSSION
651
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Results from this paper suggest that using stress measurement techniques which permit continuous monitoring of strain recovery curves, like the modified
doorstopper techni que, allows an assessment of the
mechanical behavior of the rock during stress relief.
The abnormal shape of the recovery curve may indicate
tensile or shear failure prior or concurrently to stress
relief drilling. If the only failure mechanism is discing
and no tensile or shear plastic strains occur, the measurement may still be interpreted using conventional
methods. If the borehole bottom fails in shear prior to
stress relief drilling, or if any plastic strains superpose
to the elastic strains during the stress relief process,
it becomes very difficult if not impossible to separate
them and interpret the measurement correctly.
Although this has not been presented here, it is
believed that techniques based on strain measurements
around a borehole, such as the CSIR, CSIRO or SSPB
triaxial cells, would be more prone to showing a non
elastic behavior than the doorstopper technique since
the latter causes lower stress concentrations than what
is found around a borehole for a given stress state.
Barr, S.P. & Hunt, D.P. 1999.An elastic strain recovery and the
Kaiser Effect retention span in the Carnmenellis granite,
UK. Rock Mech Rock Eng. 32: 169193.
Blair, S.C. & Cook, N.G.W. 1998. Analysis of compressive
fracture in rock using statistical techniques: Part II. Effect
of microscale heterogeneity on macroscopic deformation.
Int J Rock Mech Min Sci. 35: 849861.
Corthsy, R. & Gill, D.E. 1990. A novel approach to stress
measurements in rocksalt. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci. 27:
95107.
Corthsy, R. & Leite, M.H, 2008. A strain-softening numerical model of core discing and damage. Int. J. of Rock
Mech. & Min. Sci. 45: 329350.
Hajiabdolmajid, V., Kaiser, P.K. & Martin, C.D. 2002. Modelling brittle failure of rock. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci. 39:
731741.
Leite, M.H., Corthsy, R. & Gill, D.E. 1998. Experimental
and numerical evaluation of stress redistribution in thick
walled rocksalt cylinders. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 35:
367383.
Obert, L. & Stephenson, D.E. 1965. Stress conditions under
which core discing occurs. Trans Soc Min Eng of AIME
238: 227235.
Stacey, T.R. 1982. Contribution to the mechanism of discing.
Journal of the South African Inst. of Min. and Met.: 83:
269274.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank NSERC grants #
OGP0089752 and # RGPIN194316 for supporting
652
ABSTRACT: Similar to other geological structures, bedding slip is thought to be determined by the in-situ rock
stress and the rock properties. Differently, the bedding slip (BS) in coal seam would lead to a higher proneness
of coal and gas outburst during the coal mining. Under the acknowledged regular pattern of in-situ rock stress,
a three-seam 3-D model by FLAC3D was established to recover the formation of bedding slip in this paper,
in which model of Mohr-Coulomb (MC) and strain hardening & softening (SS) were taken as a comparison,
variation of geologic factors, such as dip angle, strength, thickness and depth of rock stratum, were done. It
was verified that bedding slip formed by the application of horizontal in-situ stress and the difference of rock
strength. Localization band in coal-seam were found by SS model, which produced a stress concentration, lower
coal strength, more fissures for the gas aggregation and storage and these are thought to be the key factors for
the happening of coal and gas outburst. It was testified by simulation that localization is determined by the
in-situ horizontal stress and the rock strength. The conclusion is significant and encouraging to the prediction
and prevention of outburst in BS coal seam.
INTRODUCTION
MODELING OF BS BY FLAC3D
653
Table 1.
Seam
Roof
elastic 2500
Floor
elastic 2500
Coal-seam SS
1500
2000
2000
200
2000
2000
200
Modeling results
654
It is generally thought that tectonic coal is a necessity for coal and gas outburst. It can accumulate a
high potential energy with tectonic coal existed due
to stress concentration (Guo, 2003; Hu, 2008; Xian
et al., 2009). Plenty of fissures often appeared with
the tectonic coal. With large free volume and high permeability, it supplies more easy aggregation of gas in
coal-seam, which may increase the energy accumulation and development of fissures in coal-seam during
mining and lead to outburst (Ding et al., 1989; Guo,
2003; Jing, 2005; Hu, 2008; Xian et al., 2009). The
gas aggregation zone is the gas drainage target, which
is taken to prevent the danger of outburst.
Bedding slip in coal measure strata can produce
localization in the coal-seam with no distinct displacement between seams, which is different from
the general BS discussed in geology. Similar to the
simulation results, with condition variations, the localization of coal deformation appears in complex scene
and may form through a band or stayed at any stage
of the process. The BS caused the coal deformation,
called tectonic coal, or deformed coal sometimes, and
produced new fissures or developed old ones in the
coal-seam (Cao & Peng, 1995; Guo & Han, 1998; Wu,
1998; Ju & Wang, 2002; Ju et al., 2004). This is why
outburst often happened with bedding slip and appears
to be in much common properties. It might be efficient
way to outburst prediction and prevention to find the
655
3.2
Localization Analysis
CONCLUSIONS
656
coal and its necessity. The outburst spots distribution in coal-seam were found to correspond to
the localization zone. The conclusion is significant
and encouraging to the prediction and prevention
of outburst in BS coal seam.
Further study and model experiment should be carried out on the theoretical calculation and analysis
about the deformed localization, which might be a
bridge to engineering application of results here.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the collaborative
funding support from items of Chinese 973 project
(2009CB219603, 2006CB202209, 006CB202210,
2005CB221501), major items of Chinese national natural science foundation project (40874071, 50490271,
40672104), items of Chinese national support science
projects (2006BAK03B01), and China Postdoctoral
Science Foundation funded project (20080440442).
In particular we wish to thank Professor Zhaoping
MENG for his help on FLAC3D .
REFERENCES
Cao, Y.X. & Peng L.S. 1995. Basic types of coal seam faults
and their effect on controlling gas outburst zone. Journal
of China Coal Society 20(4):413418.
Chen, Z.G. 1986. Rock properties and its tectonic stress field.
Geology Publishing House. Beijing, China.
Ding, X.L., Yu, S.B. & Ding, Y.S., et al. 1989. Coal crushed
mechanism under gas seepage. Science in China (Series
E:Technological Sciences) 6:600607.
Guo, D.Y. & Han D.X. 1998. Research on the types of geological tectonic controlling coal-gas outburst. Journal of
China Coal Society 23(4):337341.
Guo, D.Y. & Han D.X. 2003. The stick-slip mechanism of
coal and gas outburst. Journal of China Coal Society
28(6):598602.
Harrison, J.P., Hudson J.A. & Carter J.N. 2007. Is there a
relation between the in situ principal stress magnitudes in
657
ABSTRACT: p value in Omoris law and the b value in G-R relation are probably the most broadly accepted
statistics in seismicity study. In this paper, we focused on the p and b values of two great earthquake sequences
occurred in China, the 1999 Chi-Chi Mw7.6 earthquake and the 2008 Wenchuan Ms8.0 earthquake. We calculated
both values of each sequence, analyzed some statistic characters of these values, compared them, and drafted
some features based on the calculation and comparison. By comparing the temporal variation of bvalue with
the moment cumulating, we found that almost each inflexion on the cumulative moment curve corresponded
to a sharp hop on the temporal fluctuation of b value. This might due to the fact that b value indicates stress
condition in the same region. Earthquake releases strain energy, causing stress to change. As a result, the temporal
undulation of b value may indicate the variation of stress condition. Furthermore, we attempted to explain the
different aftershock distribution pattern of the two earthquakes. The primary determinants, referring to geological
data, may be the trend and pattern of the fault system and stress state in the aftershock district.
1 INSTRUCTIONS
The Sep 21, 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, earthquake
(Mw7.6) is the largest inland earthquake that occurred
in Taiwan in the 20th century, while the May 12, 2008
Wenchuan earthquake (Ms8.0) is the most affected
earthquake to China in the beginning of the 21st century. In this study, we concentrated on two statistic
values p value and b value, whose variation respectively relates to the stress and energy changes during
aftershock period. We found some proof to define the
relations. Another focus was the spatial distribution
difference between the Chi-Chi and the Wenchuan
aftershock sequences. By geological data, we found
that different stress conditions might be the main
reason.
For their strong physical significances, p and b values are considered as two important parameters in
seismicity study. They first emerged as parameters
in formulas which are used to quantitatively describe
the seismic activity. The first formula provided to
characterize the aftershock activity is in the form of
n(t) t p (Omori, 1894). In this formula, the number of aftershocks n(t)has a relation with t (time from
the mainshock), and p value could be estimated as a
parameter through the fitting of relationship between
n(t) and t. Furthermore, this relation shows p value
as an indicator of energy release form. Gutenberg and
Richter (1944) showed a relation of log N versus M in
the form log N bM which first introduced b value.
In this formula, M is the earthquake magnitude and
N is the number of events with great magnitude than
a certain M . Because seismic energy released as elastic wave during an earthquake increased exponentially
659
660
661
DISCUSSION
662
REFERENCES
single large earthquake affect more on the determination of b value. b values change indicates variation of
stress, cumulative moment with time shows variation
of strain energy.
The strain energy release pattern might explain the
distribution form of the Wenchuan events, most energy
(about 98%) was released in the mainshock, creating
a huge ground rupture for more than 300 km long.
Most of the following events with magnitude greater
than Ms 5 occurred along the rupture, only 4 next to
the mainshock epicenter in the footwall. This pattern
suggested stress concentrated along the fault. More
evidence came from the geology data.
Longmen Shan region where the Wenchuan events
occurred was on the eastern margin of Tibetan plateau,
adjacent to the Sichuan basin.The characteristic topography there was relief of 5,000 km over distances of
50 km, steep ever seen anywhere on the other edge of
plateaus. Vestige of high stress was significant in this
region, a set of large NE trending faults parallel to
he eastern margin of Tibetan Plateau within a broad
zone of generally N-S shortening. Complex metamorphite mass indicated quondam deformation; thick fault
gouge added layer upon layer detected by well drilling
survey revealed several paleo-earthquakes on this fault
belt; slow slip rate demonstrated strain accumulation.
High strain state concentrated along the thrust belt.
Once a segment cracked, rupture expanded along the
fault, releasing most of the energy cumulated so long.
High strain concentration on a strip narrow fault belt
might be the best explanation for the distribution of
the Wenchuan aftershocks. Additionally, distribution
of the Chi-Chi events seemed to be normal, no more
reluctant.
CONCLUSION
663
Pezzo, D. and Bianco, F. 2003. Duration magnitude unsertainy due to seismic noise: Inferences on the temporal
pattern of G-R b- value at Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, Bull. Seism.
Soc. Am. 93, 18471853.
Weeks, J. and Lockner, D.1978. Change in b- value during
movement on cut surfaces in grante, Bull. Seism. Soc.
Am. 68, 333341.
Xu, C. et al. 2009. Applying the Coulomb failure function
with an optimally oriented plane to the 2008 Mw 7.9
Wenchuan earthquake triggering, Tectonophysics (2009),
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.09.019
664
Rui Yao
Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: We propose a new synthetic finite element regression analysis for the determination of the
geostress field in engineering construction areas. In this method, numerical simulation, regression analyses and
a small number of actual measurement stress data are combined in a synthetic evaluation of the geostress field.
Stepwise regression is first performed to screen the major factors determining the geostress field and to ensure the
completeness and significance of these factors. Bound regression (regression with constraints) is subsequently
performed to analyze quantitatively the influence of each major factor on the geostress field and thus ensure
the accuracy of the results. As an experimental case study, the proposed method was applied to analyses of the
formation of the initial geostress field in the Baojiadian coal field, and the results were found to agree well with
actual conditions.
INTRODUCTION
665
2.1 Approach
The formation of a tectonic stress field is influenced by many factors such as the tectonic process,
lithology of the geological mass, topography, geomorphology, and self-weight of the rock. Thus, the
geostress measurement data reflect the combination
of these factors. Regression inversion of the geostress
field is the modeling of the contributions of these factors. We propose here synthetic regression analysis
comprising four steps: (1) constructing a numerical
FEA model based on topographical/geological data;
(2) setting initial loads using potential contributing
factors (e.g. rock gravity, tectonic action) as undetermined factors; analyzing the FEA model and obtaining
multiple regression equations for the relationships
between the undetermined factors and measurement
data; (3) solving the coefficient for each undetermined
factor employing statistical methods; screening factors
and ensuring their completeness and significance by
stepwise regression; ensuring the validity and reliability of each selected factor through bound regression
analyses; (4) multiplying the initial load setup for each
undetermined factor by its coefficient, and feeding the
product back to FEA modeling; summing the results
into a geostress field with minimal residue from the
measurement data.
2.2
666
The estimation of can be determined employing the least-squares method, and the corresponding
residual sum of squares is expressed as
where
The minimum value of the following function (8)
can then be determined employing the Lagrangian
multiplier method.
U RY
.
U RU
If F > F (1, n i 1), H0 is rejected, and the factor
U should be added. Otherwise, it should not.
The above procedures are repeated to add new
factors or exclude already-included factors until no
addition or exclusion is possible.
where =
667
where
The principles and methods presented above, combined with a small number of geostress measurement
data, were applied to the analyses of the threedimensional geostress field in the Baodian coal field,
as well as analyses of the stability of associated mining
engineering.
3.1
Principal
Point stress
Computation model
1
1
1
2
2
2
Maximum principal
10.29
stress 1
Intermediate principal 8.21
stress 2
Minimum principal
4.02
stress 3
Maximum principal
10.29
stress 1
Intermediate principal 7.75
stress 2
Minimum principal
4.03
stress 3
92.1
5.70
339.2
75.3
183.5
13.5
91.9
5.3
281.5
84.6
182.0
1.0
Table 2.
668
Medium
Modulus of
elasticity (MPa)
Poissons
ratio
15
5500
9500
4700
1000
10000
17000
1650
0.30
0.23
0.20
0.21
0.36
0.21
0.20
0.35
where brh , bp1 , and bp2 were the assumed coefficients for the gravity (rh) and tectonic actions (P1 and
P2), which were to be determined by regression; ek
was the estimation of error.
3.3.2 Regression calculations
Twelve measurement data of stress (k in Table 3, negative values indicating compression and positive values
indicating tension) were used for the calculations. The
FEA-simulated values were calculated on the basis of
the models depicted in Tables 2a and 2b, as shown in
Table 3.
Degrees of Sum of
freedom
squares
Regression 2
Residue
9
Total
11
Mean
square
Stress
component
Measured
stressk (Mpa)
krh (Mpa)
kp1 (MPa)
kp2 (MPa)
Regressed
stress k
k k
x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
10.250
4.260
10.100
0.200
0.150
0.060
10.260
4.040
7.770
0.217
0.050
0.235
2.4516
2.4692
9.1809
0.0018
0.0095
0.0025
2.2812
2.3308
8.6082
0.0104
0.0200
0.0140
9.0669
1.9197
0.0030
0.0042
0.0074
0.0014
9.0418
1.9640
0.0351
0.0064
0.0041
0.0400
1.4515
6.6367
0.0040
0.0493
0.0047
0.0032
1.4760
6.9250
0.0521
0.0094
0.0050
0.0119
10.362
4.161
9.275
0.042
0.012
0.002
10.168
4.060
8.663
0.106
0.020
0.024
0.112
0.099
0.825
0.158
0.138
0.062
0.092
0.020
0.893
0.323
0.030
0.259
669
F-value
A multiple correlation coefficient (R) of 0.9615 indicated the significance of regression analyses, and
also that the rock gravity and tectonic actions were
indeed the major factors in the formation of the initial geostress field in the coal field. The two types
of factors contributed differently at different locations
(or depth), and thus formed a geostress field with a
pattern of features. Within the shallow region (above
400 m), the contribution of tectonic actions dominated and the contribution of gravity was secondary. In
contrast, in deeper regions (below 700 m), the contribution of gravity was dominant and the tectonic actions
secondary (Figure 4.).
With contributions from both gravity and tectonic
forces, the geostress field at the mining field was
clearly affected by the geological features including
the distribution of faults and coal seams, where the
values of the principal stresses decreased and the direction of a principal stress deviated, to certain degrees,
toward the normal of the fault or coal seam plane.
CONCLUSIONS
670
Haimson B C, Lee M, Chandler N, Martin D. 1993. Estimating the state of stress from subhorizontal hydraulic fractures at the underground research laboratory, Manitoba.
Int. J. rock Mech. Min. Sci. 30(7): 959964.
Hast N. 1969. The state of stress in the upper of the Earths
crust. Tectonophysics. 8:169211.
Jiang Z, Xu W, Shao J. 2002.Ann-Based 3-D BackAnalysis of
Initial Stress in Rock Masse. Journal of Hehai University.
30(3):5256.
Kong G & Cai M. 1996. Application of emulational method
base on neural network on analysis of geostress field.
Gold. 17(11):2427.
Ma X. 1989. Lithosphere Dynamics Atlas of China. Beijing,
Cartographic Publishing House, 2021.
Qi L, Cui W, Xiong K, Huang X. 2002. Application of Grey
Theory to Analysis of In-stress Field. Chinese Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Engineering. 20(10):15471550.
Qiu X, Li S, Li S. 2003. 3D Geostress regression analysis method and its application. Chinese Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering. 22(10):16131619.
Xie F, Cui X, Zhao J. 2004. Regional division of the recent tectonic stress field in China and its adjacent areas. Chinese
J Geophys. 47(4):654662.
Yang S, Chen L, Xie F. 2003. Study of The Modern Tecstress Filed of The China Mainland by The Method of
Regression Analyse and Numerical Simulate. Rock and
Soil Mechanics. 24(supp.2):357360.
Zang Y, Hu H. 1984. Trend analysis of residual Stress distribution in rock mass. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering.
4:3138.
Zhu S & Liu Y. 2001. Inversion procedure of initial stress
fields in rock masses based on genetic algorithm. Journal
of China Coal Society. 26(1):1317.
Zoback M. L. 1992. First and second order patterns of stress
in the lithosphere: the world stress map project. J.Geophys
Res. 97(B8):1170311728.
671
Prediction of the time dependent in-situ pressure of soft rock using multiple
regression approach, artificial neural network, and adaptive network-fuzzy
inference system
R. Doostmohammadi
Mining Engineering Department, Zanjan University, Zanjan, Iran
M. Moosavi
School of Mining Engineering, The University of Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: Soft ground is a non-linear material with time-dependent characteristics. It causes major problems of supporting both during construction and during the operational life of an underground excavation due
to swelling and squeezing phenomenon. Therefore, it is worth monitoring the swelling and squeezing behavior
of soft grounds in underground excavations. Compensation method is one of the most famous methods for
determining the in-situ pressure of such ground on support systems. The study presented herein aims to predict
the variant stress of concrete lining due to time dependent pressure of soft rock based on the closure of pine
distances before and after making the slots in compensation method. In order to establish predictive models,
statistical and soft computing techniques such as multiple regression approach (MRA), artificial neural network
(ANN) and adaptive network fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) were used, and prediction performances were
then analyzed.
INTRODUCTION
pressure of soft rock using statistical and soft computing techniques. The results of compensation tests at
Masjed-Soleiman Underground Hydro Electric Power
Plant (UHEPP) were used to describe and verify the
mentioned methods.
2
COMPENSATION METHOD
673
(dependent on the shape of the flat jack) and the pressure level as well as the geometric factor Ka . The
conversion is done by the following equation:
CONCEPT OF ANN
ANN modeling is a relatively new non-linear statistical technique. It can be used to solve problems that are
not fit for conventional statistical methods. Recently,
there has been increasing interest in neural network
modeling in different fields of rock mechanics (Shahin
et al., 2001). A neural network consists of simple
synchronous processing elements, called neurons,
which are inspired by biological nerve systems. The
neurons are connected to each other by links with their
own weight factors or weights. Usually neural networks are trained by adjusting the values of the weights
of the links between neurons, so that the network will
fit its outputs as closely as possible to the represented
experimental data. During training, the weight of a
link multiplied by the input signal on that link defines
the activation of the neuron. The sum of the activations of all inputs of a neuron defines the value of the
output signal for that neuron via a transfer function.
Then calculated outputs are compared with the targets
and the differences between them are back-propagated
through the network. This process continues in epochs
until network outputs fit the targets. Once the network
is trained, the weight factors are fixed and the neural
network may be used to calculate the output for any
arbitrary set of input data. A network is usually trained
using a large number of input data with corresponding
outputs (input/output pairs).
The design of an ANN includes the choice of architecture, training functions and training algorithms. The
architecture of a network is depicted by the number of
hidden layers in the network, the number of neurons
and the transfer function in each layer, and how the
layers are connected to each other. The nature of the
problem determines the type of neural network (NN)
to be used. The most commonly used NN architecture is the feedforward hierarchical architecture. Such
architecture is shown schematically in figure 2, where
the number of neurons in the input and output layers is
constrained by the problem and the outputs required by
it, respectively, while the number of hidden layers and
the size of the layer is determined by the designer. Here
the neurons are ordered in layers and the information
is processed in one direction, from input to output. The
learning rule is a procedure for modifying the weights
and biases of the network. This procedure may also
be referred to as a training algorithm. The learning
rule is applied to train the network to perform some
particular task. Learning rules fall into two broad categories, supervised learning and unsupervised learning.
674
space to the output space. This mapping is accomplished by a number of fuzzy ifthen rules, each
of which describes the local behavior of the mapping. The parameters of the ifthen rules (referred
to as antecedents or premises in fuzzy modeling)
define a fuzzy region of the input space, and the
output parameters (also consequents in fuzzy modeling) specify the corresponding output. Hence, the
efficiency of the FIS depends on the estimated
parameters. The rule structure of a FIS makes it
possible to incorporate human expertise about the
system being modeled directly into the process to
decide on the relevant inputs, the number of membership functions (MFs) for each input, etc., and
the corresponding numerical data for parameter
estimation.
5 CONCEPT OF ANFIS
The fuzzy logic approach is based on the linguistic
uncertain expression rather than numerical uncertainty. The main problem with this approach is that
there is no systematic procedure for a design of fuzzy
controller. Basically a fuzzy inference system (FIS) is
composed of five functional blocks (Figure 3).
A rule base containing a number of fuzzy if-then
rules;
A database which defines the membership functions of the fuzzy sets used in the fuzzy rules;
A decision-making unit which performs the inference operation on the rules;
A fuzzification inference which transforms the
crisp inputs into degrees of match with linguistic
values;
A defuzzification interface which transform the
fuzzy results of the inference into a crisp output.
FIS implements a nonlinear mapping from its input
675
Layer 4: Node i in this layer computes the contribution of the ith rule towards the model output, with the
following node function:
676
Table 1.
models.
Station
number
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
Testing
data set
July2005,
Nov2005
Sep2005,
Jan2006
Aug2005,
Mar2006
Jun2005,
Dec2005
Jan2006
Oct 2005
Oct2005,
Feb2006
Jul2005,
Apr2006
Aug2005,
Nov2005
Sep2005,
Jan2006
Jun2005,
Mar2006
1994). To achieve the best performance of the network, the input and output data were normalized with
respect to the corresponding maximum values. This
constrains the input and output values of network
between 1 and +1. Training of the network was continued until convergence was achieved in sum squared
error (sse) and sum squared weights (ssx). The ANN
model was used to predict the flat jack pressure of
the stations according to concrete liner deformation.
Samples of Pressure-deformation relation as predicted
by the ANN model are presented in Figure 5. It can
be observed that ANN is efficient in predicting the
pressure-deformation relation.
6.3
677
ANN
ANFIS
MRA
6.4
corr
rmse
bias
0.9130
0.9220
0.8275
0.0811
0.0768
0.1129
0.0059
0.0002
0.0084
CONCLUSION
The performance of the ANN, ANFIS and MRAmodels can be evaluated by statistical indices. The error
bias, root mean square error (rmse) and correlation
index (corr) are determined as follows:
678
ABSTRACT: Relative Geodynamics is first introduced briefly, which explains the irresistibility of the earthquake power source based on physical principles. Then, the basic idea for the continuous measurement of stress
in mines all over the country is proposed. Lastly, the calculation formulas of stress field is deduced, so that the
correctness of the process and the superiority of the boundary element back-analysis method are verified, taking
the calculation of a coal mine roadway an instance.
INSTRUCTION
679
680
In which,
In which: nj (p) p direction cosine of the unit
midpoint outside the normal.
Hik (p, q) q Unit k units in the direction of
uniform force to the p element contribution to the midpoint of i the direction of balance force, it is called the
influence coefficient matrix.
Because of the boundary conditions, (2) can be
expressed in matrix form:
A number of measured values of the relative deformation can be written respectively in (11). It is
integrated into a matrix form:
681
[c] is the transition matrix of the absolute displacement and relative displacement.
Put equation (9) as a substitution in equation (12):
in which
0
When 22
is obtained, it is not difficult to obtain the
elastic modulus
EXAMPLES
5.1 Test
The first author of this thesis programmed the boundary element method calculation of stress field backanalysis under the supporting conditions based on the
linear elastic boundary element method. With the relative displacement values after excavation as the input,
the program can calculate the whole sites initial stress,
based on the established mathematical mode. The main
innovation points of this project are:
1. This Program changes the pattern of calculation of
the supporting and rock mass separately, and the
data collected in the supporting conditions can help
to calculate the original rock stress.
2. The back-analysis method is not the same when
under a supporting or non-supporting condition.
The way to solve this problem is only in the data
input and the two situations can be applied.
682
2nd
3rd
4th
1
2
3
0.0161
0.0436
0.0228
0.0108
0.0291
0.0151
0.0322
0.0873
0.0454
0.0323
0.0872
0.0454
Table 2.
Stress
Category
frame-support in the depth of 94 meters. The elasticity modulus, bulk densities and Poissons ratio, based
on recommendations in the national standards GBJ8685 and experience of similar projects, are identified
as 2000 Mpa, 2700 kg/cubic meters and 0.2. Tunnel
cross-section dimensions is shown in Figure 3, the
measured convergence displacement increment shown
in Table 1, the result after using the subject procedure
shown in Table 2.
As can be seen by calculating, ratio of the horizontal
stress and vertical stress is 1.294, which indicates that
the level of rock mass stress is not only affected by the
gravitational field, but also by the geological impact.
5.3
0.914
2.472
1.287
0.9140105
2.472011
1.287004
Calculating result.
Horizontal stress
3.284069
Vertical stress
2.538
Shear stress
0.3593277
The Theoretical
Values
Sequence
alignments
The Displacement
Measured values
CONCLUSION
683
source body of earthquake and the stress of its neighboring region based on the observation of roadway
deformation. If we can carry out continuous observation of the deformation, then the research and monitoring of the dynamics changes of the stress internal
of the crust can be achieved at least in theory.
REFERENCES
Monitoring and Forecasting Department of China Earthquake
Administration, 2007, Beijing, Seismological Press
684
Qunce Chen
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China
Qi Mi
College of Earth Science, Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: By reference to the distribution of major faults in Tibetan Plateau (TP) and the ground motion
parameter zoning map, we divided the study region into 14 sub-regions. Using ground stress data in field
investigation, we obtained the statistical features of the horizontal maximal and minimal stress variation with
depth. After the removal of gravitational effects from in-situ stress, we analyzed the statistical characteristics
of stress variation with depth and tectonic stress orientations in the sub-regions. The results of our study may
bear great referential implication for understanding the overall regional stress distribution and its dynamic
environment, and are of great practical significance to underground engineering design and mineral resource
exploitation.
INTRODUCTION
meters depth, and each tectonic division exhibits distinctive tectonic stress values and orientations. In the
following we first clarify the two concepts maximal
and minimal horizontal stress and tectonic stress
used in this paper.
In fact, the maximal horizontal stress (H ) and minimal horizontal stress (h ) ought to have the largest
and smallest value of normal stresses on all upright
planes. Lund and Townend derived the orientation of
maximal horizontal stress from stress tensor. We obtain
the maximal and minimal horizontal stress using three
principal stresses in a similar way.
Some scholars deemed maximal horizontal stress as
tectonic stress, while in this paper the tectonic stress
is the stress after the removal of gravitational effects.
Based on the two concepts above, we study the characteristics of stress variation with depth and tectonic
stress orientation in the sub-regions of the study area.
2
687
Table 1.
Old data
New data
New database
HF/No.
of
entries
OC/No.
of
entries
HF
depth
range/m
OC
depth
range/m
HF
longitude
range/
OC
longitude
range/
HF
latitude
range/
OC
latitude
range/
Articles/
no.
1014
829
1843
338
321
659
121620
113984
113984
3588
51271
31271
88125
82125
82125
79130
75130
75130
2244
2246
2246
1845
2147
1847
99
94
193
At 2008, we gathered the data of hydraulic fracturing measurement and over-coring stress relief measurement (OC) from literatures published 2002 to
2008. Table 1 shows that the amount of new data is
almost equal to the former. The scope of data in new
database is wider than original one and the depth is
deeper than before.
The present study is based on the new database
of crustal stress in China. The scope of the study region
is from 85 to 110 E in longitude and from 20 to 40 N
in latitude. The number of the data from hydraulic fracturing measurement is 783 (731 from 2D hydraulic
fracturing measurement and 52 from 3D hydraulic
fracturing measurement). The number of data from
over-coring measurement is 207. After removal of the
data that did not provide depth information, or had no
maximal horizontal stress or minimal horizontal stress,
or lacked complete information of principal stresses,
the amount of data from hydraulic fracturing measurement and over-coring stress relief measurement
is reduced to 714 and 82 respectively.
688
larger the disparity. The absolute value of the difference between mean values of h obtained from the
two measurement approaches increases with depth,
which amounts only to 0.5 MPa in the depth of 100 m.
It can be seen that above the depth of 100 m, the difference of results from those two approaches are smaller
than 3MPa, consistent with Liu s results, especially in
terms of h . Though the difference of h between the
two methods is relatively small, that of H is large and
it also increases with depth.
From the regression equations we can find that the
values of data measured by hydraulic fracturing are
smaller than that by over-corning method. The result
is consistent with other literatures. The maximal principal stress derived from stress relief method could be
higher mainly because of the combined effect of scaledependence and anisotropic Youngs modulus resulted
from inhomogeneous and anisotropic microfissures in
the rock. Many over-coring measurements are conducted in the caves. The evacuation disturbance affects
the properties of wall rock to different extent, intensifying the rocks inhomogeneity, resulting in larger
scattering of measurement results. Sometimes, due
to neglecting the existence of microcracks and pore
pressure in the rock, as well as using closure value
as minimal horizontal stress, in-situ stresses obtained
from 2D hydraulic fracturing measurement are lower
than realistic value.
Considering that the two methods have their own
merits, the scattering coefficients above 100 meters
are relatively large for both methods, and the measured
data from one method are probably larger and those
from the other method smaller than the realistic values,
it seems reasonable to combine the data with the depth
above 100 meters to produce a more realistic linear
regression equation.
Using the above method, we divide the combined
data into groups after removal of the data outside the
range of twice the standard deviation. The correlation coefficients of maximal and minimal horizontal
stresses with depth are 0.81 and 0.92; the standard
deviations are 1.67 and 1.12, the scattering coefficients are 0.23 and 0.36. The regression equations are
equation (12) and (13).
689
of data obtained from hydraulic fracturing measurement is better than that of stress relief measurement.
The possible reasons could be the complex topography and geology in targeting region, the scarce data
from stress relief measurement, and the difficulty of
stress relief method used in relatively deeper depth.
According to measurement norm, the release of stress
should utilize relatively long rock-cores, and it is hard
to obtain them in great depth. If we combine the
two types of data in depths below 100 m, the maximal and minimal horizontal stress values are 5.8 MPa
and 3.3 MPa, the scattering coefficients are 0.44 and
0.22, and the correlation coefficients are 0.37 and 0.46.
Thus, for depths below 100 m, it would be better to only
employ data from hydraulic fracturing; the precision
will deteriorate if those two types of data are combined. Similarly, after screening-grouping-screening
procedure, we obtain the correlation coefficients, standard deviations, and scattering coefficients of maximal
and minimal horizontal stresses with depth, which are
respectively 0.97 and 0.99, 2.54 and 1.68, 0.21 and
0.22 orderly. The regression equations are equation
(14) and (15).
Comparing the statistical parameters such as standard deviation and scattering coefficient, we notice
that in the two ranges of depth, the features of stress
variation with depth are clearer and the precisions of
regression coefficient are better. From equation (12)
(15), we notice that within the first 100 m depth, the
gradients of maximal and minimal horizontal stress
variation are larger than those below 100 m depth,
suggesting that horizontal stress varies dramatically
in shallow crust. The constants in equation (12)(15)
are related to tectonic motion and earth surface erosion. It is also implied that in the shallow crustal
layer (0300 m) the maximal and minimal horizontal stresses are both larger than the value of vertical
stress; from 300 m to 700 m in depth, the minimal horizontal stresses start to be smaller than vertical stress,
and when the depth is below 700 m, the vertical stress
becomes dominant and larger than both maximal and
minimal horizontal stress.
H and h variation with depth in the world
was studied statistically by Zhu Huanchun and Tao
Zhenyu as:
690
Below 100 m:
CHARACTERISTICS OF TECTONIC
STRESS IN SUB-REGIONS
Division of sub-regions
691
NO.
Quantity
Depth
range
T Linear equation
t Linear equation
II
III
IV
V
VII
VIII
X
XII
17
15
100
93
16
145
22
8
160270
60286
20582
15574
164423
100890
38183
113296
T = 0.0265H + 2.753
T = 0.0185H + 1.643
T = 0.0075H + 8.366
T = 0.0085H + 6.377
T = 0.0005H + 11.996
T = 0.019H + 4.72
T = 0.0075H + 9.015
T = 0.0295H + 3.448
t = 0.0175H + 1.498
t = 0.0155H + 1.641
t = 0.0005H + 4.986
t = 0.0005H + 4.059
t = 0.0065H + 7.09
t = 0.012H + 3.118
t = 0.0105H + 5.063
t = 0.0125H + 2.206
hydraulic fracturing and 64 from over-coring measurements. Figure 2 shows the orientations of the maximal
horizontal stresses. Because the boundaries of the subregions are generally major faults, which may severely
distort the stress orientations, we do not consider the
data from nearby the boundaries.
The general feature of tectonic stress orientation in
the study region is as follows. The orientations of
tectonic stress in sub-regions V, VI, and X are steady.
Generally, the orientation in sub-regions VII, VIII, and
X tends to rotate clockwise; from west to east it turns
gradually from NE to EW to NW, which accords with
the result of Jiang Zaisen from GPS data. The data
in the other sub-regions were measured in proximity to
fault zones, the stress orientations are more scattered.
CONCLUSION
692
REFERENCES
Below 100 m:
(2) The variations of maximum and minimum horizontal tectonic stress T and t with depth is expressed
by the following linear equations:
Above 100 m:
Below 100 m:
Bai S. & Li G.1982.Study on stress field of Ertan hydroelectric station. Chinese J. of Rock Mech. and Eng.
1(1):4546.
Bjorn Lund&John Townend. 2007. Calculating horizontal
stress orientations with full or partial knowledge of the
tectonic stress tensor. Geophys. J. Int. 170:13281335.
Brown E T&Hoek E.1978.Technical note fiends in relationship between measured in-situ stress and depth. Int_J.Rock
Mech.Min.Sci.and Geomech.Abstr.15(4):211215.
Chen Q. 1998.Analysis of rock mechanics and tectonic stress
field. Beijing: Geology Publishing House.
Jiang Z, Ma Z, Zhang X. 2003. Horizontal stain field
and tectonic deformation of China mainland revealed
by preliminary GPS result. Chinese J. of Geophysics.
46(3):352358.
Jing F, Sheng Q, ZhangY. 2007. Research on distribution rule
of shallow crustal geostress in China Mainland. Chinese
J. of Rock Mech. and Eng. 26(10):20562062.
Liu Y.1995. A comparison between the two results of
geostress measure by hydro fracturing and stress relief
methods in same borehole. J. of Seismological Research.
18(1):8085.
Sun W, Min H, Wang C. 2008. Three-dimensional geostress
measurement and geomechanical analysis.Chinese J. of
Rock Mech. and Eng. 27(Supp2):37783784.
Wu M, Ma Y, Zhang C. 2008. In-situ stress measurement and
tectonic stress field study in the region of Lanzhou-Maqu.
Chinese J. Geophysics. 51(5):14681474.
Xie F. 2003. Crustal stress in China. Beijing: Geology
Publishing House.
Zeng Q. 1990.The crustal stress state in China. Beijing:
Earthquake Publish House.
Zhao D, Chen Z, Cai X. 2007. Analysis of distribution rule
of geostress in China. Chinese J. of Rock Mech. and Eng.
26(6):12651271.
Zhu H & Tao Z. 1994. The in-situ stress distribution in
difference rock. ACTA Seismologica Sinica. 16(1):4963.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the support from the Ministry of Science and Technology, China (SinoProbe06) and research grant from Institute of Crustal
Dynamics (No. ZDJ2009-01).
693
Liming Hu
Tianjin Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Tianjin, China
Da Su
Tianjin Real Estate Registration and Certificate Trading Center, Tianjin, China
ABSTRACT: Using 245 middle and strong earthquake focal mechanism solutions happened in the period of
19312004 to determine the stress districts in Tienshan area by step by step convergence method. The inverted
results indicate there are 3 stress districts in Tienshan area. They are Pamirs stress district, Jiashi and its adjacent
stress district and Urumchi and its adjacent district, respectively. Besides, we also get the generally characteristic
of recent tectonic stress field in Tienshan area. First, its direction of the maximum compressional stress is about
in N-S direction, but it shows a clockwise rotation from Pamirs stress district in the west to Urumchi stress
district in the east from the spatial distribution. Second, each stress district has its own different characteristic
of tectonic stress field. This phenomenon indicates that the research area in the whole stress background has its
local changes. And the third is that the stress regime in Tienshan area is almost Strike slip and reverse slip. On
the basis of above basic research work, we try to analyse and explain the dynamic genesis of the heterogeneity
of the spatial distribution of recent tectonic stress field in Tienshan area from the force sources.
INTRODUCTION
695
Table 1.
tectonic stress field in Tienshan is. What heterogeneity of tectonic stress field in Tienshan is from spatial
distribution? What dynamic geneses form the pattern
of recent tectonic stress field in Tienshan?
In order to answer the above questions, we use
245 middle and strong earthquake focal mechanism
solutions happened in the period of 19312004 to
determine the stress districts in Tienshan area by step
by step convergence method. From the inverted results,
we will give the fine texture of tectonic stress field in
Tienshan and try to discuss its present pattern of recent
tectonic stress field from dynamic geneses.
2
2.1
Method
Research
area
Stress district
name
Predominant direction
of 1
Tienshan
Pamirs (I1 )
Jiashi (I2 )
Urumchi (I3 )
INVERSION RESULT
696
3.1
Each sub-stress-district has its own different characteristic. In Pamirs stress district, there are two groups
of predominant direction of 1 . The dip angles of 2 of
both groups are vertical and the dip angle of 1 and 3
are both horizontal, and the stress regime are both of
strike slip. However, the directions of 1 and 3 in I1 -A
and I1 -B are apparently different. The direction of 1
and 3 of the former is 22 and 292 respectively and
the 1 and 3 of the later are 163 and 73 (Fig. 3 and
Tab. 2). From figure 4, we can see the location of focal
mechanism solutions in I1 -B group is full of the all
Pamirs and the number of focal mechanism solutions
is more than the number of I1 -A group. So, we consider
the inverted stress direction of 1 in NNW-SSE from
the focal mechanism solutions in I1 -B group reflects
the basic characteristic of the tectonic stress field in
Pamirs, and the stress direction of 1 in NNE-SSW in
the other group may indicate its local characteristic in
this stress district.
3.2
We use 245 middle and strong earthquake focal mechanism solutions happened in the period of 19312004
to determine the stress districts in Tienshan area by
697
Table 2. The inverted parameters of each tectonic stress district from focal mechanism solutions.
2
Name
Az ( )
Dip ( )
Az ( )
Dip ( )
Az ( )
Dip ( )
( )
/f
R (%)
I1-A
I1-B
I2-A
I2-B
I3
22
163
25
162
10
5
3
5
5
5
187
264
278
284
103
85
75
73
80
23
292
73
116
71
268
1
15
16
8
77
0.62
0.56
0.47
0.51
0.80
10.3
13.3
6.8
12.0
10.4
0.84
0.82
0.91
0.82
0.82
16
42
46
50
21
8
19
13
20
10
66.7
68.9
78.0
71.4
67.7
AZ is the azimuth of stress axes, Dip is the angle between the stress axes and horizontal plane, M is the number of focal
mechanism solutions used in the inversion, N is the number of contradictory data, and R = M /(M + N ) is the utilization rate
of focal mechanism solutions.
characteristic of recent tectonic stress field in Tienshan area is in N-S direction compressionan action. It
shows the action of collision between Eurasia Plate
and India Plate passed by Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is
698
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank XU Zhonghuai for providing his original computer program and partial focal mechanism
solution data. This work was supported by the grant
from the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (40904024) and the special item of professional
fund for basic scientific research of Chinese centrallevel public-welfare college/institute from Institute of
Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration
(ZDJ2009-17) to H. ZHANG.
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Cui Xiaofeng. 2006. Characteristics of Recnt Tectonic Stress
Field in Jiashi, Xinjiang and Adjacent Regions. Acta
Seismologica Sinica,28(4):347356 (in Chinese).
Cui Xiaofeng & Xie Furen. 1999. Preliminary Research on
Regional Division of Stress Field from Focal Mechanism
Solutions in Southwest China and Its Adjacent Area. Acta
Seismologica Sinica, 12(5):562572 (in Chinese).
Cui Xiaofeng & Xie Furen & Zhang Hongyan. 2006. Recent
Tectonic Stress Field Zoning in Sichuan-Yunnan Region
and Its Dynamic Interest. Acta Seismologica Sinica,
19(5):485496.
Dzhanuzakov, K. D. & Iliasov, B. & Knauff, V.I., et al. 1980.
In: Bune, V.I., Gorshkov, G.P. (Eds), Seismic Zoning of
USSR. Nauka, Moscow, pp. 183194(In Russian).
Fan Fangqin. 1993. Analysis of Tectonic Stress Field on
the West Part of North Tianshan in Xinjiang. Inland
Earthquake, 7(2): 188196 (in Chinese).
Feng Xianyue. 1986. Active fault and Seism in Tianshan MT.
Xinjiang Geology, 4(3): 100106 (in Chinese).
Gao Guoyin & Nie Xiaohong & Xia Aiguo. 2004. Preliminary Study on Characteristics of the Jiashi Earthquake
Sequence with Ms 6.8 and Its Focal Mechanism Solution
in 2003. Earthquake Research in China, 20(2): 179186
(in Chinese).
Gao Guoyin & QuYanjun. 1998. Study on the Tectonic Stress
Field and Moderate Earthquake Activity Characteristics in
the Urumchi Region. Inland Earthquake, 12(4): 296303
(in Chinese).
Gao Guoyin & Wang Haitao & Wen Heping. 2001. Analysis on the Dynamic Change Character of the Stress Field
before Mid-strong Earthquakes in Northeastern Pamir.
Northwestern Seismological Journal, 23(4): 389394 (in
Chinese).
Gao Guoyin & Wen Heping. 2000. Recent Tectonic Stress
Field and Seismicity of Northeast Pamir. Earthquake
Research in China, 16(2): 176184 (in Chinese).
Gao Guoyin & Wen Heping & Nie Xiaohong. 2005. Analysis of Focal-mechanism Solution of Moderately Strong
Earthquakes in Xinjiang from 1991 to 2002. Earthquake,
25(1): 8187 (in Chinese).
Kondorskaya, N.V. & Shebalin, N.V. 1982. New Katalog of
Strong Earthquakes in the USSR from Ancient Times
through 1977. World Data Center A for Solid Earth
Geophysics, Boulder, CO. 608 pp.
Lai Yuangen & Liu Qiyuan & Chen Jiuhui, et al. 2002.
Features of the S-wave Splitting and Stress Field in
the Xinjiang Jiashi Strong Earthquake Region. Chinese
Journal of Geophysics, 45(1): 8392 (in Chinese).
Long Haiying & Gao Guoying & Nie Xiaohong, et al.
2007. Focal Mechanism Solution of Small and Moderate Earthquakes and Structural Stress Field in Urumchi
Area. Earthquakes, 27(3): 8996 (in Chinese).
Long Haiying & Gao Guoying & Nie Xiaohong, et al. 2008.
Focal Mechanism Solution and Stress Field Inversion of
Moderately Strong Earthquake in the Northern Tianshan
Area. Earthquake Research in China, 24(1): 2330 (in
Chinese).
Long Haiying & Gao Guoying & Nie Xiaohong, et al. 2008.
The Focal Mechanism Solution and Stress Field Inversion
of Small and Moderate Earthquake along Middle-eastern
Part of Northern Tianshan Region. Earthquak, 28(1):
9399 (in Chinese).
Mercier, J. L. & R. Armijo & P.Tapponnier et al. 1987.
Change from Late Tertiary Compression to Quaternary
Extension in Southern Tibet during the India-Asia Collision.Tectonics, 6:275304.
Plenefisch, T. & Bonjer, K. P. 1997. The Stress Field in
the Rhine Graben Area Inferred from Earthquake Focal
Mechanisms and Estimation of Frictional Parameters.
Tectonophysics, 275:7197.
Shan Xinjian & He Yumei & Zhu Yan, et al. 2002. A Preliminary Analysis on Rupture Characteristics of Jiashi
Strong Earthquake Swarm. Chinese Journal of Geophysics, 45(3): 416425 (in Chinese).
Shan Xinjian & He Yumei & Zhu Yan, et al. 2002. Characteristics of Focal Rupture of the Jiashi Strong Earthquake Swarm. Seismology and Geology, 24(1): 5968 (in
Chinese).
Wang Shengze & Gao Guoying, et al. 1992. The Characteristics of Recent Tectonic Stress Field in Xinjiang ang Its
Adjacent Region. Acta Seismologica Sinica, 14(suppl.):
612620 (in Chinese).
Xie Furen & Cui Xiaofeng & Zhao Jiantao, et al. 2004.
Regional Division of the Recent Tectonic Stress Field
in China and Adjacent Areas. Chinese Journal of Geophysics, 47(4):654662 (in Chinese).
Xie Furen & Liu Guangxun. 1989. Analysis of Neotectonic
Stress Field in Area of the Central Segment of Altun Fault
Zone, China. Earthquake Research in China, 5(3): 2636
(in Chinese).
Xie Furen & Zhu Jingzhong & Liang Hai-qing, et al. 1993.
The Basic Characteristics of Recent Tectonic Stress Field
in Southwest Region of China. Acta Seismologica Sinica,
15(4):407417 (in Chinese).
Xu Zhonghuai & Ge Shumo. 1984. Stress Field in the Fuyun,
Xinjiang Earthquake Fracture Zone Determined by
699
700
T.S. Kang
Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea
ABSTRACT: Present-day stress tensor is characterized in southeastern Korean Peninsula using shallow
geotechnical in situ stress data to understand the regional contemporary stress state and its relationship to
the population of faults. The in situ stress data show an ENE-WSW to NE-SW maximum compression direction,
which is in accord with the contemporary earthquake focal mechanism solutions, as well as the first order pattern
of tectonic stress direction in the eastern Eurasian plate. The current stress tensor exhibits a heterogeneity in
its orientations and magnitudes, possibly caused by the influence of faults. The horizontal principal stresses
normalized by vertical stress vary spatially. The magnitude of stress field appears to be inversely correlated
with the density of regional scale faults, suggesting that a stress relief due to faulting may be one of the major
factors that contribute to low stress magnitudes. As a way to confirm the inference, we examine the attitudes
of Quaternary faults with respect to the current stress field. A majority of the faults are oriented in the optimal
directions for slip, as indicated by the overall high ratios of shear to normal stress acting on fault planes for the
given stress condition, which implies that they might sustain the current stress field.
INTRODUCTION
The southeastern part of Korea is occupied by a Cretaceous sedimentary basin. Regional scale faults are
intensely developed almost all over the area, with their
population density varying locally (Fig. 1). Especially
noted is a family of densely distributed faults striking
to NNE in the southeastern part of the study area. This
fault system includes the Yangsan fault, an approximately 200 km long major fault whose contemporary
activeness has been argued by a number of researchers
(Okada et al. 1994, Ree et al. 2003). A number of evidences such as fault scarps and slickenlines associated
with earthquake events that occurred during Quaternary time have been observed along the Yangsan fault
and adjacent area.
2
701
RESULTS
In situ stress orientations
Figure 1 shows the directions of the maximum horizontal stress (SHmax ). Overall, the SHmax directions
are predominantly ENE-WSW or NE-SW. The SHmax
direction is consistent with that estimated using other
702
Figure 4. Focal mechanisms of 85 contemporary earthquakes (M>1.6) and the inversion result: (a) P-axes (dark
circles) and T-axes (open circles) of individual focal mechanisms, (b) Stress inversion results showing the best-fit
principal stress axes and their area of the 95% confidence
limit.
4
4.1
Figure 3. The stress ratio contours: (a) Kmin and (b) Kmax .
3.3
Because the in situ stress data represent stress conditions in shallow depths, it is worth trying to compare
them with deeper stress information from the earthquake focal mechanism. A total of 85 contemporary
earthquake data with M>1.6 were used for focal
mechanism inversion (following the method given by
Gephart (1990)).
DISCUSSION
Correlation between stress magnitudes
and fault density
703
Figure 6. Stereographic projection of the poles of Quaternary faults. The contours indicates / .
states is not likely to be extracted. The results suggest that the population of faults, even though it may
not be the only factor, is likely to have a correlation
with the present-day in situ stress such that the lower
stress region is characterized by relatively higher fault
density.
The correlation between stress magnitudes and fault
density lets us think that the present-day stress might
have been controlled by pre-existing faults in this tectonically stable region, by stress relief due to fault slip
that retained the current stress field. In order to verify this presumption, we investigated stress conditions
acting on recently activated faults that would cause
stress relief.
4.2
faults are optimally oriented for slip for the stress state
of the region.
The determined values of / acting on the Quaternary faults are substantially lower than the normally
known values of friction coefficients of faults. When
compared to the laboratory determined static friction coefficients (having a range of 0.61.0, Byerlee,
1978) in various rock types, the current stress conditions acting on the faults do not seem to be high
enough to initiate slip. However, previous studies show
that the static frictional coefficient of faults can be
notably lower (as low as 0.2) depending on the type
of fault-filling material such as its clay content and
grain size (e.g. Morrow et al. 2000, Moore & Lockner 2004). Thus, the stability of the faults cannot be
clearly asserted at this stage. Nonetheless, it is possible to draw some meaningful points from the results.
Regardless of the criticality of stress conditions for
slip potential, the faults are oriented such that they are
subjected to the maximum possible / ratio for the
given stress regime. This suggests that the faults sustain and thus maintain the current stress field, which
otherwise would decrease (or release) due to slip. Since
it is expected that stress condition (in terms of its magnitude) at the time of faulting might be more favorable
for slip than that in present, the results above imply that
the Quaternary faults are indicators of stress release
that causes the lower stress regime.
5
CONCLUSIONS
Based on our results, there seems to be a spatial variation of stress orientations and magnitudes. First, there
appears to be a systematic tilting of the maximum horizontal stress direction to the strikes of the major fault
system. Regarding the stress magnitude, the ratio of
horizontal to vertical stress (K) appears to be inversely
correlated with the density of regional scale faults;
that is, the higher the fault density, the lower the stress
704
REFERENCES
Ask, M.V.S. 1997. In situ stress from breakouts in the Danish
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Evans, K.F. 1989. Appalachian stress study 3. Regional scale
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Gephart, J.W. 1990. FMSI: A Fortran program for inverting
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to obtain the regional stress tensor. Comp. Geosci. 16:
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Haimson, B.C. et al. 2003. Shallow hydraulic fracturing
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Hillis, R.R. & Reynolds, S.D. 2000. The Australian stress
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Hudson, J.A. & Cooling, C.M. 1988. In Situ rock stresses and
their measurement in the U.K.-Part I. The current state of
705
Susanna J. Gross
Boulder, CO
ABSTRACT: A model of the tectonic stress state of Longmenshan Faults and adjacent area including direction
and magnitude is derived from the spatial and temporal distribution of seismicity before and after Wenchuan
Ms 8.0 earthquake. This technique utilizes the assessment of spatial correlationship between stress change and
seismicity change to obtain stress information. One detailed source models derived from the inversion of body
wave, geology field survey and GPS data was used to calculate the stress change field from the Wenchuan
mainshock, which was fit to the spatial distribution of seismicity. Agreement between the best-fitting background
stress state from seismicity modeling and the background stress state inferred from focal mechanisms was found
to be consistent, showing that the spatial distribution of seismicity contains information about the stress state.
The best fitting background stress state has its greatest principal compressive stress plunging 11 to N295W,
a large effective coefficient of friction 0.76 for Longmenshan area, and 75 MPa for the magnitude of greatest
principal stress, which is far less than the overburden pressure estimated from the pressure intact rock endured
in 15 km depth. Although the estimations of the magnitude of background stress, gradient of stress with depth
and effective coefficient of friction are quite uncertain, and need further research to confirm, the result provides
the dynamic information of stress loading on the Longmenshan Faults, which is useful for the further research
on seismogenic stress environment.
Keywords: Wenchuan earthquake; Aftershock sequence; Inversion; Stress state
1
INTRODUCTION
707
3
2
DATA
REGIONAL TECTONICS
Longmenshan nappe tectonic belt is the boundary tectonic belt of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and southern China
block, and is also a part of North-South seismic belt of
China, spreading along the middle part of eastern margin of Tibetan (Deng et al. 1994, Burchfiel et al. 2008).
Its structure and geology evolution is rather complex. It
is important for the understanding for the dynamics of
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the deformation characteristics of North-South seismic belt of China. Longmenshan faults is the main component of Longmenshan
nappe tectonic belt, about 500 km in length, consisting of 4 thrust fault, i.e., Maowen-Wenchuan fault,
Beichuan-Yingxiu fault, Guanxian-Jiangyou fault and
Longmenshan piedmont hidden fault (Figure 1).
The field investigations shows that the MS8.0
Wenchuan earthquake of 12 May 2008 ruptured two
NW dipping imbricate reverse faults along the Longmenshan Fault zone at the eastern margin of theTibetan
Plateau. This earthquake generated a 240 km long surface rupture along the Beichuan-Yingxiu Fault characterized by right-lateral oblique faulting and a 90 km
long surface rupture along the Guanxian-Jiangyou
Fault characterized by dip-slip reverse faulting. Such
coseismic surface rupture pattern involved multiple
structures, and is the most complicated one among
708
Table 1.
Sub-fault
Model Num.
Strike( )
No. 1 1
229
33
0180
No. 2 1
230
39
120
No. 3 1
225
39
0180
No. 4 3
No. 5 Not
clear
No. 6 1
216276
0 97 0180
228
33
0180
No. 7 1
229
33
147.6
Ji et al.
(2008)
Chen et al.
(2008)
Zhang et al.
(2008)
Wang et al.
(2008)
Shen et al.
(2009)
Sladen
(2008)
Nishimura
(2008)
4 METHOD
The thread to obtain stress state using seismicity and
source model described as following: take seismicity
data of target area and source model of strong earthquake as input, initiate a stress state, and then calculate
stress changes in the focus of each earthquake before
and after the mainshock, and evaluate the spatial correlationship between failure stress change and seismicity
change. Modulate the stress state to make the similarity between the images of stress change and seismicity
change is the biggest.
4.1
Stress model
Changes in failure stress are found for each hypocenter by evaluating both with and without the modeled
mainshock stresses and by subtracting F without the
mainshock stress step from F with it.
709
Table 2.
Param .
Source Model
t
1
azi/
1
plunge /
1
mag/MPa
3
plunge/
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
F.M.S. *
39
49
42
58
62
282 8
275 6
310 13
295 3
290 5
288
16 6
23 12
11 7
15
10 5
5
49.5 20
78.6 12
53.0 31
65.7 19
62.0 20
10 10
27
14 11
58
17 4
20
0.70 0.11
0.45 0.15
0.60 0.08
0.55 0.12
0.68 0.10
0.62
0.70 0.10
0.60 0.33
0.87 0.21
0.79 0.12
0.90 0.11
0.75 0.30
0.54 0.22
0.62 0.13
0.82 0.11
0.47 0.21
2.3 1.2
3.0 2.2
0.6 1.8
1.8 0.9
0.8 0.7
Note*: F.M.S. is the inversion of Focal Mechanisms Solution before and after Wenchuan Main shock (Cui, 2009). Source
models here have the same define as the Table 1. is the ratio of stress magnitudes, y the ratio of least and mediate principal
stress magnitudes, the effective frictional coefficient, and the mass density.
after
F and normalized by the pooled standard deviation of the two quantities sbefore and safter . In effect:
we use t statistics to ask how significantly the seismicity distribution has changed, as defined by the
change in failure stress averaged over locations of the
earthquakes.
To balance the effects of different parts of the aftershock zone upon the solution, the seismicity is divided
up into eight concentric shells, ranging from 5 to 85 km
away from the center of the source. The quantity used
to selectthe best
fitting model of the stress step is
simply ni=1 ti , the sum of the t statistics as defined
above for the earthquakes in all the distance ranges.
Each zone is expected to contain a variety of stress
steps, and each show a greater number of aftershocks
in zones of stress increase. Pooling statistics from all of
the zones makes it much less likely that large numbers
of events in any one zone will have a disproportionate
effect upon the solution.
The stress state fits shown in Table 2 were found
by calculating 10 sets of 1000 trial background stress
states each and selecting the best fitting
state
stress
from each set as defined with the ni=1 ti statistic
discussed in the stress modeling section above. The
inversion begins with trial stress states in the first set
uniformly distributed over the full legal range for every
parameter listed in Table 2 that is not constrained. After
the first set has been evaluated, new trial stress states
are drawn from an exponential distribution of parameter values broadly centered on the
best fitting
stress
state, which has the largest value of ni=1 ti yet found.
As the inversion progresses, the width of the distribution of trial stress state parameters is narrowed, until
the trial stress states being evaluated are only slightly
different from the best fitting stress state.
In order to reduce the time of inversion, the trial
stress state parameters are done as following procedure: we pre-sampled the data, i.e. presetting some
initial value for the parameters, for example, the
azimuth and magnitude of the greatest principal stress
are set to 100 0 and 1 1000 MPa respectively, of
cause, these value can be preset according to the focal
mechanisms solutions and rock mechanics experiment
result. The parameters are narrowed by utilizing a
method similar to genetic algorithm.
This optimization technique is designed to overcome the nonlinear nature of the problem while making efficient use of stress modeling computer program
written for the purpose.
RESULT
The stress state fits shown in Table 2 were found by calculating 10 sets of 1000 trial background stress states
each and selecting the best fitting stress state from each
set as defined with the 1;t statistic discussed in the
stress modeling section above. The inversion begins
with trial stress states in the first set uniformly distributed over the full legal range for every parameter
listed in Table 2 that is not constrained. After the first
set has been evaluated, new trial stress states are drawn
from an exponential distribution of parameter values
broadly centered on the best fitting stress state, which
has the lowest value of t yet found. As the inversion
progresses, the width of the distribution of trial stress
state parameters is narrowed, until the trial stress states
being evaluated are only slightly different from the
best fitting stress state. This optimization technique is
designed to overcome the nonlinear nature of the problem while also making efficient use of stress-modeling
computer program written for the purpose.
Best fitting background stresses for fits to four
source models. Models and various catalog subsets.
All were constrained to fit the background stress model
of focal mechanisms by Cui et al. (2009). Units of
are thousands of kilograms per cubic meter, All results
can be compared because the same catalog is used for
this study.
Five different source models were used to assess
the impact of uncertainties in the source upon the best
fitting stress state. In this study the orientations and relative magnitudes of the principal stresses for a general
background stress state were sometimes constrained
to the results of a stress inversion from focal mechanisms (Cui et al. 2009). Because the constraints are
based upon focal mechanisms and are independent of
the earthquake locations which are the primary data
for the stress fits calculated here. The Wang et al.
(2008) and Shen et al. (2009) sources in combination
710
711
712
ABSTRACT: The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Mw 7.9, ruptured the Longmenshan fault zone at the eastern
margin of Tibetan Plateau and formed a 240-km-long surface rupture zone along the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and
an additional 70-km-long surface rupture zone along the Guanxian-Jiangyou fault. Some authors published its
repeated recurrence behavior along the preexistent fault trace. Here, we use RTK surveying of alluvial terrace
sequence and excavation of the trench across the surface rupture in Qipanshi Village, Qingping Town and find
that the vertical offsets of terraces and sediment in the trench are equivalent to the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake
(3 m) in situ which proves that it was possibly a newly born rupture and did not follow the preexistent fault
line.
Qipanshi Village is located in the jog of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault. The strain energy accumulated in the jog
zone due to different movement of the faults of tow sides, might be focused on the soft interlayer of carbonaceous
shale in the north of Qianpanshi and the Wenchuan earthquake triggered the release of strain energy and formed
the new surface rupture. This study may be significant in understanding the detailed rupture process of Wenchuan
earthquake and selecting the excavation location of paleoearthquake study.
INTRODUCTION
of geomorphologic surfaces across the surface rupture zone shows that older level of alluvial terraces
always has a bigger offset which approximately is the
multiple of the co-seismic displacement in Yingxiu
town, Xiaoyudong town, Leigu town, Beichuan town,
Pingtong town along the BYF and in Bailu town
along the GJF (Ren et al., 2009). Trenches in site
also give the evidences of paleoearthquakes occurred
repeated along this seismogenic faults (Dong et al.,
2008, Ran et al., 2008, Zheng et al., 2008). However, we conducted a RTK surveying of alluvial terrace
sequences across the surface rupture in Qingping town
in January, 2009 (Figs. 1,2). Our finds by deformation
surveying and trench excavation show that the newlyborn surface rupture co-exists with repeated rupture
in situ.
2 DEFORMATION OF RIVER TERRACES
Coseismic surface scarps are measured using the Trimble R8 GNSS system which is a multi-channel, multifrequency GNSS(Global Navigation Satellite System)
receiver, antenna, and data-link radio combined in one
compact unit. Powered by an enhanced Real-Time
Kinematic (RTK) engine, Trimble R-Track technology supports both the modernized GPS L2C and L5
signals and GLONASS L1/L2 signals. (Landau et al.,
713
Figure 1. Surface rupture zone associated with the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake along the BYF and GJF. Red circle- the
major shock of Wenchuan earthquake. Yellow circles- aftershocks relocated by (Huang et al., 2008) from May 12 to July
8, 2008. Red lines indicate the surface rupture zone of Wenchuan earthquake modified from (Xu et al., 2009). Aftershock
focal cross sections are indicated by Blue rectangles. Black box shows the study area. Focal mechanism solutions are taken
from USGS.YBF-Yingxiu-Beichuan fault, GJF- Guanxian-Jiangyou fault, WMF- Wenchuan-Maoxian fault, QCF- Qingchuan
fault, MSF- Minshan fault, HYF- Huya fault. Whit circle- placename: DJY- Dujiangyan County, YX- Yingxiu Town, XYDXiaoyudong Town, WC- Wenchuan County, MX- Maoxian County, QP- Qingping Town, LG-Leigu Town, BC- Beichuan
County, QC-Qingchuan County. Inset map shows tectonic features around the Tibetan Plateau. SC-Sichan Basin.
Figure 2. Characteristics of deformed river terraces in Qipanshi Village, Qingping Town, showing surface rupture (solid line,
teeth toward upper plate) and river terraces (grey level region). Thin dashed lines indicate the surveying line of displacement of
terraces across the surface rupture zone. Thick long dashed lines show active faults inferred from shutter ridges, linear valleys
and aligned saddles in SPOT satellite images and aerial photos. Thick short dashed lines indicate the bedrock fault traces from
the geological map at scale 1:200,000. Contour lines are from the topographic map at scale 1:50,000. Black solid box is the
location of trench excavation. The projection coordinate system is WGS84-UTM.
714
Figure 3. Photographs of typical surface ruptures of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in Qipanshi Village, Qingping Town.
White arrows indicate the coseismic surface scarps. R- Mianyuan River. (a) Scarp on the floodplain(T0), view to NW. (b) Scarp
on the terrace T1, view to NW. (c) Scarp on the terrace T2, view to NE. (d) Scarp on the terrace T3, view to NW. (e) Survey
result of the vertical displacement of river terraces. See Figure 2 for the location of surveying lines.
earthquake dislocated the terrace sequence from floodplain (T0) to the third terrace (T3). According to the
local villagers, these geomorphological surfaces are
almost flat before Wenchuan earthquake. RTK Surveying lines are perpendicular to the strike of the
coseismic surface scarp (Fig. 2). The raw GPS data
were processed into WGS84-UTM Map Grid coordinates and graphed by the program grapher v4.0
(Golden Software Inc.). Surveying results indicates
that the floodplain T0 of Mianyuan River was dislocated in the southern Qipanshi Village and formed a
310-cm-high scarp (Figs. 3a and e) and a cement road
on terrace T1 was broken by the earthquake and its
scarp is 310 cm height(Figs. 3b and e). The farmland
on terrace T2 was deformed and its scarp is 294 cm
high (Figs. 3c and e) and the scarp height on terrace
T3 is 310 10 cm (Figs. 3d and e). In addition, the horizontal offset of terraces and floodplain is very small
and unobvious (Fig. 3b).
715
Shallow excavations have been proved to be very useful for describing the internal structure of fault scarp
(Yeats et al., 1997). In order to study the deformation
of alluvial sediments in this earthquake, a 13 m-longand-5 m-deep trench was excavated on the surface of
terrace T2 across the rupture scarp (Figs. 2 and 4). SW
wall of the trench was mapped in detail. The trench
discovers eight sediment units (Fig. 4). Unit 1 consists
of recent blackish 20-cm-thick cultivated soil (mainly
sand with pebbles and often grass roots) which covers
the surface of terrace T2 and presently is the farmland. Other units represent alluvial deposits. Unit 2
is a brownish cobble filled with sand and silty sand.
Unit 3 is a grey bowlder filled with coarse sand. Unit 3
and 2 represent the sediment rhythm from coarse to
fine in the alluvial system. Unit 4 is a grayish-brown
coarse sand, filled with pebbles. Unit 5 is a yellowishbrown gravel-bearing silt. And unit 6 is medium-grain
grayish-brown sand with horizontal beddings. Unit 7
consists of grey gravel-bearing coarse sand and unit 8
consists of a yellowish-brown horizontally- bedding
coarse sand, filled with pebbles.
On the terrace T2, the fault scarp reflects only
warping at the surface. In the excavation, the zone of
faulting is about 2-m wide and complex (Fig. 4b). Unit
6 to 8 are on the hanging wall of the fault and dragged
by the fault plane f3 and an extensional packed wedge
was formed along with the movement of the fault plane
The result of RTK surveying on river terraces indicates that terrace T1-T3 and flood plain (T0) have
a equivalent vertical offset which represents the last
vertical displacement (3 m) in QingpingTown. Excavation of the trench on the terrace T2 shows that the
deposit layers (Unit 13) were merely warped in the
2008 Wenchuan earthquake and their vertical deformations are equivalent to the vertical offset of terrace
T2 (Fig. 3). And the other paleoearthquake is not discovered through the deformation of sediment in this
trench (Fig. 4). These finds give me the evidence that
surface rupture in Qipanshi does not follow the fault
trace of the last rupture and bedrock faults and it is
possibly newly broken.
Qipanshi Village is located in the fault jog between
the fault (F1) from Yingxiu Town and the fault (F2)
from Beichuan County (Figs. 2 and 5). In Qipanshi,
the fault F1 is mainly thrusting uplift and has a very
small horizontal slip. Field investigations shows that
the fault F2 have an almost equivalent displacement
in vertical and horizontal direction (Xu et al., 2009).
Relocated aftershock sequence of Wenchuan earthquake using double-difference algorithm indicates that
two sides of the fault jog have a different pattern of
aftershock activity (Fig. 1) (Huang et al., 2008), which
may demonstrate the principal thrusting uplift in the
716
Figure 6. Geological section (A-A ) in Qipanshi Village. Section line is seen on Fig. 2.
CONCLUSION
RTK surveying of alluvial terrace sequence and excavation of the trench across the surface rupture in
Qipanshi Village, Qingping Town indicate that the vertical offset of terraces and sediment in the trench is
equivalent to the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (3 m)
in situ and this proves that this surface scarp is possibly
a new-born rupture.
The strain energy accumulated in the jog zone due
to different movement of the faults of two sides, was
focused on the soft interlayer of carbonaceous shale
717
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718
ABSTRACT: Wenchuan MS 8.0 earthquake happened 0n May 12th 2008, which was mainly caused by the
activity of the Central Fault Belt. What aspects did surface rupture characteristics of this earthquake manifest?
According to the surface rupture belts, deformation characteristics, kinematic characteristics and aftershock
migration characteristics formed by Wenchuan MS 8.0 earthquake along theYingxiu Nanba segment of Central
Fault Belt On May 12th 2008, combined with the former study about physical character of the shallow and deep
part of the fault, the research result showed: (1) FromYingxiu to Nanba, the faulting mode changed from reversethrusting to reverse-thrusting with right lateral slip and to the component of right lateral striking slip correspond
to the component of thrust, and was accompanied by a weak rotation between the two walls of the fault; (2) On
the whole, the northeast direction striking fault was dominated by thrusting with right lateral slipping, while
locally there was northwest direction thrusting with left lateral striking slip, as was the result of the east-west
direction stress; (3) The seismic cracks, the distribution of aftershocks and the deformation characteristics of the
overlapped shortening on the earths surface revealed that the rupture and strain energy releasing resulted from
the combined action of region tectonic stress in near east-west direction and local tectonic stress in northeast
direction; (4) Under the geological background of nearly east-west direction exceptional density zone and the
fault plane dipping to east-west direction, plateau matter creepaging to the east along the slip layer led to nearly
east-west direction stress and brought the Wenchuan MS 8.0 earthquake, and whose energy regulation behaved
as the active method of Longmenshan Fault.
Longmenshan Orogen, as Chinese first grade tectonic
unit, which is the boundary of the Songpan-Ganzi fold
belt and the Yangtze Plate, is a grand complex thrust
belt, which composes of the Back range fault, Centre
fault and Front range fault which arrange like folded
tiles by northeast direction (Fig. 1), locating the boundary between the physiognomy of the East and the West
of China (Zhang et al., 2003). There was a great earthquake happening in the Central Fault 0n May 12th
2008 whose magnitude is MS 8.0, epicentral being in
the Yingxiu town and the depth of earthquake source
about 18 km. Meanwhile, Beichuan county suffered a
great destroy and formed elliptical intensity zone as
Yingxiu-Beichuan an axis, with eleven degree. This
earthquake behaves high magnitude, grand energy,
shallow epicentral and long duration (90s) (Chen et al.,
2008; Deng, 2008) and the most peak value ground
acceleration was recorded by Strong Earthquake Desk
reaching 957.7 gal (Deng, 2008).
Experts and researches at large think, combining with the Satellite images and scientific reviews,
that Wenchuan earthquake behaved thrust, right lateral striking and extrusion, whose seismic structure
is the Central fault. The above seems contradiction
comparing with the viewpoint on the characteristics
of the Longmen shan Orogen before the Earthquake.
For example, the process of surface shallow geologic
719
720
Yingxiu
Vertical
5.2
displacement/
horizontal
displacement
Hongkou
Xiaoyudong
spot
Gaochuan Leigu Pingtong
Vertical
1.03
1.16 1.03
displacement/
horizontal
displacement
Nanba
0.8
721
1.2
Surface deformation not only reveals fault plate horizontal movement and vertical movement, but its rotating upwards, side wring and overlapping in space as
well. With the same stress state, the dynamic direction
the edured medium suffering of was changed because
of varying of geometry shape, as may lead it to rotate
and deform (Xu, 1984) (Fig. 4). Intensively gliding
of the Fault led rapid deformation of the fence on the
road at the South to Xiaoyudong, whose shape was like
twist. According to the above characteristic, the component of fence overlapped shortening was estimated
1.3 m, while at the north to Xiaoyudong, the component shortened of road-surface overlapped 1 m, which
has relation with the upward rotation and lateral rotation by the broken plate curving thrust upward. Weak
arc-shaped oblique scratches was produced on fault
plane of rock, whose vertical offset is about 5.1 m. dip
in the upper section of the scratches is northeast with
the most pitches of which between 45 50 , while
the lower section is almost erection, which reveals the
fault behaves with lateral reversion, whereas whose
activity was main thrust with right-lateral strike slip.
1.3
at 10:00 on June 23, 2008, characteristics of temporal and spatial distribution of aftershocks showed
that The general active trend of aftershock along the
Central fault belt moved northward. in the process
of performance, fault aftershocks of the North-South
inter-regional happened repeatedly, And the dense
band of aftershocks concentrated in the Dujiangyan
Mianzhu, Beichuan, and Qingchuan 3 regions (Fig. 1).
Meanwhile, more mainly distributed Dujiangyan
Mianzhuand Qingchuan. That is to say, active characteristic of aftershock indicated the modulation of strain
energy first happened in the north and south ends of the
three regions and rebound out and home and the latter
concentrated in the central region. This shows geological characteristics of north and south regional location
determine the characteristics of the earthquake activity. According to the Longmen Shan orogenic belt and
its surrounding geological environment, we can see
that Dujiangyan Mianzhu zone ,located the zone
which the Longmen Shan fault belt, and the Minjiang
fault, whose strike is NW direction, converges but not
joints, with east-west direction stress collecting zone,
Qingchuan zone lies arc cut-point of the Longmen
Shan fault belt, while the Beichuan becomes its right
node, therefore, three zones all are sensitive zones of
strain accumulation and release.
At the same time, strain energy released in Beichuan
zone of the Central fault, where the continuity of fault
structure is better, size is rather greater and strike
is similar. The fact of a large great deal of energy
release in Beichuan zone provided for the collecting
and releasing of strain energy in Qingchuan zone.
North and south linking made aftershocks periodic
recurrence at the north and south ends of the Central fault possible. And in this process, strain energy
was accumulated and released for several times in the
Beichuan area where a strong stick-slip was occurred
and this led aftershocks to recur repeatedly along the
tectonic line, concentrating in three regions.
722
MECHANISM OF WENCHUAN
EARTHQUAKE
723
Table 2.
Schedule for activity and surface deformation features in Yingxiu-Nanba segment of Wenchuan 8.0 seismic fault.
spot
Activity patterns
Yingxiu
thrust
125
Hongkou
Xiaoyudong
Gaochuan
Leigu
Pingtong
Nanba
perpendicular to the direction of fault lines, then gradually changes into northeast-east direction along the
fault line, tending to be in according to the direction of the fault striking. According to data derived
from inversion of focal depth of Wenchuan 8.0 earthquake from 12 to 19 km, the projection for the place
just locating in the deep part of the Beichuan-Yingxiu
fault. Meanwhile, co-seismic surface rupture showed
northwest-west direction with right lateral strike slip
in the south to Xiaoyudong, as indicates the tectonic
stress here extrusion as eastwest direction (Jiang et al.,
2008). If the process of the whole earthquake was
divided into 7 phases, in the first phase, active characteristic of the earthquake mainly manifested thrust,
then gradually turned into strike slip. 7 phases corresponded to earthquake magnitude respectively Mw7.1,
Mw7.1 Mw7.6, Mw7.4, Mw7.4, Mw7.4 and Mw7.2
(Chen, 2008). And according to the result of focal
mechanism solution of aftershocks from Dr. Zheng
Yong (China Geological Survey Bureau, 2008) making
the use of CAP (Cut and Pasate) method, tectonic stress
tends to northeast-eastnortheast direction along the
fault, which is identical to the result acquired from
surface rupture and deformation characteristic.
Combination with the temporal and spatial distribution of previous aftershocks (above 4.5 magnitude)
of Wenchuan earthquake, this zone was pushed from
the east to the west, and aftershocks happened following as the rule. And all the aftershocks lying the
east to the main earthquake and not west indicated
Wenchuan earthquake should not be function of northwewst direction structure, but nearly east-west tectonic
stress trigger activity of the Longmen Shan fault.
110
uncertainty
310 130
330 70
60 75
55
Deformation characteristic
CONCLUSION
724
725
The research of the cumulative vertical slip of the faults which caused
the MS 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake
Wang Lin, Tian Qinjian & Hao Kai
China Earthquake Disaster Prevention Center, Beijing, China
Yu Jianqiang
Institute of Earthquake Prediction, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: The Wenchuan earthquake(Ms = 8.0) suddenly happened on May 12th 2008 in Sichuan
Province,China.This earthquake produced a 240 km-long co-seismic surface rupture along the Longmenshan
Central Fault. We mainly focus on three regions along the co-seismic surface rupture: the Nanba Town and the
Fenghuang Village on the northern segment of the rupture,the the Yingxiu Town on the southern segment of the
rupture, and we study the river terraces in these regions cut by the active fault. We measured the surface rupture
and the fault scarps on the multilevel terraces. We obtain the height of the fault scarps on the terrace of each
level through data calculation and analysis,and the height of the scarps is namely the cumulative vertical slip of
the active fault recorded by terrace. If we use the vertical slip of this earthquake as the average vertical slip of
the paleoearthquakes,then the ratio of the cumulative vertical slip of each terrace to this average vertical slip is
namely the cumulative times of the paleoearthquakes record by each terrace. The research results shows that T1
of every study area undergoes only 1 time of the paleoearthquake since its formation, T2 undergoes about 5 times
of the paleoearthquakes since its formation, T3 undergoes about 911 times of the paleoearthquakes since its
formation and T4 undergoes about 20 times of the paleoearthquakes since its formation. Based on the research
result of this paper,combined with the previously dating ages of the terraces,we can obtain some reliable data
about the recurrence intervals of the paleoearthquakes.
1 INTRODUCTION
On May 12th, 2008, an Ms8.0 earthquake occured on
the Longmenshan tectonic belt in Sichuan Province in
China. The longmenshan tectonic belt is considered as
a thrust nappe structure, and its cacavity of triggering
earthquakes has been underestimated for a long time.
For example, during the process of making the seismic ground motion parameter zonation map of China,
the upper magnitude limit of the potential focal in this
area was set at 7. To some extent, this fault is due
to the deficiency of the data about the seismic activity and especially the paleoearthquakes. As a result
of the bedrock uplifting, the denudation within this
area is strong, so the amount of the Quaternary sediments (especially fine particle sediments) is small,
causing the difficulties of the research on the seismic
activity and paleoearthquakes. Since the Wenchuan
earthquake, the CEA emergency exploration team has
dug several trenches (RanYongkang et al. 2008, Zhang
Peizhen et al. 2008), but the strata in these trenches are
mainly composed of coarse clastic rocks, reducing the
accuracy of the timing and the identification of the
paleoearthquakes.
727
Figure 1. Simplified map of seismic surface rupture distribution of the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake. the north margin
of the West Qinling Fault; 2. East Kunlun Fault; 3. Xianshuihe Fault; 4. Jiali Fault; 5. Longmenshan Fault; A. Nanba; B.
Fenghuangcun; C. Yingxiu).
METHODS
Instrument and measurement
728
Data processing
DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Nanba
4.1.1 Terrace
The basic setting of Nanba is shown in figure 3a. Terraces develop on both of the riverbank. T0 and T1 is
obvious and can be identified easily; T2 and higher
level terraces have been severely eroded and deformed,
so the their remnants is hard to find and we can only
identify the rough boundary of these terraces through
detailed investigation.
4.1.2 The relation between the fault and terraces
The fault in this area thrusts southeastward, with a
strike of N50 E and a right-lateral feature. The fault
cuts through the terraces, forming many scarps. Some
obvious terrace scarps exist at a (T0 and T1 ), b (T0 and
T1 ), c (T3 ) and d (T1 ) (Fig. 3a).
4.1.3 Data analysis
According to the methods discussed in 2.1 and 2.2,
we measured the terrace fault scarps at a, b, c and
d, and calculate Hi , Tiu T0u , Tid T0d and Hi /h for Ti
(i = 1, 2, . . . n) (Table 1).
As for T0 , the fault scarps have been partly eroded
by the flowing water, so maybe H0 here is not accurate
enough to use.
As for T1 , we measured the fault scarps at a, b and
d. At a and d, the terrace width along the direction
perpendicular to the river is large, so we placed three
measuring lines across the scarps to control the overall topography of the profile, and we take the mean
scarpheight value of all these profiles as the H1 value
for T1 . At b, we placed one measuring line along
the road, but H1b (H1b means H1 at b) value is obviously larger than H1a and H1c , so maybe there already
existed some other scarp or a slope terrain before this
earthquake, and H1b maybe too large to be used here.
Figure 3b shows scarps profile of T1 at a, b and d.
From a to b then to d, the overall elevation of the profile
increases, but the scarp height of profiles are similar. Field investigation shows that T1 only experienced
one earthquake, namely the Wenchuan earthquake, so
H1 equals h. On the other hand, H1a = 1.56 m, and
H1d = 1.11 m, so we can infer H1c = hc = 1.34 m by
linear interpolation.
729
Figure 3. The distribution of the survey line in the Nanba Town and the comparison of the morphology of different profiles.
the basic setting of Nanba; b. the scarps profile of T1 at a, b and d; c. the scarps profile of T3 at c).
have also been eroded into a concave pit, so the terrace remnant is very narrow around the fault scarp, but
they can still be identified through detailed investigation. According to the measurement, H3c = 15.74 m,
hc = 1.34 m, and H3c /hc 11, so we infer that T3 have
experienced 11 paleoearthquake events until now (inc
luding this time).
730
4.2
Fenghuangcun
4.2.1 Terrace
The basic setting of Fenghuangcun is shown in figure 4a. Terraces develop on both of the riverbank.
T0 and T1 is mainly on the southwestern riverbank;
T2 is mainly on the northeastern riverbank. All these
terraces are flat and board, and can be easily identified
through detailed investigation.
4.2.2 The relation between the fault and terraces
The fault in this area thrusts southeastward, with a
strike between N35 E and N45 E and also a rightlateral feature. The fault cuts through the terraces
(T0 , T1 and T2 ).
4.2.3 Data analysis
According to the methods discussed in 2.1 and 2.2,
we measured the terrace fault scarps at a, b and c,
and calculate Hi , Tiu T0u , Tid T0d and Hi /h for Ti
(i = 1, 2, . . . n) (Table 2).
As for T0 , T1 and T2 , we measured the fault
scarps on them. The terrace width along the direction
Hi (m)
Hi /h
1
3
1.34
15.74
12.05
83.38
9.60
67.63
1
11
Hi (m)
Hi /h
0
1
2
2.71
2.51
12.14
0
2.77
30.32
0
2.94
20.72
1
1
5
Figure 4. The distribution of the survey line in the Fenghuang Village and the comparison of the morphology of different
profiles. (a. the basic setting of Fenghuangcun; b. the scarps profile of T0 , T1 and T2 ).
731
Figure 5. The distribution of the survey line in the Yingxiu Town and the comparison of the morphology of different profiles.
(a. the basic setting of Yingxiu; b. the scarps profile of T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 ).
4.3 Yingxiu
4.3.1 Terrace
The basic setting of Yingxiu is shown in figure 5a. T0 ,
T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 develop on the southwestern riverbank, and all these terraces are flat and board, and can
be easily identified through detailed investigation.
Hi (m)
Hi /h
0
1
2
3
4
2.28
2.40
11.88
20.96
46.97
0
5.96
23.05
54.12
121.71
0
5.21
13.60
35.49
76.28
1
1
5
9
20
732
733
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the three-dimensional numerical modeling of in situ stress distributions in
a limited seismic region of the Earths crust. The model involves a vertical strike-slip planar fault that resides
in the crust and reaches the Earths surface. Stress distribution in faulted areas can be calculated and then used
to assess the potential of regional seismic hazard. The second goal of this study is application of a constitutive
relation which represents the governing equation of the failure process and specifies the dependence between
stress, fault slip, slip rate, and other relevant physical properties. There are several laboratory-derived friction
constitutive laws among which the slip-weakening was adopted in this paper to simulate the failure process based
on stick-slip behavior of faults. The finite element code (ABAQUS) is used to model the mechanical behavior
of fault illustrating the distribution of stress and deformation in the crust.
INTRODUCTION
The dynamic rupture along a fault during an earthquake is a highly complex process involving many
factors such as fault geometry, the initial stress field
and the constitutive law. Since most of earthquakes
occur by sudden slippage along pre-existing faults, the
frictional behavior of faults and the constitutive friction law is the main factor in earthquake mechanism
(Scholz 1998). The first step in the expression of frictional mechanism of faults is to define the stick-slip
instability as shown in
.
In the standard model of this mechanism, it is
assumed that sliding begins when the ratio of shear
to normal stress on contact surfaces reaches the value
of static friction coefficient. After that sliding occurs
and the coefficient of friction decreases and reaches
735
Table 1.
, (MPa)
Central Square
The left square
The right square
Remainder area of fault
Strength barrier
81.6
78
62
70
70
Like other rock friction laws, slip weakening is a laboratory derived friction law and it has three parameters
which are estimated based on experimental results. In
this paper the linear slip weakening is used with this
formulation:
MODEL DESCRIPTION
736
CONCLUSION
737
in every point of fault plane the linear slip weakening law governs as a frictional resistant and the total
displacement in focal depth at the end of analysis
reaches 5.2 m.
REFERENCES
Chen, T. & Lapusta N. 2008. Rate and state friction laws can
explain scaling of small repeating earthquakes. Journal of
Geophysical research.
Harris, R. A., M. Barall, R. Archuleta, B. Aagaard, J.-P.
Ampuero, H. Bhat, V. Cruz-Atienza, L. Dalguer, P.
Dawson, S. Day, B. Duan, E. Dunham, G. Ely, Y. Kaneko,
Y. Kase, N. Lapusta, Y. Liu, S. Ma, D. Oglesby, K.
Olsen, A. Pitarka, S. Song, & E. Templeton 2009. The
SCEC/USGS Dynamic Earthquake Rupture Code Verification Exercise. Seismological Research Letters 80(1):
119126.
Jeager, J. C., N. G. W. Cook, et al. 2007. Fundamentals of
rock mechanics, Blackwell.
Liu, B. & B. Shi 2009. A brief discussion on the relationship
between apparent stress and slip-weakening law based on
the energy partition criteria. Earthq Sci 22: 6367
738
ABSTRACT: In this work, we analyze the characteristics of three-dimensional Mohr diagram. Based on this
analysis, the conditions of reactivation of pre-existing planes on a Mohr diagram due to changes in applied stress
state are investigated. Our results indicate that: (1) On a three-dimensional Mohr diagram, one point, which is
an intersection of three cycles (arcs) with direction angles 1 , 2 and 3 , indicates a stress state in terms of shear
and normal stresses, which represents four non-parallel planes due to the orthorhombic symmetry of the stress
tensor. This implies that four planes may be reactivated, as long as a point on the diagram is located above the
critical slip line; (2) The reactivated planes that originally had the identical normal and shear stresses can have
two different angles of pitch; (3) If the planes represented by a point on the diagram rotate a magnitude about a
certain axis, some of them could be reactivated, whereas the others could not be reactivated; (4) Reactivation of a
pre-existing plane is dependent on not only change in the maximum differential stress (1 3 ), but also the value
of intermediate stress ( 2 ). No matter what the maximum differential stress increases or decreases or maintains
constant, a pre-existing plane may be reactivated due to changes in any principal stresses. (1) The range of the
dips of the reactivated planes is larger for the smaller values of coefficient of friction and cohesion C. Also, the
range of dip of the reactivated planes increases or decreases as the magnitudes of the principal stresses change.
INTRODUCTION
739
Figure 1. Construction of a 3D Mohr diagram. Three families of concentric circles are shown at center O12 , O31 , O23
in the 1 2 , 3 1 , and 2 3 planes, respectively. The common region (grey area) of three families of concentric circles
represents the stress state on all planes in three dimensions.
where is the magnitude of shear stress and is normal stress on the pre-existing plane; C is the shear
strength on the pre-existing plane when is zero, and
the coefficient of friction on the pre-existing plane.
For this equation, only above half of the Mohr diagram
is used for common analysis. Equation (10) indicates
that on a reactivated plane there is not only shear stress
but also normal stress. On the Mohr diagram, above
the slip envelope, there is stress difference enough to
initiate slip for a range of pre-existing plane orientations. In this region, the states of stress are unstable for
slip. On the other hand, below the slip envelope, slip
will not occur. On the 3D Mohr diagram, four types
of reactivated planes can be distinguished (Fig. 2). On
the first type of planes, the normal stress is compressional as shown by the area with vertical black lines in
Figure 2. On second type of planes, no normal stress
Figure 2. There are four types of reactivated planes according to the normal and stress on the planes. When all principal
stresses are larger than zero, the normal stress on the planes is positive (Fig. 2a). If minimum principal stress is less than zero,
other types of reactivated planes may appear (Fig. 2b, 2c). On one type of planes, only shear stress exists (points on line AB).
On another type of planes, the normal stress is negative (grey area in figures 2b, 2c). Specially, for point G, there is only
extensional stress.
740
Figure 3. Morh diagram explaining the effects of block rotation. In (a), (b), (c), effects of block rotation are shown. The
method of Allmendinger (2002) is used to calculated rotation.
(a) Planes 1 and 2 are two crosscutting planes. The attitude
of plane 1 is 135 /60 SW, and plane 2, 45 /60 SE. Points 1
and 2 are the projections of planes 1 and 2 after rotation. The
axis of rotation is 360 /0 N, and rotation angle is clockwise
30 . After rotation, plane 1 is moved to the point 1 that is
located in the slip area, and plane 2 is moved to point 2, that
is farther from the criterion line = C + than before rotation. (b) The axis of rotation is 90 /0 E, and rotation angle is
30 clockwise. After rotation, two planes are still below and
farther from the critical line of slip. (c) The axis of rotation
is 90 /0 E, and rotation angel is 30 anticlockwise. After
rotation, two planes are located above the critical slip line.
741
Figure 4. Cases of reactivation of pre-existing planes due to changes in the principal stresses during which the maximum
differen-tial stress is not changed. 01 - Original maximum principal stress; 02 - Original intermediate principal stress; 03
Original minimum principal stress; 1 - Original maximum principal stress after change; 2 Original intermediate principal
stress after change; 3 Original minimum principal stress after change. For all cases, P1 > 0, P2 > 0, and P3 > 0.
The axes of the Mohr circle have no geographic significance. Therefore, in order to study the effect of block
rotation, the geographic axes are assumed parallel to
the principal stress direction as shown in Figure 3. It
worth pointing out that in practice, the principal axes
are rarely parallel to the geographic north.
Both the strike and dip of a fault could be changed
during block rotation. As a result, the applied stress on
the fault plane will be changed. Here, for simplicity,
only two planes are shown in Figure 3. There are three
results of rotation if two pre-existing planes below the
slip envelope rotate. First, after rotation, one plane is
located above the slip envelope, whereas another is
still located below the slip envelope and farther to it
than before rotation (Fig. 3a). For this scenario, the two
planes do not induce interaction. Second, after rotation,
two planes are still located in the stable region of slip
and farther to the slip envelope than before rotation
(Fig. 3b). In this case, two planes cannot be initiate
slip. Third, after rotation, two planes are located in the
unstable region of slip (Fig. 3c). In this case, the two
planes become to slip and there may be a kinematic
interaction between two planes. These results imply
that if the planes represented by a point on the Mohr
diagram rotate a certain degree, not all of them can be
reactivated.
Crustal stress state could be considered as a combination of sub-stress tensors. The common known
sub-stress tensor is lithostatic stress tensor. If lithostatic stress tensor is superimposed by pore fluid or
tectonic stress tensor or any other local sub-stress
742
Figure 5. Cases in which the pre-existing planes are reactivated due to changes in the principal stresses with decrease in the
maximum differential stress. The signs of 01 , 02 , 03 , 1 , 2 , and 03 have the same meaning as in Fig. 4. For all cases,
P1 > 0, P2 > 0, and P3 > 0.
743
Figure 6. Cases of reactivation of pre-existing planes due to changes in the principal stresses during which the maximum
differential stress increases. The signs of 01 , 02 , 03 , 1 , 2 , and 3 have the same meaning as in Fig. 4. For all cases, P1 > 0,
P2 > 0, and P3 > 0.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we analyze the characteristics of the reactivated planes on three-dimensional Mohr diagram. We
744
REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the 049049 and 089867
Conacyt projects of Mexico.
745
Jan-Peter Muller
Department of Geomatic Engineering, University College London, London, UK
ABSTRACT: The Red River Fault Zone is a gigantic slide-slip fault zone extending up to 1000 km from
Tibet to South China Sea. It is complex, consisting of up to four strands, and is dominated by right-lateral
strike-slip displacement. Evidence for an extensional component of displacement is strongest along the northern
part of the fault, and decreases to the southeast, to zero southeast of a major bend in the fault. To detecting the
deformation information of this fault is significant to study the activity of the fault. Differential SyntheticAperture
Radar Interferometry (D-InSAR) technology in the detection of surface deformation has been widely applied.
The detection accuracy of the surface deformation can reach centimeter and even millimeter scale. Persistent
scatterers (PS) technique is a classical deformation time series analysis methods. It was proposed to overcome
the traditional D-InSAR technologys restrictive factors, including the temporal and spatial decorrelation and
the atmospheric effects. In this study, we collected ENVISAT ASAR data that covering Red River Fault area.
We analyzed the information of all the acquisitions and the background of the Red River fault to carry out
the PS-InSAR technology. Based on the analyzing of the time-series acquired from the PS-InSAR method, we
detected the displacements along the Red River fault with a comparable accuracy.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
The differential interferometric SAR (D-InSAR) technique is an useful method to monitoring the surface deformation (Peradino, 2002), which was widely
applied in the study of earthquake, volcano movement,
crustal deformation and hill slide, with an accuracy of
cm to mm magnitude (Massonnet, 2009). Recently,
there are some successful practices on applying
D-InSAR technologies in monitoring the crustal deformation (Lixia Gong, 2005). However, the traditional
DInSAR technique has its limitations on detecting the
long term crustal deformation, such as temporal and
spatial de-correlation and atmospheric effects.To overcome these limitations many research has been carried
out on the studying of InSAR Time-series analyzing,
which deal with multiple images.
Permanent scatterer InSAR(PS-InSAR) is an extension of the conventional DInSAR, which was proposed
overcome the main limitations in the conventional
DInSAR techniques. It was developed in the late 1990s
by A. Ferretti, F.Rocca, and C. Prati of the Politecnico di Milano (POLIMI). The main characteristics
of this method are that it utilizes a single master in a
stack of differential interferograms, and that only timecoherent pixels, i.e Permanent Scatterers (PS) are
considered(Ferretti, 2001). In 2004, Andy Hooper presented a new PS-InSAR method, mentioned as Standford method of Persistent scaterrer InSAR, which does
not require the prior knowledge of the deformation
model (Hooper, 2004).
For the PS analysis in this paper, I used StaMPS/
MTI software, which is an open source software provided by Andy Hooper. The Sar data used in this study
are all Envisat Asar raw data. We process the raw data
and generate SLC data using ROI PAC software, which
is also open-source software. After the formation of
the SLC image, we need to carry out the D-InSAR
process to every slave images relative to one master image. Because we used Doris InSAR software to
carry out the D-InSAR processing and form the interferograms, so we need to transfer the SLCs required
from the ROI_PAC software to the format that Doris
software can read. When we get all interferograms
ready, the works before PS analysis were finished.
2
747
Time series
Time (days)
Bperp(m)
Doppler
centroids (HZ)
17-Apr-03
4-Sep-03
18-Dec-03
22-Jan-04
26-Feb-04
1-Apr-04
19-Aug-04
28-Oct-04
2-Dec-04
10-Feb-05
15-Nov-05
22-Dec-05
2-Mar-06
11-May-06
15-Jun-06
20-Jul-06
24-Aug-06
15-Feb-07
27-Dec-07
945
805
700
665
630
595
455
385
350
280
0
35
105
175
210
245
280
455
770
691
95
963
1025
1134
547
948
225
108
690
0
246
518
221
287
715
289
424
582
44.33
68.61
47.12
54.18
43.51
46.23
36.61
46.16
48.73
42.55
0
24.87
25.7
33.93
28.95
29.05
20.35
30.72
22.37
748
749
750
Suhua Cheng
School of Earth Science and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: The thermo-mechanical strength distributions of the lithosphere underneath China were obtained
by 3-D crustal velocity model of China, local isostasy equilibrium constrained geothermal inversion, and
4-layered rheological model of lithosphere. Map of the lateral strength variation at compression condition is
presented for whole China continent, and the thermal thickness of the lithosphere is also calculated. The relative
strength ratio of crust/mantle (SC/SM) in the vast region of Tibetan plateau is larger than 10, corresponding to
a stronger crust but weak upper mantle. It means that the present-day rheology of Tibet belongs to the typical
crme-brle layering due to its warm (hot) geotherm and thick crust. Off Tibetan plateau, the lithosphere
of typical jelly sandwich rheology that SC/SM ratio is less than 1, occurs in Junggar, Tarim, Sichuan basin,
and Dabieshan as well as the southeastern and northeastern part of Sino-Korean platform. However, the SC/SM
ratios are larger than 3 in the northern part of Northeast China, Tian Shan and South China fold belt. The crmebrle model is more suitable for describing the lithosphere rheology of these regions. For other portion of
China, the SC/SM ratios are mainly in range of 1 to c.3, corresponding to a slight stronger crust and a weaker
upper mantle. Accordingly, the most of China Mainland exhibit crme-brle layered lithosphere rather than
jelly sandwich one, with exception of Junggar, Tarim and Sichuan basin as well as some areas in Sino-Korean
platform. This result means that the lithosphere beneath most area of China continent is mechanically weak. It
is the upper crust rather than the upper mantle portion bears the elastic stress. In earthquake-prone regions of
China landmass, the mechanical behavior of crust and mantle is decoupled.
INTRODUCTION
The continental area of China is made up of juxtaposed strongly deformed parts and relatively stable
regions, and the crustal structure, lithosphere thickness
and temperature distributions beneath China mainland
exhibits significant lateral variations (Wang, 2001).
Accordingly, the study on the strength of the continental lithosphere in China provides not only insights
on the present-day geodynamics for this geologically
intriguing country, but also information about the spatial variability of lithospheric rheology in a highly
heterogeneous landmass.
To avoid the difficult from the biased geographic
distribution and possible intrinsic errors of some heat
flow observations, in here we use local isostasy analysis to constrain the temperature distributions within
the lithosphere of China mainland. The 1 1 grid
based map of the lateral strength variation is presented,
either maps of the thermal lithosphere thickness and
the 600 C isothermal contours. Compared to the work
by Wang (2001), this study puts its feet up a solid
physical principle rather than geological experiences
CALCULATION OF LITHOSPHERIC
STRENGTH
751
where is a parameter depending on the type of faulting, the average density, g the gravity acceleration,
Z is the depth and is the pore fluid factor. In this
study, we take = 3.0 (thrust faulting) and a typical
(hydrostatic) = 0.37.
Power-creep law is expressed as (Ranalli 1995):
where is the steady-state strain rate, T the temperature in degrees Kelvin, R the universal gas constant, A
and n are material creep parameters, Q the activation
energy.
A scalar measure for the total strength of a multilayer lithosphere with a depth-dependent rheology
can be obtained by vertically integrating the yield
envelope:
Table 1.
Lithology
(2)
(3)
(4)
n
2.3
3.1
4.2
4.0
243
445
471
Q (kJ mol1 ) 154
A (MPan s1 ) 2.0 104 8.0 103 1.4 104 2.0 103
(1) Wet quartzite: Kirby & Kronenberg (1987); (2) Felsic granulite: Wilks & Carter (1990); (3) Mafic granulite:
Chopra & Paterson (1984); (4) Wet peridotite: Chopra &
Paterson (1981).
752
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is supported by the 973 Research
Project (Grant no. 2008CB425704) from Ministry
of Science and Technology, PRC, National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant no. 90814006,
40572128, 40376013, 40104003), and the project
753
Three-dimensional lithospheric structure and evolution of China from Ministry of Land and Resources,
PRC.
REFERENCES
Afonso, J.C. & Ranalli, G. 2004. Crustal and mantle strengths
in continental lithosphere: is the jelly sandwich model
obsolete? Tectonophysics 394: 221232.
Brace, W.F. & Kohlstedt, D.L. 1980. Limits on lithospheric
stress imposed by laboratory experiments. Journal of
Geophysical Research 85: 62486252.
Burov, E.B. & Watts, A.B. 2006. The long-term strength
of continental lithosphere: jelly sandwich or crme
brle? GSA Today 16: 410.
Byerlee, J. 1978. Friction of rocks. Pure and Applied Geophysics 116: 615626.
Carter, N.L. & Tsenn, M.C. 1987. Flow properties of continental lithosphere. Tectonophysics 136: 2763.
Chopra, P.N. & Paterson, M.S. 1981. The experimental
deformation of dunite. Tectonophysics 78: 453473.
Chopra, P.N. & Paterson, M.S. 1984. The role of water in the
deformation of dunite. Journal of Geophysical Research
89: 78617876.
Cloetingth, D. & Burov, E.B. 1996. Thermomechanical
structure of European continental lithosphere: constraints
from rheological profile and EET estimates. Geophysical
Journal International 124: 695723.
Goetze, C. & Evans, B. 1979. Stress and temperature in the
bending lithosphere as constrained by experimental rock
mechanics. Geophysical Journal of the Royal astronomy
Society 59: 463478.
Jackson, J. 2002. Strength of the continental lithosphere:Time
to abandon the jelly sandwich? GSA Today 12: 410.
Kirby, S.H. & Kronenberg, A.K. 1987. Rheology of the
lithosphere: selected topics. Review in Geophysics 25:
12191244.
Lachenbruch, A.H. & Morgan, P. 1990. Continental extension, magmatism and elevation: formal relations and rules
of thumb. Tectonophysics 174: 3962.
Maggi, A., Jackson, J.A., McKenzie, D. & Priestley, K. 2000.
Earthquake focal depths, effective elastic thickness, and
754
ABSTRACT: In 1960s, J.S. Lee (Si-Guang Li) pointed out that, tectonic stress and its variation have tight
relationship with earthquake, and unraveling the stress variation process by in-situ stress measurement is key to
realize earthquake prediction. On the basis of Dr. Lees speeches and my own experiences of the related practices,
some significant ideas from Dr. Lee on the earthquake prediction were introduced. Today, his ideas on safe
island and earthquake prediction still have theoretical and practical significances.
According to Prof. J.S. Lees previous speeches and
instructions, combined with our own working experiences, his main ideas and opinions about earthquake
prediction are introduced below, which still have
theoretical and practical significances in the present.
757
758
geodetic survey, micro-scale displacement measurement and in-situ tectonic stress measurement, and
deploy earthquake observation network to carry out
micro and macro seismic observation. Third, comprehensively analyze above data, study the distribution
and variation of current stress, and find out the relationship between the stress and local earthquakes, and
then determine hypocenters and their distribution area.
In this way, it is possible to infer earthquake developing
trend in the future.
Dr. Lee also believes that most earthquakes are
tectonic earthquakes induced by tectonic movements.
The tectonic movements would occur only when force
in certain intensity acts on the rock. For a rock
with certain elasticity, the rock will not break and
form earthquake until the force (stress) increases and
exceeds the rocks strength limit. For the above reasons, it is believed that in a region where earthquakes
are related to tectonism, selecting suitable location and
observing the increase process of stress is one of the
reliable approaches to grope for earthquake prediction
(Li, 1973). The above idea provides a new approach
for the earthquake prediction.
Today, rather than out of the date, Dr. Lees theories and thoughts are still valuable fortune for us, and
we are worthy to understand, study and develop them
further. With the development and progress of modern
science and technology, some difficulties in the past
will become easy to be solved. Long-time scientific
practice tells us that for earthquake geological study
and earthquake prediction, correct instructive thoughts
and scientific technological line are critical.
REFERENCES
Li, F. 1981. Some Reminiscences on Li Siguang (in Chinese).
In Li Siguang Yan Jiu Hui (ed), Li Siguang Ji Nian Wen
Ji. Beijing: Geological Publishing House.
Li, S.-G. 1973. Earthquake Geology (in Chinese). Beijing:
Science Press.
Li, S.-G. 1974. Li Siguangs Suggestions for GeologicalWorks
(1) Discussion on Trial Production of Equipments for
Stress Measurement (Jan. 1, 1968) (in Chinese). Beijing:
Institute of Geomechanics, CAGS.
Ma, S. & Ma, L. 1999. Li Siguang Nian Pu (in Chinese).
Beijing: Geological Publishing House.
759
ABSTRACT: This paper summarizes the typical features and their regularities of the observed coseismic
surface ruptures by Wenchuan Earthquake in terms of the three faults, ground locations, ground geomaterials,
rupture geometries and rupture displacements. The paper then uses both the traditional and the authors views
to analyze and explain the surface rupture phenomena. The traditional view believes that the earthquake energy
was the elastic stress-strain energy accumulated in interlocked stressed hard fault rocks, but leads to unsolvable
inconsistency to the observed rupture phenomena. The authors view is based on his discovery of originality
that the earthquake energy was the volumetric expansion energy of highly compressed natural gas in deep traps
of Longmen Shan fault zone. The authors view leads to the conclusion that the surface rupture phenomena
are not complicated and have consistent and systematic regularities with respect to the flash loading of highly
pressurized natural gas from the deep fault grounds.
INTRODUCTION
761
2
2.1
CONCENTRATED DISTRIBUTIONS OF
SURFACE RUPTURES
Distribution of surface ruptures mainly along
three faults
762
4.3
763
were (5, -), (2.8, 4.5), (2, -), (0, 3), (0, 0.6), (0, 0.6) and
(0, 2), respectively.
4.7 A few rupture scarps with upward striations
found
The rupture dislocation of geomaterials involves frictional shearing and results in slickenside striations
on the scarp plane. The rake angle of striations on
the plane describes the relative displacement direction
between the hanging-wall and the footwall. Although
there were many surface ruptures, striations were
found and reported on a few rupture scarps along the
Yingxiu-Beichuan-Qingchuan Fault only (He & others, 2008; Xu & others, 2008; Li & Wei, 2009; Liu &
others, 2009; Zhang, 2009). The striations indicated
upward frictions with the rake angles between 10
and 84 .
5
764
765
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank partial financial supports for the field investigations from Professor Peng
Cui under the 973 Program No 2008CB425800 and
from The University of Hong Kong.
REFERENCES
Chen, G.H., Xu, X.W., Zheng, R.Z., Yu, G.H., Li, F., Li.
C.X., Wen, X.Z., He, Y.L., Ye, Y.Q., Chen, X.C. & WANG,
Z.C. 2008. Quantitative analysis of the co-seismic surface rupture of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan,
China along the beichuan-Yingxiu fault, Seismology and
Geology, 30(3): 723738. (in Chinese)
Chen, H., Li, Y., Dong, S.L., Yan, L., Ma, B.L., Qiao,
B.C. & Feng, J.Q. 2009. Deformation features of surface rupture of the Wenchuan earthquake (M8. 0) at the
Bailu town, Chinese Journal of Nature, 31(5): 268271.
(in Chinese)
Chen, Y.T. 2008. Magnitude and fault length of Wenchuan
great earthquake, Science & Technology Review, 26(10):
2627. (in Chinese)
Gao, X., He, H.L., Wei, Z.Y. & Dong, S.P. 2008. The causation
of maximum horizontal displacement of Wenchuan earthquake along the Baisha river, Seismology and Geology,
30(4): 10041011. (in Chinese)
766
767
Zhang, P.Z., Xu, X.W., Wen, X.Z. & Ran Y.K. 2008. Slip
rates and recurrence intervals of the Longmen Shan active
fault zone, and tectonic implications for the mechanism of
the May 12 Wenchuan earthquake, 2008, Sichuan China.
Chinese Journal of Geophysics, 51(4): 10661073. (in
Chinese)
Zhang, P.Z., Wen, X.Z., Xu, X.W., Gan, W.J., Wang, M., Shen,
Z.K., Wang, Q.L., Huang, Y., Zheng, Y., Li, X.J., Zhang,
Z.Q. Ma, S.L., Ran, Y.K., Liu, Q.Y. Ding, Z.F. & Wu, J.P.
2009. Tectonic model of the great Wenchuan earthquake of
May 12, 2008, Sichuan, China. Chinese Science Bulletin
(Chinese Version), 54(7): 944953. (in Chinese)
768
ABSTRACT: Investigation of mechanical behavior in intact rock can help to better understand the stressstrain correlation in accordance with yielding. Attention to the formulation of yield criteria can direct the
research into two areas, developing the criteria based on interpolation of experimental data and detailed study of
micromechanics. The aim in the mathematical theory of yielding is to describe the theoretical respects in relation
to stress and strain and recognition of the limit between elastic and plastic behavior. The authors consider
studying of yielding in intact rock at different scales. From Weibull theory it is believed that the increase in
scale causes a decrease in the strength. This has been quantified by the Hoek-Brown equation for Uniaxial
Compressive Strength (UCS). However, the confinement can change this strength and subsequently yielding.
Thus, from experimental observations the change of yielding at different scales is investigated. The experiments
are conducted on cylindrical samples of sandstone with diameters of 50 and 96 mm. Every specimen was tested
at different confining pressures. The distinctions of the initial yield points at different scales are extracted and
the yield surfaces are depicted. Finally a simple mathematical yield criterion is developed.
INTRODUCTION
In addition, the propagation of cracks and fracture patterns were investigated and followed by some
experimental studies of the permeability in Hawkesbury sandstone.
Finally, from the samples at 96 mm diameter, a simple mathematical model was developed that can depict
the yield and ultimate failure surfaces.
2 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
2.1 Triaxial Cell
In order to conduct the triaxial experiments at different
confining pressures, a triaxial cell was applied. The
cell can provide a confinement of up to 70 MPa with
a maximum loading capacity of 2000 kN. The axial
displacement on the sample was logged by two axial
transducers and the average of them was considered
as the final measure. Also, two LVDTs on the cell
measured the displacement of the ram and similarly
the mean value was counted as the final dimension.
Three different platens were available at 25, 50 and
100 mm diameters and samples up to 3 units of slenderness (the ratio of the length over the diameter) could
be tested in the cell. Figure 1 presents a schematic
design of the triaxial chamber and the name of different parts. The instrumentation was implemented based
on the ISRM (2007) standards.
769
2.2
Confining pressure
SAMPLE PROPERTY
XRD
Sample preparation
EXPERIMENTS
Porosity
770
diameter samples were tested at 5 and 15 MPa confinements. The deviatoric stress was applied at a displacement rate of 3 103 s1 The experiments were
under a servo controlled system and subsequently, the
full post peak behavior was recorded.
The stress-strain curves for the 96 mm diametersamples are presented in Figure 3. From traditional
rock mechanic studies, it has been realized that the initial yield and ultimate failure points rise with increase
in confinement. This is evident here and the minimum and maximum peak points are recorded as 4 and
20 MPa confining pressures, respectively (Figure 3).
It is also identifiable that the stiffness increases with
confinement. Note, this is only the case if brittle behavior occurs and in the ductile regime the scenario is
reversed (Brady and Brown 2006).
From figure 3 it is evident that due to large growth
in the residual strength up to 20 MPa confining pressure, it is predicted that at 3040 MPa confinement the
brittle-ductile regime will occur.
For the samples at 50 mm diameter the scenario is as
defined as above. Figure 4 illustrates the stress-strain
771
0.31
0.61
0.93
1.24
1.55
1
2
3
4
5
F
A
1
2
3
4
5
772
Figure 8. Distribution of UCS values in Hawkesbury Sandstone at different scales (Sharrock et al. 2010)
strength by increase in the diameter is not recognizable. The authors believe in addition to what Sharrock
et al. (2010) discussed, the diversity of the testing criteria such as friction control and various slenderness
could be the reasons that this scatter was observed. In
this study the authors tried to reduce friction effects as
much as possible by application of suggested ISRM
(2007) criteria.
Based on the XRD information and what Sharrock
et al. (2010) argued, there are some oxidization zones
in the rock sample with small clusters that significantly can cause inhomogeneity. Also, the results of
the porosity tests proved that the range of void ratio
is high and this could impact on the UCS results at
different scales. Perhaps, these points can be the reasons that the expected reduction in UCS values was
not observed. However, the authors believe that due to
the contraction in the sample at high confining pressure the impact of random distribution of porosity may
decrease due to the closure of the pores when sample
contracts at high confinement.
4.3
Fracture pattern
Study of the fracture pattern includes the comparative analysis of the shear bands at different sizes and
773
Figure 10. Fracture pattern in the samples at 96 mm diameter (From left to right they failed at 4 and 5 MPa confining
pressures).
Figure 12. Fracture patterns in the samples at 50 mm diameter (From left to right they failed at 5 and 15 MPa confining
pressures).
774
Figure 13. Evolution of permeability of the sample during hydrostatic loading/unloading cycle
1965). Bernabe (1987) explained the frictional sliding mechanism of crack faces in crystalline rocks by
analogy to a single sliding block with a constant normal stress exerted on it. For sandstones, however, the
inherent mechanisms in diminishing the permeability
is believed to be related to other factors such as clay
particles in the rock (Dey 1986).
5 YIELD AND FAILURE CRITERIA
From the above triaxial experiments in the samples at
96 mm diameter two simple yield and failure criteria
were developed. The framework is similar to the Khan
et al. (1991 and 1992) criterion and can determine both
initial yield and ultimate failure surfaces.
To depict the initial yield surface the departure of
the elasticity or the linear variation of the stress-strain
curves in Figure 3 are selected as the initial yield points
and consequently the locus of these spots show the
yield surface on the triaxial stress state (q vs p). Similarly, the failure surface is depicted from the locus of
the peak points.
To determine the criteria, the more suitable fitted
curves to the spots from the experiments are plotted
and the coefficients are extracted. These curves are
drawn in triaxial stress state or deviatoric stress (q)
versus mean stress (p) (Figure 14).
Deviatoric stress (q) and mean stress (p) based
on the rock mechanics principles are defined by
Equations 8 and 9.
Figure 14. Initial yield and ultimate failure surfaces for the
samples at 96 mm diameter
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
775
776
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the design of strain measuring sensor technology of geophysical comprehensive
observations in deep boreholes, the measurement principles of the capacitive displacement sensor are generally
introduced. And the sensor adjustment technology is described in details. Signal conversion circuit, low-power
data acquisition and remote data communication and control are illustrated.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
In order to improve earthquake prediction, particularly in enhancing the ability to track temporary
seismic section, the development environment suitable for the underground observation is chosen for
more than one underground test items of the integrated
observing system (Chen et al. 1995), mainly including
the underground observation broadband seismometer,
tilt-meter, component strain sensor (
1983.),
magnetometer and temperature measurement instrument (Su 2003). It is of great significance to the
research of the underground sealing technology, the
positioning technology and the system integration
technology to develop the underground access to the
integrated data acquisition and data transmission technology. Using the RS422 communications technology,
we can achieve real-time observation data transfer
or transfer by the command and realize the value of
command-control cell-site calibration of sensors and
other control functions.
In accordance with system design requirements,
strain sensors is needed to achieve the following
technical indicators (Li 2004):
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
777
2.2
Signal conditioning
As the strain sensor is installed in the deep-hole environment, the integrated analog signals with the tilt
sensor, temperature sensor, broadband seismic sensors and magnetic sensors can not be transmitted to
the ground mode but the digital sensors. Finally it is to
use the bus ways and ground-based instruments for the
communication. The observational data will be transmitted to the ground-based observations instruments,
sensors, ground-based instruments to receive instructions for controlling the sensor data transmission and
calibration. The requirement acquisition and control
system are designed not only to have the precision
but also the low power consumption, together with
the CPU processing capabilities with high demand (Li
2007).
The component borehole strain with low-power
probe circuit mainly includes: CPU controller, AD
converter, power supply, calibration and zero communication.
CPU control part is used by ST32F101 chip. The
STM32 family of 32-bit Flash Microcontrollers is
based on the breakthrough ARM Cortex-M3 core
a core specifically developed for embedded applications. The STM32 family benefits from the Cortex-M3
architectural enhancements including the Thumb-2
instruction set to deliver improved performance with
better code density, significantly faster response to
interrupts. All is combined with industry leading
power consumption. ST is now the first leading MCU
supplier to introduce a product family based on this
core. The STM32 family is built to offer new degrees
of freedom to MCU users. It offers a complete 32-bit
product range that combines high performance, low
power and low voltage to maintain the full integration
and ease of development.
A/D converter uses Analog Devices, Inc. AD7734
chip. The AD7734 is based on sigma-delta architecture and features up to 24 bits of none missing codes
performance. The part can be configured via a simple digital interface, which allows users to balance
the noise performance against data throughput up to
a 12.3 kHz conversion rate. The analog front end features 4 single-ended input channels with unipolar or
true bipolar input ranges up to 10 V while operating from a single 5 V analog supply. The part has an
over-range and under-range detection capability and
accepts an analog input over-voltage up to 16.5 V,
which does not degrade the performance of the adjacent channels. The differential reference input features
No Reference detect capability.
A/D conversion of the 5.0 V reference voltage used
the AD780 chip. The AD780 is an ultrahigh precision
reference voltage, which provides a 2.5 V or 3.0 V output from inputs between 4.0 V and 36 V. Low initial
error and temperature drift combined with low output
noise and the ability to drive any value of capacitance
make the AD780 the ideal choice for enhancing the
performance of high-resolution with ADCs and DACs
for any general purpose on the precision reference
application. A unique low headroom design facilitates
a 3.0 V output from a 5.0 V 10% input and provide
a 20% boost to the dynamic range of an ADC over
performance with existing 2.5 V references.
778
FIELD TEST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is founded by Exploration technology
deep and experimental study item (SinoProbe-0602) and the Basic scientific Special Fund program
(ZDJ2007-2) by Institute of Crustal Dynamics, CEA.
REFERENCES
Chen, D.F. & SU, K.Z. 1995. Seismic ground deformation
observation technology. Earthquake Press: 229250 (in
Chinese).
Gladwin, M.T. 1984. High precision multi component
borehole deformation monitoring. Rev.Sci.Instrum (55):
20112016.
779
780
ABSTRACT: Four contributing factors to the success of monitoring tasks by Real-time Soil Deformation Monitoring System (RSDMS) have been identified. The factor included the ability to achieve accurate observation,
maximum reliability of the system, the automatic measurement and computation factors and the emails alert
function. RSDMS has developed using VB 6.0 for measure and trace alterations in coordinates of monitoring
prisms which caused by soil movements. The TM30 robotic total station is used as a geodetic measuring device
in RSDMS. Collected data are transferred back to the server subsequently processed with with Least Squares
Adjustment from software embedded STAR*NET. Adjusted coordinates that differences from initial survey will
be analyzed further by targets health check function before triggered emails alert. RSDMS is capable to record
measurements, carry out deformation analysis and events triggering alarm thus provide a simple, low cost and
effective way to monitor absolute 3-D displacements for numerous monitoring points.
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCHS OBJECTIVES
METHODOLOGY
781
782
4 CONCEPTS OF RSDMS
RSDMS is developed for use on personal, laptop
computer and Industrail PC with Microsoft Window
Me/2000/XP operation system. The monitoring system allows users to perform a complete deformation
monitoring in real-time data acquisition and analysis.
RSDMS monitoring procedure consist of 2 core programs named SDMonS and SDAnaS where SDMonS
is install in RTU on site to perform robotic total station controlling and data accquisition works, SDAnaS
is install in server to perform post processing and alert
functions.
4.1
Only Leica instruments in TPS1000 and TPS1100 system software family (e.g. Leica TCA 2003, Leica TCA
1800 and TM30) can be integrated with computer. The
TPS system software is built around the sensor element
(On-board software), organizes and control interplay
of several sensor elements. It provides a set of function
to access sensors. Figure 3 shows architecture of communication between TPS 1000/1100 software system
with computer. All these functions can be manipulated
and controlled form GeoCOM Client (i.e. software
packages that developed by Microsoft Visual Basic
6.0 and VBA).
The functions (Figure 3) are grouped and organized
as subsystems, the functions are:
783
CONCLUSION
capability of RSDMS Measurement & Control program (SDMonS). Fifty monitoring points will be setup
around the building with ten more reference points will
be located at the edge of group of monitoring points.
A TM30 robotic total station with IPC (industrial PC)
which installed SDMonS will be setup on the building
top as RTU (Remote Terminal Unit). Further more, a
computer with SDAnaS installed will setup in office
for receive and process data.
784
ABSTRACT: The physical processes triggering the fluid flow within the stressed rock are highly complex
and not fully understood. In order to investigate the gas transport behaviors due to the deformation of rock,
the peridotite sample from Sudbury, Canada, was subjected to the temperature-pressure effects using a special
rock mechanic testing machine. It is shown that when the sample was ruptured by uniaxial compression, the
connective cracks instantaneously occurred accompanied by a swarm of AE activities, which suddenly decrease
the fluid pore pressure. This change can be able to drive the gas back to the emerging crack due to the gas
pressure gradient within the damage zones. Once the fracture network is filled with backflow gas, gas pressure
rose back quickly. The dominant components of mixed gases are carbon dioxide and methane. In addition, a
large mounts of gas can be ejected from the deformed sample subjected to the confining pressure. The feature
for the gas emission determined by the changes in pore structure of rock is also discussed and analyzed.
INTRODUCTION
High in-situ stress in hard rock tunnel regularly triggers various types of failure such as flaking, spalling
and possibly bursting of wall rock, during underground
excavation at great depth (Diederichs, et al. 2004; He,
et al., 2009). These disasters adversely affect both the
safety and the productivity of underground coal mines
all over the world.
Generally, the high in-situ stress induced by compaction or thermal process tends to develop the pore
pressure in fluid-filled rock systems. It is referred as
abnormally pressured or overpressured. Although the
pore fluid pressure applied to the rock system can
relieve the rock matrix from part of the higher insitu stress, yield or failure of the rock is controlled
by effective stress rather than total stresses.
In some cases, the stress concentration induced
by mining activity also enables surrounding rock to
rapidly compact, which is obviously anther possible
reason for the development of overpressures. Once the
deformation of sample beyond the dilatancy boundary (Alkana, et al. 2007), the abnormally pressured
and overpressured rock system can suddenly eject the
compressive fluid contained in rock matrix due to a
fully developed cluster network of cracks imposed
by the combination of the pore fluid pressure and
rock skeleton resistance. As presented by many field
785
Table 1.
Plagioclase
Calcite
Dolomite
Clay
Moisture content
78.7
8.4
5.8
7.1
0.054
2
2.1
EXPERIMENT
Sample
2.2
Laboratory equipment
786
the different permeable zones. Generally, gas movement is determined by pressure gradient. Thus, the gas
pressure drop associated to the sudden change in pore
volume can be capable of suction of the external gas
stored in relative high gas pressure zone.
The gaseous state is commonly known as thermal
sensitivity to the temperature changes. For this reason,
we increased the temperature in fractured zone up to
60 C, giving the geothermal effect on deep rock strata.
In most of the recent papers (Yang, et al. 2003; Shen,
et al. 2008; Li, et al. 2007), the sequential earthquakes
and gas outburst are related to the fault movement. The
experiment performed by the same proceeding with
various confined pressure are given in Fig. 5. The gas
emission is characterized by the abrupt release of high
concentration and large volume of mixed gas as the
increasing radial stress. During the closure of aperture of crack network, the gas flux decay rapidly with
loading-induced crack closure.
3.2
Figure 3. Representative AE waveform types observed during the uniaxial compression. (a)Intermittent high-frequency
events occurred in the elastic deformation of rock sample,
(b) Continual high-frequency events observed when approach
to the failure.
pore pressure distribution within and near gas reservior and drove out redundant gas. In contrast with the
permeability enhanced by tensile cracks at uniaxial
compression, the increasing confining pressure obviously reduced the aperture of fractures and momently
expelled large mounts of gas.
Further similarities between field data and our laboratory data above can be seen in the fluid flow
performance, as also reported field observation of gas
concentration drop during fault movement (Etiope,
787
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the National Basic
Research Program of China (2006CB202200) and
Innovative Team Development Project of the Ministry
Alkana, H., Cinarb, Y., Pusch, G. 2007. Rock salt dilatancy boundary from combined acoustic emission and
triaxial compression tests. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44:108119.
Benson, P.M.,Vinciguerra, S., Meredith, P.G. et al. 2008. Laboratory Simulation of Volcano Seismicity. Science 322:
249252. DOI: 10.1126/science.1161927.
Diederichs, M.S., Kaiser, P.K., Eberhardt, E. 2004. Damage
initiation and propagation in hard rock during tunneling
and the influence of near-face stress rotation. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41:
785812.
Etiope, G., Klusman, R.W. 2002. Geologic emissions of
methane tothe atmosphere. Chemosphere 9: 777789.
Gray, I. 1980. The mechanism of, and energy release associated with outbursts. Symposium on the occurrence,
prediction and control of outbursts in coal mines. Aust
Inst Min Metall, Melbourne: 11125.
He, M.C., Miao, J.L. Feng, J.L. 2009. Rock burst process of limestone and its acoustic emission characteristics under true-triaxial unloading condition. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. Doi:
10.1016/j.ijrmms.2009.09.03.
Kidybinski, A. 1980. Significance of in situ strength measurements for prediction of outburst hazard in coal mines
of Lower Silesia. Symposium on the occurrence, prediction and control of outbursts in coal mines. Aust Inst Min
Metall, Melbourne: 193201.
Li, T., Cai, M.F., Cai, M. 2007. Earthquake-induced unusual
gas emission coalmines A km-scale in-situ experimental
investigation at Laohutai mine. International Journal of
Coal Geology 71: 209224.
Li, X.Z., Hua, A.Z. 2006. Prediction and prevention of
sandstone-gas outbursts in coal mines. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 43: 218.
Shen, B., King, A., Guo, H. 2008. Displacement, stress and
seismicity in roadway roofs during mining-induced failure. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining
Sciences 45: 672688.
Stanchits, S. et al. 2006. Pure Appl. Geophys. 163:975.
Weinlich, F.H., Faber, E., Boukov, A., et al. 2006. Jrgen Poggenburg Seismically induced variations in Marinsk Lzn fault composition in the NW Bohemian
swarm quake region, Czech Republic A continuous
gas monitoring. Tectonophysics 421: 89110.
Xu, T., Tang, C.A., Yang, T.H., et al. 2006. Numerical
investigation of coal and gas outbursts in underground
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Mining Sciences 43: 905919.
Yang, X.X., Song, D.L., Chen, Z., 2003. Forecast for disaster and gas explosion in Jixi colliery. Northwestern
Seismological Journal 5 (1): 9393.
788
ABSTRACT: A new instrument of 3-component volume borehole strainmeter is developed in China and the
primarily function is for borehole strain measurement. The sensor is designed on the base of type TJ-2 volume
borehole strainmeter, and it has three independent components which make it being able to observe the strain
changes in three different directions. In this paper, the principle, structure, measurement circuit and measuring
system of the sensor are presented, and the field observation is also introduced. The filed results show that the
measurement resolution of 3-component volume borehole strainmeter is up to 109 1010 .
1 THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF
3-COMPONENT VOLUME BOREHOLE
STRAINMETER
789
Combining the above related relationship of parameters, the formula (4) can be rewritten by formula (6).
difference of the rock in the centre line of the corresponding chamber, which provides the convenience
for the calculation of strain tensor.
In practical application, the following simplified
formula can be tried:
In formula (10), the parameter of V is the working volume of each chamber and can be calculated by
formula (11).
790
In which W is the power and W = I 2 R, I is the calibration current of constant electrical source, and R is
the resistance of the calibrated wire.
2 THE NEW STRUCTURAL DESIGN
2.1 Three-chamber structure
The main considerations of three-chamber structure
design are:
(1) the junction between them should be as narrow as
possible (the space angle of occupied is small);
(2) the combination of mechanical requirements and
the airtight performance;
(3) the diameter of the probe shouldnt be increased
even if the number of parts increases;
the mechanical and operational principle of 3component volume borehole strainmeter are very
simple shown as crustal deformation enclosure
volume change (liquid) pressure. When the stress
and strain state of rock are delivered to the probe crust,
it is converted to the volume change and finally the
stress change based on the incompressibility, and the
sensor records the changes.
Inside the probe, the elastic cylinder is adopted and
the inner circle is a solid stick. The circle is devided into 3 parts with equal volume. Three chambers
791
interference between zero and impact of electromagnetic valve base we use the shock resistance rubber
materials.
2.4
CIRCUIT DESIGN
The circuit is formed by the Schmitt circuit, relays, subautomatic and manual in two parts. To prevent misuse,
the protection switch is also set.
792
3.4
Calibration circuit
Data Acquisition
Network Communication
4 EXPERIMENT STATION
Since 2003, we began to embark on the threecomponent volumetric strain meter pre-research work.
793
L. Neumann
ANECT, a.s., A. Staka, Prague, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: The observed anomalous tilt time development of static horizontal pendulum and anomalous time
development of variations (noise) before earthquakes could be the basis for possible prediction of earthquakes.
This case study showed the behaviour of rock mass before main earthquakes worldwide in the years
20072009 (Peru 15.8.07 (M = 8), Indonesia 12.9.07 (M = 8.5 + 7.9), Chile 14.11.07 (M = 7.7), Fiji 9.12.07
(M = 7.8), Andreanoff island 19.12.07 (M = 7.2), Sichuan 12.5.08 (M = 7.9), Kuril islands 24.11.08 (M = 7.3),
Indonesia 3.1.09 (M = 7.6), Tonga 19.3.09 (M = 7.6), N. Zeland 15.7.09 (M = 7.8), Andaman island 10.8.09
(M = 7.5), Samoa 29.9.09 (M = 8.1)).
It was shown that the anomalous tilt or variations of the pendulum movement started in many cases a few
days up to weeks before the mainshock. The most of the biggest earthquakes were predictable and one of them
(Kurile Islands 24.11.2008) was predicted 29 days before as a test of a validity of this prediction method.
The paper will describe anomalous high stress time intervals, the anomalous effects observed before the
biggest earthquakes and discussion of reliability of earthquake prediction.
1 INTRODUCTION
Between July 1, 2007 and January 1, 2010, 16 earthquakes with M 7.5 were registered on the whole
Earth (see Tab. 1). For each of them, we have tried
to find out whether or not the earthquakes were predictable using the devices available to us, the static
vertical pendulums in particular.
Event 08/08/2007 Java, M = 7.5. With respect to
the initial stage of the measurements and their shortcomings, that EQ was not predicted and would not
have been predictable even ex-post. Only the diurnal period was observed on both components by no
means exceeding the standard, and reduced noise on
both components (more on the NS component) from
22/07/2007.
Event 15/08/2007 Peru, M = 8. Non-predictable
event on our lithosphere plate. It occurred in the relaxation stage of our lithosphere plate and no unusual tilts
or noise were observed before that.
Event 12/09/2007 Mentawai Region, Sumatra,
Indonesia, M = 7.9. One of a few events in 2007 where
it was possible to identify several precursors that may
have led to its prediction. Since 2007 we were only discovering what was actually possible to identify from
the pendulum tilts and what precursors there might be,
we didnt try to predict. Today we know that for that
795
CASE STUDY
Table 1. Parameters of the worldwide earthquakes with M > 7.4 since May 1, 2007 (ANSS 2009, EMCS 2009) and their
predictability by pendulums measured the tilt in Central Europe
Date
Lat.
Lon.
Depth Mag.
107.42 280
76.6
39
7.5
8
12/09/2007 11:10
4.4
101.36
10
8.5
28/09/2007 13:38
22.01
142.67 260
7.5
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.7
7.6
34
12
7.6
7.8
92.89
7.5
18
81
8.1
7.5
45
55
7.7
7.8
10/08/2009 19:55
14.1
166.34
166.37
?no?
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
waves, noise P7
yes
?no?
diurnal waves P7
tilt, noise P7, gravity
no
no
yes
?yes?
?yes?
waves
waves
796
localisable. From the Central Europe, it was impossible to localise the focus situated on a different plate
and deforming our plate implicitly only. The magnitude estimate according to the relation (2) would have
been M 7.3.
Event 09/12/2007 Fiji, M = 7.8: Except the
reduced noise on the EW component, no special
tilt development was observed on the pendulums.
The earthquake was unpredictable from the Central
Europe.
Event 12/05/2008 Sichuan, M = 7.9: The first
event for which we recognised the stress waves prior
to the earthquake. We did not identify the epicentre,
however, we did estimate the magnitude of approx.
6.9, based on the comparison with creep preceding
the earthquake of Loma Prieta 1989. Now we know
that it was possible to estimate very precisely the local
meridian of the focal area, even when based on the tilt
measurement in the Central Europe.
We finished our measurements on the P7 pendulum in Prbram and reconstructed the pendulum on
08/04/2008. On 15/04/2008, a new measurement commenced with a new camera and suspension of camera,
which immediately manifested itself in the pendulum
noise (variations) reduction to 1/2 to 1/3 of the original
values.
After the commencement of the new measurement,
the tilt showed a typical movement given by the
relaxation of the new pendulum. As early as from
22/04/2008, the natural tilts of the pendulum and
especially noise were interpretable.
LN wrote on 11/05/2008 at 20:45 UTC: I evaluated the data from Prbram and they are interesting.
We can see diurnal period, which increases. The noise
decreases and noise has diurnal period, too. I wonder
where an earthquake will occur.
PK answered on 12/05/2008 at 4:55 UTC: I
expected such diurnal thermo-elastic waves before
huge earthquakes according to Hvodara. I had
observed them before the Loma Prieta earthquake
(1989) on creepmeters in California. The magnitude
of a possible earthquake would be greater than 6.9,
like in the case of Loma Prieta.
This partial prediction proved true already within
two hours when the news brought the information
of a large earthquake in Wenchuan (Sichuan). When
we look back at the tilt curve on the pendulum P7
in Prbram, we can see that after the pendulum reconstruction we were not able to record the tilt change
that could have occurred any time between 08/04/2008
a 22/04/2008. On the other hand, in the low noise
its circadian period was clearly visible starting on
07/05/2008 and ending on 15/05/2008 after the earthquake (see Fig. 4). Maximum noise was observed
exactly at the time when the pendulum displacement
reached its maxim towards the south. No significant
movement deviations were observed in the EW direction nor the noise showed a pronounced circadian
periodicity. From those facts, it was possible to judge
that the anomalous additional stress acted from the
north.
Half a year after the earthquake in Sichuan, after the
AGU meeting in San Francisco, we compared our measurement results with those measured right near the
focal point in Sichuan. We found out that the stress
waves we had measured were identical with those
inducing the changes of impedance measured at the
Hongge station, approx. 465 km from the epicentre
(Qian et al. 2009) (see Fig. 4).
Qian et al. (2009) showed that from the fortnightly
period point of view, it was possible to establish the
beginning of anomalous impedance in the EW direction around 30/04/2008. On the NS component, no
anomalous variations of impedance were observed.
The beginning of the largest anomalous stage occurred
in the seven-day window around 06/05/2008 and
five-minute values showed a pronounced circadian
797
798
799
Prediction
Sichuan
Kuril Is.
Euro-Asia
worldwide
East
East
East
Pakistan
N. Guinea
USA
worldwide
unof.
off.
off.
off.
unof.
unof.
unof.
off.
off.
off.
off.
Beginning
of period
Mag.
M>=
Probab. Actual
%
date
11/05/2008
30/10/2008
10/03/2009
16/12/2009
04/02/2010
19/02/2010
19/02/2010
22/02/2010
22/02/2010
05/03/2010
06/03/2010
08/06/2008
27/11/2008
06/05/2009
30/12/2009
11/02/2010
19/03/2010
19/03/2010
22/03/2010
22/03/2010
02/04/2010
13/03/2010
6.9
7.0
No >=7
No >=7
6.2
7.0
Big
6.0
6.5
6.5
7.0
28
28
57
14
7
28
28
28
28
28
7
?
Kuril Kamchatka
0-180E, 10 +90N
worldwide
Taiwan area
Indon., Philip., Taiwan
Tonga, New Guinea
25-40N, 60-80E
15S-5N, 130-155E
0-90N, 100-165W
worldwide
800
6.4
65.1
42.1
3.5
65.1
?
17.3
23.2
17.0
24.2
12/05/2008
24/11/2008
07/04/2009
19/12/2009
07/02/2010
26/02/2010
27/02/2010
27/02/2010
20/03/2010
Place
Conf Note
31N, 103E
54N, 154E
46N, 151E
24N, 122E
23N, 124E
26N, 128E
36S, 73W
36N, 70E
3S,152E
7.9
7.3
6.9
6.4
6.3
7.2
8.8
5.76.0
6.26.5
?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
EQ clouds
7.2
Yes
Chile
Chile
PREDICTION OF EARTHQUAKES
where T is period of nucleation period sensu lato, starting by arriving of stress waves (see for example
Fig. 10).
801
REFERENCES
CONCLUSION
802
Peng, H., Ma X. & Jiang, J. (2009): Process analysis of insitu strain during the Ms=8.1 Wengchuan earthquake
data from the stress monitoring station Shandan. Acta
Geologica Sinica, vol. 83, No.4, 754766.
Purcaru, G. (2008):The Great Sichuan Earthquake of May 12,
2008 (Mw7.9) An Unpredictable Earthquake. American
Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2008, abstract #S31B
1919.
Qian, Fuye, Zhao, Biru, Qian, W., Zhao, J., He S.-G.,
Zhang, H.-K., Li S.-Y., Li, S.-K.,Yan, G.-L., Wang Ch.-M.,
Sun Z.-K., Zhang, D.-N., Lu J., Zhang, P., Yang, G.-J.,
Sun J.-L., Guo Ch.-S., Tang Y.-X., Xu J.-M., Xia K.-T.,
Ju, H., Yin, B.-H., Li M., Yang, D.-S., Qi W.-L., He, T.-M.,
Guan, H.-P. & Zhao, Y.-L. (2009): Impending HRT wave
precursors to the Wenchuan M s8.0 earthquake and methods of earthquake impending prediction by using HRT
wave. Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences. Oct.
2009, vol. 52, no. 10, 15721584.
Rikitake,T. (1976): Earthquake prediction., Elsevier Scientific Pub., Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Scoppola, B., Boccaletti, D., Bevis, M., Carminati, E. &
Doglioni, C., (2006): The westward drift of the lithosphere:A rotational drag? GSA Bulletin, Vol. 118, No. 1/2,
199209.
Singh, R.P.; Zlotnicki, J.; Prasad, A.K.; Gautam, R.;
Hattori, K.; Liu, J.; Parrot, M.; Li, F.; Kafatos, M.
(2008): Precursory Signals Using Satellite and Ground
803
ABSTRACT: A seismometer acquisition has been used in Changping observing station to gather the output
of strainmeter. The original sampling rate of the strainmeter is 1 time per minute, its 100 Hz for seismometer
acquisition. Plenty of higher frequency data are recorded and the minutely data calculated from seismometer
acquisition are consistency with that of the original data sampled by strain acquisition. Spectrum of the strain
waves are compared with seismic wave recorded by a seismometer in Shisanling seismic station, their trend are
almost the same, but some lower frequency ingredients existed in strain waves.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Most precursor instruments are digitalized in our country in this years, their sampling rate is 1 time per
minute. Signals such as daily, monthly, yearly or longer
periodic information are hided in the observational
data. Under normal circumstances, these information
are enough to researcher for the earthquake situation
analysis. However, the sampling rate of seismometer
is higher a lot, it is 100 times per second.
Can the precursor instruments observe higher frequency information ? In fact, higher frequency strain
waves are recorded by bore hole strainmeter in simulated records. In few years, high frequency sampling
data has been tried in some earthquake observing station along with the fast development of the observing
techniques. One Hz sampling data with the water level
measurement was recorded in Fujian[1], integrated
water level oscillation was recorded. A test which
observe water level oscillation with EDAS-3 acquisition unit was devoloped by Shu youliang[3] in Zhouzhi
station, Shannxi province. In the application of high
frequency sampling data, Zhang Ziguang compared
the strain value induced by seismic surface wave and
the change of water level in Tangshan mining well[4].
Many precursor instruments, such as bore hole
strainmeters and underground fluid measurement
units, are used in Changping Earthquake Observing
Station (short title CP Station). A seismometer acquisition unit has been used to record strains of the RZB-1
bore hole strainometer in our observatory since 2008,
it shows that nuch more information was recorded in
the data.
DATA RECORDS
installed in CP Station in 1989. It has 4 measurement units, but 3 units (1#-NS, 2#-N45 W, 4-N45 E)
remains now because of the 3rd one broken down in
2008. All of the 3 units generate raw data minutely. The
seismometer acquisition, EDAS-24IP, is manufactured
by Beijing Gangzhen Mechanical Electronic Technology Co., Ltd., and it has 3 channels. We connected the
3 units with the 3 channels respectively, the sampling
rate is 100 Hz.
805
Wave speed
km s 1
Arrival time
Min-sec
P
Vp
Vs
VL
CP station
44-03 47-55
49-23
8.33 4.51 3.83
SSL Station 44-1.8 48-56.8 49-31.1 8.45 4.49 3.78
Apparent velocity
3 ANALYSIS
3.1 Time domain
2.2
Events records
There is a M7.3 earthquake occurred in the east seacoast of Honshu in Japan at 10:39:30, Jul. 19, 2008.
The distance of epicenter is about 2276 km. All of
the two acquisitions have recorded this event. The
minutely curves, gathered by the original and calculated according to the highly sampling, are given below
(Figure 3). The strains curves from original acquisition
is on the left column, and the highly sampling is on the
right.
Fortunately, another station, the Shisanling Earthquake observing Station (SSL for abbreviation) is just
located 3 km away from CP station. There a seismometer work better, and we can compare our strain wave
with that of the real seismic wave, see Figure 4 and
Figure 5.
3.2
Frequency domain
806
Conclusions
Seismic wave, such as P, S and surface wave, can trigger so-called strain wave or strain oscillation, compare
these wave with that of the seismic waves generated
by seismometer, their waveforms are similar. Seismic
phase parameters gotten from strain wave are also
equal to the seismic wave approximately, as well their
spectrums.
However, different on their application aim and
constructions, their frequency responses are not the
same, the seismic wave show more clear P, S arrive,
and amplitudes are stronger. Vertical component is an
important unit in seismometer, however, all components are horizontal for strainmeter. Now we just take
some simple analysis with the observing data, farther
study will be done in the future.
REFERENCES
Ouyang Zux, Li Bingyua & Jia Weijiu et.al. 1988. A mesurment system of stress in borehole. Structure and Crustal
Stress 1988(2), 1120. Seismology Press, Beijing.
Liao Lixia, Chen Changyong & Ni Xiaoying et.al. 2009.
Comparison of the Ability for Recording Earthquakes
Using Water level of Different Models Instruments. Earthquake Research 33(2): 137144.
Shu Youliang & Zhang Shimin.2004. A comparative study
of digital recording of seismic water-level fluctuations
in Zhouzhi deep borehole with seismographic recordings. SEISMOLOGICAL AND GEOMAGNETIC OBSERVATION RESEARCH 24(5): 2631.
Zhang Ziguang, Wan Dikun & Dong Shouyu. 1998.
RESEARCH AND APPLICATION OF COMPARISON
BETWEEN WATER LEVEL VIBRATION AND FACE
WAVE. EARHQUAKE 18(4): 399404.
807
ABSTRACT: Deep borehole observation can eliminate effectively various earths surface interferences, providing considerable advantage over other geophysical measurements made at the ground, and improve greatly
our capability to detect very small deformations and vibrations in the surrounding strata. This new technology will promote consequently our understanding of presently active geological processes and its relation to
earthquakes and tectonics. Based on previous experiences of developing RZB type borehole strainmeter a new
multi-component borehole instrument for deep boreholes has been developed. The new system, namely RZB-3
multi-component borehole instrument is a complete package consisting of strain, tilt, strain seismic waves and
ground temperature measurement units in a stainless-steel pressure cylinder with 102 mm outside diameter. Furthermore, another three channels provide the assistant observation including well temperature, well water level
and atmospheric pressure. The multi-component borehole instruments were installed at a few sites in Beijing,
Sichuan and Fujian provinces. This new instruments can run at maximum sensitivity to provide strain resolution
of 0.1 nanostrain with the maximum of 5 105 nanostrain and tilt resolution of 1 nanorad with the maximum of
5 microrad. Up to now these instruments have observed good tidal signals, strain-steps associated with large earthquakes, and strain changes of geophysical interests. Some details relate to design of the multi-component borehole
instruments and the relevant observation data were presented, and primary analyses were discussed as well.
1
INTRODUCTION
809
Equation (2) shows that the sum of any two orthogonal measured strains of a RZB borehole strainmeter
equals to the areal strain in the surrounding crust.
In addition, we can also get the difference strain
combination S = S1 S3 , which is
810
It also distributes the power to individual sensor modules. Although strain-seismic waves are detected by
capacitance displacement sensors, its outputs will be
magnified and send uphole in analogue form other
than strain and tilt signals.
The RZB-3 downhole measuring device has a size
with 102 mm outer diameter and 1500 mm to 5200 mm
length depending on how many observation units are
incorporated in the instrument.
The up-hole electronic box comprises four main
sections (Fig. 1): LAD board (low-sampling rate A/D
converter), HAD board (high-sampling rate A/D converter), COM board (communication unit) and PSB
board (power subsystems).A multi-core cable provides
connection for digital and analogue signal and power
supply between the downhole device and the up-hole
electronic box, including a twisted-pair RS485 serial
link.
Besides sending the data sampling and other control signal downhole, the LAD receives data and the
time reference signals from an external time reference signal through the serial link and synchronizes
the internal RTC to the reference. The data collected
by RS-485 data bus are handled by an ARM microprocessor, and the data are processed to give lower
sample-rate data. All data are stored in digital format
in the storage acquisition of LAD and HAD boards
at the ground, the nominal data rate are as follows:
1 Hz sampling rate for strain, tilt and ground temperature; 200-Hz sampling rate for broadband strain
seismic waves. Each station site must have a continuous, reliable, IP connection for forwarding data to the
data acquisition computer located in each datacenter
of provinces or autonomous regions. The COM board
is optically isolated from the communication module.
The system is operated by rechargeable batteries,
which provides a 12V supply. A regulated voltage
811
Figure 4. Time series of output from the reference transducer of Changping instrument. Amplitude scale unit is 50
microstrain and the data rate is 1 sample/minute.
Strain tidal signals are clearly recorded for most instruments installed. Figure 5 shows the strain and tilt data
of Zhangzhou station, Fujian province on January,
2010 as an example. The downhole instrument was
cemented on December 7, 2008.
Tide analyses were applied to extract an M2 areal
strain tide for Changping instrument and find that in
most cases the M2 signal is fairly well in phase with the
predicted tide and remain consistent over long periods
of time (Table 1). At the same time, the M2 amplitude
changes gradually with time by a small amount. For
this comparison we filtered the data to hourly samples
and used 30 day window. Calculations are done for
the M2 tide constituents using the EIS2000 program
and results were in an East-North coordinate system
(Jiang J. et al. 2000).
We also find that the phases of M2 shear components for Changping instrument are in reasonable
812
Correlation
2009. 1
2009. 2
2009. 3
2009. 4
2009. 5
2009. 6
2009. 7
2009. 8
2009. 9
2009. 10
2009. 11
2009. 12
0.9998
0.9994
0.9984
0.9687
0.8937
0.9816
0.9910
0.9953
0.9993
0.9991
0.9974
0.9968
Time
Areal strain
Tide factor/phase lag
Shear strain
Tide factor/phase lag
2008.11
2008.12
2009.01
2009.02
2009.03
0.2091/7.6958
0.2058/6.7138
0.2070/6.0519
0.2041/6.2803
0.2080/6.6516
0.1574/2.4959
0.1477/9.5678
0.1554/9.5592
0.1427/11.185
0.1527/9.8215
DISCUSSION
813
variations of strain output probably caused by instrument problems, grout curing and deformation from
very local rock wall. Secondly, owing to four strain
component configuration the areal strain and the shear
strain are easier to monitor with higher reliability and
can be inferred independently.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank my team member: Zhang Jun, Chen Zheng,
Li Tao, Wu Liheng, Shi Jieshan, Zhang Zongrun and
Fan Guosheng for collaboration for years, and Li Tao
again, for assisting with tide analyses. This work was
supported by the ministry of science and technology
of P.R.C. grant-2004DIB 3J132.
REFERENCES
Gladwin, M. T. 1984. High precision multi-component borehole deformation monitoring. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 55:
20112016.
Hart, R. H. G. Gladwin, M. T. Gwyther, R. L. Agnew D.
C. and Wyatt, F. K. 1996 Tidal calibration of borehole
strainmeters: removing the effects of local inhomogeneity.
J. Geophys. Res. 101: 25, 55325, 571.
http://www.unavco.ucar.edu/community/publications/PBOwhitepaper.pdf
Ishii H. 2001 Development of new multi-component borehole instrument. Report of Tono Research Institute of
Earthquake Science 6: 510 (in Japanese).
Ishii, H. T. Yamauchi, Y. Asai, M. Okubo, S. Matsumoto,
andAoki, H. 2003. Continuous multi-component monitoring of crustal activities by a newly developed instrument
installed in a 1200 m deep borehole The deepest multiple
814
X.P. Ye
Institute of Fiber Sensing of Beijing Pi-optics Co. Ltd., Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: Earthquake precursor monitoring is the foundation of earthquake prediction and geothermal
monitoring is one of the basic methods of earthquake precursor monitoring. High temperature well contains
more information and therefore its monitoring is more important. However, electric sensors are hard to meet
the monitoring requirements of high sensitivity and long lifetime. For a better observation of the earthquake
precursor, a high sensitive fiber Bragg grating (FBG) temperature sensor is designed to monitoring a well at
87.5 1 C. The performance of the FBG sensor demonstrates that its quite possible that applying FBG to
high-sensitivity temperature-monitoring fields, such as geothermal monitoring. As far as we known, it is the
first time that trying a high sensitive FBG temperature sensor in a practical application, let alone in the field of
geothermal monitoring.
1 INTRODUCTION
Earthquake precursor monitoring is the foundation
of earthquake prediction and geothermal monitoring
is one of the basic methods of earthquake precursor
monitoring. Geothermal monitoring also reflects the
Stress-strain, and therefore being a good complement
to Stress-strain observation. High temperature well
contains more information and therefore its monitoring is more important. However, electric sensor is hard
to meet the monitoring requirements (high sensitivity
and long lifetime).
As a new generation sensing element, fiber Bragg
grating has lots of advantages, such as immunity
to electromagnetic interference and ease in signal
transmission, which are very appealing to the field
of geothermal monitoring. And temperature monitoring based on FBG is one of its hottest applications
(Lee, 2003). FBG is sensitive to both temperature and
strain by shifting its resonance Bragg wavelength. Its
intrinsic temperature sensitivity is about 10 pm/ C.
For achieving a higher sensitivity, people first try
to improve its sensitivity by attaching it to a large
CTE (coefficient of thermal expansion) material (Cruz
1996, Mizunami 2001). So when temperature changes,
FBG will response to both temperature and the pull
from the large CTE material. The disadvantage of this
method is that the improvements of their sensitivities
are fixed and limited by the CTE of the bonding materials, and its sensitivity is improved about 10 times in
maximum (Jung 1999). Then, bimetal is adopted as
2 SENSOR DESIGN
First we made a sensing head as described by (Li et al.
2009a), and tuning the measurement range to include
the temperature of from 85 C to 89 C. For using it
under water, we encapsulated it by an aluminum alloy
tube. And for eliminating the influence of the shape
change of the aluminum alloy tube, only one end of
the base metal of the bimetal was connected with the
815
CONCLUSION
A FBG geothermal sensor working at 87 C is presented. In observation: a) the FBG sensor was more
stable than electric-quartz temperature sensors; b) at
the beginning, there were obvious zero drift in the
results of the FBG sensor; c) after about 2 month, the
zero drift was almost disappeared, and the FBG sensor
agreed well with an electric-quartz temperature sensor
in the comparison of one-day results. It has demonstrated that its quite possible that applying FBG to
816
817
ABSTRACT: Strong groundwater extraction has led to subsidence of some areas in many cities of the world,
and this phenomenon has been becoming more and more serious in recent 30 years in China. Ground subsidence
at the rate of few centimetres per year can be measured using methods of precise leveling, and more recently the
GPS. Recent advances in the SAR interferometry, especially with the Permanent Scatterer InSAR (PS InSAR) is
an appropriate remote sensing technique for measuring ground subsidence in urban areas at high accuracy and
low costs. In this work two time-series of 29 JERS and 41 ENVISAT ASAR acquisitions of Suzhou-Wuxi Jiangsu
Province, covering the period from October 1992 to October 2008 (JERS 19921998, ASAR 20042008), were
analyzed. We validate the results by comparing subsidence measurements collected in some points of this area
with precise leveling, which are in agreement with each other (relative error within 3 mm/a for JERS). The maps
of ground subsidence velocity in Suzhou-Wuxi areas is also obtained with JERS and ASAR images respectively,
in which several subsidence centers are discovered. In addition, by comparing the results of PS InSAR with the
history of groundwater exploitation, it indicates that ground subsidence in Suzhou-Wuxi areas is induced by
groundwater over-extracted.
Keywords: PS-InSAR; Subsidence; ENVISAT ASAR; JERS
INTRODUCTION
819
shows the results of JERS and ASAR image partitioning. The pre-processing steps are generally divided
into three parts: 1) data prepare; 2) interferometric
process; 3) image partitioning. For every patch, postprocessing is the following steps: 4) PS points extract
and analysis; 5) model refinement, non-deformation
phase remove and deformation phase extract; 6) deformation maps and histories generation. In addition, in
order to assemble all the deformation maps, we fit
adjacent deformation maps based on PS points of overlapping patches with higher coherence. Fig. 4 shows
the annual subsidence velocity maps of JERS and
ASAR with PS InSAR technique.
4
RESULT ANALYSIS
DATA PROCESSING
820
0.00
50.59
16.08
32.20
3.52
30.90
28.92
77.31
47.06
59.17
34.96
59.15
0.00
48.39
18.14
30.25
6.04
30.23
0.00
2.20
2.06
1.95
2.52
0.67
821
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
822
ABSTRACT: The sand layer strain records are a new-style strain data with some physical basis and prediction
significance, whose measure principle is based on granular media theory and whose observational instruments
have been installed in the sand layer with very fine particles. The evolution characteristics of sand layer strain
observational data and the abnormal forms of earthquake precursory at different distances at Changping and
Tongzhou stations have been systematically analyzed to consider that the sand layer strain records are a comprehensive strain response in the crust at different distance, and including the change compositions with extremely
complex and meaningful information with very rich. The clear precursor change features and impending informations were remarkably demonstrated before some earthquakes with different epicentral distances and magnitudes.
Specifically, there were some unloading variations with large-scales and large amplitudes, and can reflect the
precursor images of seismogenic processes to the large earthquakes, which may reveal certain physical models
and precursor evidences of seismogenic processes. Accordingly, it is possible to achieve some successful predictions for the devastating earthquakes, rather than the unpredictability of the earthquakes. According to the above
reasons and facts, the sand layer strain with the novelty, the unique physical property and certain precursory
significance have obvious differences with the other traditional strain. Therefore, there will be the exploring
significance in earthquake prediction used by the sand layer strain data.
INTRODUCTION
The sand layer strain gauge was developed by Beijing Precision Technology Co. Ltd. The instrument
is consist of the three recording directions with a
good linear frequency response range of 0.002 to 4.0
and sensitivity of nm/2mV. The preliminary research
and analysis to the sand layer strain data recorded by
Changping and Tongzhou stations in Beijing area from
January 1, 2007 to December 31, 2009 will be expected
to obtain the characteristics of non-seismic factors of
the records and their preliminary application results in
earthquake prediction in this paper, and thus which
can promote the rapid development of observation
and theory based on granular media, explore the specific applications of new methods about earthquake
prediction to improve the actual capacity of seismic
observation and prediction.
823
Figure 1. The cycle results for body strain and sand layer
strain estimated by maximum entropy spectrum at Changping
station.
824
propagation path. Thus, the high-frequency components of strain wave have been filtered through the
complex granular medium in propagating path, and
their energy loss were almost depleted, so that the sand
strain gauges can not record coseismic changes in the
vast majority strong earthquakes. Since, it can be seen
the coseismic changes in the sand layer strain based
on granular media theory have significant differences
with the other strain records based on the continuum
media theory.
825
Figure 7. The sand layer strain gauge have recorded typical images of trend change before and after some historical
earthquakes with different epicentral distance, magnitude and
stations. a) for the Indian Ocean Ms8.7 earthquake, b) for the
Tangshan Ms7.8 earthquake, Figure c) for the horinger Ms6.3
earthquake and Figure d) for the Wenan Ms5.1 earthquake.
fault, the media have continuous integrity properties, so the different media properties could caused
the different strain responses to the sand layer strain
records) and the recording direction.
2) In particular, the Wenchuan Ms8.0 earthquake on
May 12, 2008 and Chile Ms8.5 earthquake on
February 27, 2009 with the most obvious performance in the 37 earthquakes had significant
strain loading and unloading process significant
amplitude changes with large-scale (Figure 6) and
with long-term sustainability from November 1,
2007 to May 18, 2008 and from June 2009 to
the present, separately. The Figure 6 is the complete strain evolution process recorded by the sand
layer strain gauge at Changping station before
and after the Wenchuan earthquake on May 12,
2008 and the Chile earthquake on February 27,
2009. All the records from the current point have
been comparatively studied to find that this change
process (Figure 6) is a typical large-scale precursor images of the sand layer strain, which mainly
include five change stages of markedly different
characteristics for fast-loading strain stage with
enhanced strain and a certain strain disturbance,
strain locked in a stalemate balance stage with the
basic steady change, rapid unloading stage with
feature of disturbance and rapid decline, short clinical change stage with strain disturbance changes,
calm before the earthquake and magnitude of contraction, impending signals stage with appears of
unilateral pulse phenomena, and post-earthquake
recovery stage (Figure 6 and Figure 10).
The above 5 change stages have integrity and
continuity in dynamic evolution process, and have
significant of magnitude and differences of stages
on changing characteristics. By the images of the
Wenchuan earthquake and Chile earthquake comparing with the images of the typical history earthquake
cases (Figure 7), it is thought that the typical process
basically repeat the seismic precursory anomaly image
repeatedly observed by the sand layer strain gauge at
home and abroad (Figure 6 and Figure 7). At the same
time, we also found that such change images have
826
Figure 11. The change characteristics of impending signal of the sand layer strain before and after Suihua Ms4.5
earthquake on May 10, 2009 in Heilongjiang.
3) The sand layer strain records before the 54 earthquakes with ML >= 4.0 at the far-field in China
were systematically analyzed to find that there
were 23 earthquakes, accounting for 42.6%, before
the earthquake with obvious changes at least in
one direction. The change features mainly include
the quickly unload or up pulse, and then quickly
decay with small-scale (Figure 10), or a very
clear impending change signals without the notable
unload process before the earthquake (Figure 11).
The anomalies generally exist in the 1-2 directions
and more stations, but the arrival time of anomalies
is inconsistent, such as the Anda Ms4.5 earthquake
in Heilongjiang Province (Figure 2), Yellow Sea
Ms4.1 earthquake, Panzhihua Ms6.1 earthquake
in Sichuan, Yutian Ms7.3 earthquake in Xinjiang,
Zhongba Ms6.8 earthquake in Tibet, Wenchuan
strong aftershocks, and so on. Such anomalies
may be closely related to sensitive media nature at
propagation path and the recording direction, and
has a clear directivity and sensitivity. Otherwise,
it would be difficult to record the change information by the sand layer strain gauges before the
small-middle earthquakes occurred in the far-field.
4) Through the comparison analysis of the sand layer
strain records and 7 earthquakes with Ms>=3
occurred around the stations, it is thought that
the changes have no large-scale unloading process with 1-3 days occurred before the earthquake,
change fast and short duration, and which may have
827
828
R. Yan
China Earthquake Network Center, CEA Beijing
ABSTRACT: We collected all of the well-water level data and bore-hole volume strain data with step-like
changes induced by the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake, and then compared the two kinds of data simultaneously
obtained from one-well and obtained from two monitoring network, based on earth tide standardization within
poro-elastic theory. The results are as follows: a) from the one-well data, the amplitude of standardized well
water level is closely related to the standardized bore hole volume strain, the correlated coefficient is more than
98%; b) from the monitoring network data, the standardized amplitude of well water level changes is in the
same order with the standardized amplitude of bore-hole volume strain changes. We inferred that the well water
level can be as an approach to measure earthquake induced volume strain changes on site under the frame of
poro-elasticity.
INTRODUCTION
829
2.1
BACKGROUND OF MONITORING
NETWORKS BOTH FOR BOREHOLE
VOLUME STRAIN AND GROUNDWATER
Groundwater monitoring network
830
or
DISCUSSIONS
According to poroelastic theory, the pore pressure/water level induced by earthquakes can be
expressed as (Roeloffs, 1998)
Where, B is the Skempton Coefficient, G is shear modula, u is undrained Poisons ratio, is volume strain
changes induced by earthquakes, p is pore pressure
changes, H is water level changes, g is gravity, is
the density of fluid.
831
CONCLUSIONS
We can get conclusions from above research as follows, (1) even in far field, the water level change
is linearly correlated with bore hole volume strain
changes induced by large earthquakes simultaneously
observed in one well; (2) the amplitude of standardized
water level and volume strain changes are in the same
order; (3) we can infer volume strain changes from
water level changes induced by earthquakes under the
frame of poro-elasticity. That implies that we have new
approach to measure volume strain changes on site
after earthquakes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is supported by NSF program with contract
number 40674024. We thank professor Qiu Zehua and
Ms Chen Zhiyao to supply the background information
of bore hole volume strain observation network.
REFERENCES
Blanchard F. B. & Byerly P., 1935, A study of a well gauge
as a seismograph, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 25: 313321.
Bodvarsson, G., 1970. Confined fluids as strain meters.
J. Geophys. Res., 75(14): 27112718.
Brodsky E. E., E. A. Roeloffs, D. Woodcock, I. Gall, &
M. Manga. 2003. A mechanism for sustained groundwater pressure changes induced by distant earthquakes,
J. Geophys. Res., 108(B8):2390.
Huang Fuqiong, 2008, Response of Wells in Groundwater
Monitoring Network in Chinese Mainland to Recent Large
Earthquakes. PhD thesis of Institute of Geophysics, CEA,
pp5160.
Kano, Y., & T. Yanagidani, A2006, Broadband hydroseismograms observed by closed borehole wells in the Kamioka
mine, central Japan: Response of pore pressure to seismic
waves from 0.05 to 2 Hz, J. Geophys. Res., 111: (B03410):
111.
Manga M., Brodsky E.E., Boone M., 2003, Response of
streamflow to multiple earthquakes and implications for
the origin of postseismic discharge changes. Geophys.
Res. Lett. 30(5) 1214: 1814.
Matsumoto N., G. Kitagawa & E. A. Roeloffs, 2003, Hydrological response to earthquakes in the Haibara well, central
Japan I. Groundwater level changes revealed using state
space decomposition of atmosphere pressure, rainfall and
tidal reponses, Geophys. J Int., 155: 885898.
Roeloffs E.A., 1998, Persistent water level changes in a
well near Parkfield, California, due to local and distant
earthquakes, J. Geophys. Res, 103(B1): 869889.
Wakita H., 1975, Water Wells as Possible Indicators of
Tectonic Strain, Science, Vol. 189: 553555.
Wang C-Y, and Chia Y., 2008, Mechanisms of water level
changes during earthquakes: Near field versus intermediate field. Geophys. Res. L., 35: L12402, 5 PP.
Yan Ray, 2008, Study of several influence factor of well water
level change, thesis for Master Degree of Institute of
Earthquake Science, pp2030.
Zhang Yan, 2009, the Reaearch on Skemptons coefficient B
based on the observation of groundwater of Changping
station, Earthq Sci (2009)22: 631638.
832
R.P. Dahlgren
Department of Physics & Astronomy, San Jos State University, San Jos, CA, USA
Carl Sagan Center, The SETI Institute, Mountain View, CA, USA
J.J. Chu
Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: Earthquakes are massive rock failure events. Many large earthquakes are preceded by transient
signals: electromagnetic, magnetic field variations, ionospheric perturbations, changes in soil conductivity, and
other pre-earthquake (pre-EQ) signals. To the surprise of observers some of the pre-EQ signals tend to fade, even
disappear, shortly before the seismic events. The discovery of stress-activated electric currents in rocks provides
a possible explanation. Stresses activate mobile charge carriers in rocks, namely electron vacancy defects (EVD),
also known as positive holes, symbolized by h . The h are equivalent to O in a matrix of O2 . They exist in
unstressed rocks in an electrically inactive, dormant state. When activated the h flow down stress gradients,
producing an electrical current. At very high stress rates dislocations begin to coalesce into microfractures,
initiating catastrophic failure. They can no longer activate h charge carriers. As a consequence, pre-rupture
signals will decrease in magnitude.
INTRODUCTION
piezo-magnetic effects, streaming potentials and others. Those offered to account for pre-EQ thermal
infrared anomalies, seen in night-time satellite images,
include increased CO2 emanation from the soil due to
microfracturing in the underlying rocks, or increased
latent heat from the condensation of water on air ions
introduced at ground level by increased radon emanation from the soil, thought to be due to microfracturing
of the underlying rocks. Other types of explanations
are offered to account for or rationalize other types of
pre-EQ signals.
This raises the question whether different pre-EQ
signals require different explanations depending on
the type of signals considered. If the signals have a
common origin the build-up of stress in the deep
underground shouldnt they also be traceable to a
common cause?
It is noteworthy that, because seismologists focus
intently on rock mechanics, the science community
interested in non-seismic pre-EQ signals also seeks
explanations primarily based on rock mechanics. Fracture and microfracture are widely considered to be the
common cause of pre-EQ signals. In this report, we
submit that the focus on fracture and microfracture
has helped to confound the field.
833
COMMON EXPLANATIONS OF
PRE-EARTHQUAKE SIGNALS
834
EVOLUTION OF PRE-EARTHQUAKE
SIGNALS WITH INCREASING STRESS
835
to 1/30th the speed of propagation of the P and S seismic waves. Powerful seismic waves in the near-field
of a fault undergoing catastrophic rupture can therefore be expected to outrun the expansion of positive
hole clouds and thus interfere with the build up electric dipoles, which would be required for the emission
of EM waves. More work is needed to address these
complex questions.
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Supported in part by the NASA Earth Surface and
Interior (ESI) program.
REFERENCES
Brady, B. T. 1992. In S. K. Park (ed.) Low Frequency Electrical Precursors: Fact of Fiction? 1827. NSF National
Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program Workshop.
Brady, B. T. & Rowell, G. A. 1986. Laboratory investigation
of the electrodynamics of rock fracture. Nature. 321: 488
492.
Freund, F. 1985. Conversion of dissolved water into
molecular hydrogen and peroxy linkages. Journal of
Non-Crystalline Solids. 71: 195202.
Freund, F. 2002. Charge generation and propagation in rocks.
J. Geodynamics 33: 545572.
Freund, F. T., Takeuchi, A. & Lau, B. W. 2006. Electric currents streaming out of stressed igneous rocks - A step
towards understanding pre-earthquake low frequency EM
emissions. Phys. Chem. Earth. 31: 389396.
836
837
S.A. Hoenig
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
A. Braun
Bose Corporation, ElectroForce Systems Group, Eden Prairie, MN
R.P. Dahlgren
Department of Physics & Astronomy, San Jos State University, San Jos, CA, USA
Carl Sagan Center, The SETI Institute, Mountain View, CA
M. Momayez
Department of Mining & Geological Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
J.J. Chu
Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: When rocks are subjected to mechanical stress, dormant electronic defects become activated.
This activation produces electron-hole pairs, which increase the electrical conductivity of rocks by releasing
highly mobile defects electrons, equivalent to O in a matrix of O2 , called positive holes and symbolized by
h . The h charge carriers can spread from the stressed rock into surrounding unstressed rocks. Preventing the
outflow of h alters the mechanical properties of the rocks: they become softer and weaker. Ongoing studies point
to a delocalization of the wave function associated with the h charge carriers, which is far-reaching and affects
many neighboring O2 . Although the number density of positive holes may be as low as 1 in 1000, essentially all
O2 in the rock subvolume lose some of their electron density. This loss weakens the interatomic bonds between
anions and cations, thus affecting the mechanical properties of rocks.
1 INTRODUCTION
Rock deformation and rock failure are widely studied from the viewpoint of rock mechanics (Anderson
2005, Atkinson 1987). However, stressing a rock also
creates an electronic component. Since most rocks
are good insulators, changes in electrical conductivity
during application of stress have not received much
attention. It has long been reported that the conductivity of rocks increases with increasing load. This
increase is generally believed to be due to better grainto-grain contacts during compaction (Glover & Vine
1994, Nover et al. 1995) or to a reduction in the electrochemical potential for the formation of vacancies corresponding to the diffusion of the rate-controlling ion
in the space-charge at the grain boundary (Conrad &
Yang 2010).
Postnikov (1978) reported that during cutting, electrophysical and electrochemical properties of rocks
are markedly affected. According to Balbachan &
839
However, it has long been demonstrated that the O3 SiOH pairs rearrange electronically so as to generate
peroxy links (Freund 1987)
The peroxy links are the dormant form of the electronic charge carriers mentioned above. When stresses
are applied, dislocations sweep through the mineral
grains. They intersect peroxy links causing them to
break.An electron from an outside O2 then jumps into
the broken bond and is trapped, while the O2 , which
donated the electron, turns into an O , i.e., into an
electron vacancy defect, also known as positive hole,
symbolized by h . This process is schematically shown
in eq. (3)
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
We obtained the modulus K* of gabbro by measuring the response in a dynamic 3-line bending test,
shown in Figure 1, using a Bose ElectroForce ELF
System Model 3100 (22 N force capacity, 2.5 mm
displacement).
Thin slabs of gabbro, 10 20 0.5 cm, cut with a
diamond saw out of a larger block and air-dried, were
loaded via the central steel roller, as depicted in Figure 2, with the force 2 N to 5 N over the frequency
range 0.1 to 10 Hz. The rock slabs were fitted with
Cu contacts under the steel roller in the center and at
both ends of the slab. Kapton films, 25 m thick, were
used for electrical insulation. We applied dc voltages
between the center and the edges. The data were analyzed using the Wintest v 4.1 release with Bose ESG
Version 3.0 DMA software.
Figure 3 shows in a simplified way the flow of h
charge carriers during loading of the slab. Most of the
stress is assumed to be concentrated along the center
line of the rock sample. Stresses that build up at the
two steel rollers, on which the slabs were resting, are
neglected. If a static load is applied, the h will spread
laterally from the maximally stressed volume, while
the e flow from the center through the wire to the
Cu electrodes at both ends of the slab. The center of
the slab becomes negatively charged relative to both
ends of the rock sample (Freund et al. 2006). The selfgenerated potential under open circuit conditions is on
the order of about 2 V.
840
4
Figure 4. Frequency dependence of modulus K* on the
voltage applied to the gabbro slab, under positive bias.
DISCUSSION
841
842
Figure 8. Peroxy defect in MgO. Left: Undissociated, spin-coupled, dormant state. Right: Dissociated,
spin-decoupled state, accompanied by delocalization of the
wave function representing the h charge carrier.
CONCLUSION
Balbachan, M.Y. & Tomashevskaya, I.S. 1987. Ehffekt izmeneniya prochnosti gornykh porod v rezultate mekhanoehlektrizatsii (Change in Rock Strength as result of
mechanical induction of charges). DokladyAkademii Naut
SSR. 296: 10851089.
Batllo, F., LeRoy, R.C., Parvin, K., Freund, F. & Freund, M.M.
1991. Positive hole centers in MgO correlation between
magnetic susceptibility, dielectric anomalies and electric
conductivity. J. Appl. Phys. 69: 60316033.
Conrad, H., & Yang D. 2010. Influence of an applied dc
electric field on the plastic deformation kinetics of oxide
ceramics. Philosophical Magazine, 90(9): 11411157.
Freund, F.T. 1987. Hydrogen and carbon in solid solution in
oxides and silicates. Phys. Chem. Minerals 15: 118.
Freund, F.T. 2002. Charge generation and propagation in
rocks. J. Geodynamics 33(45): 545572.
Freund, F.T. 2010a. Toward a Unified Solid State Theory for
Pre-Earthquake Signals. Acta Geophysica. (in press).
Freund, F.T. 2010b. Pre-Earthquake Signals: Underlying
Physical Processes. J. Asian Earth Sci. (in press).
Freund, F.T., Freund, M.M. & Batllo, F. 1993. Critical review
of electrical conductivity measurements and charge distribution analysis of magnesium oxide. J. Geophys. Res.
98(B12): 2220922229.
Freund, F.T., Takeuchi, A. & Lau, B.W. 2006. Electric currents streaming out of stressed igneous rocks A step
towards understanding pre-earthquake low frequency EM
emissions. Phys. Chem. Earth 31(49): 389396.
Freund, F., Whang, E.-J., Batllo, F., Desgranges, C. & Freund,
M.M. 1994. Positive holetype charge carriers in oxide
materials. In L.M. Levinson (ed.), Grain Boundaries and
Interfacial Phenomena in Electronic Ceramics 263278.
Amer. Ceram. Soc.
Freund, F.T., Kulahci, I.G., Cyr, G., Ling, J., Winnick, M.,
Tregloan-Reed, J. & Freund, M.M. 2009. Air ionization
at rock surface and pre-earthquake signals. J. Atmos. Sol.
Terr. Phys. 71: 18241834.
Glover, P.W.J. & Vine, F.J. 1994. Electrical conductivity of
the continental crust. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21: 23572360.
Nover, G., Heikamp, S., Kontny, A. & Duba, A. 1995. The
effect of pressure on the electrical conductivity of KTB
rocks. Surveys in Geophysics 16(1): 6381.
Postnikov, S.N. 1978. Electrophysical and Electrochemical
Phenomena in Friction, Cutting, and Lubrication. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co.
Shluger, A.L., Heifets, E.N., Gale, J.D. & Catlow, C.R.A.
1992. Theoretical simulation of localized holes in MgO.
J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 4(26): 57115722.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Supported in part by the NASA Earth Surface and
Interior (ESI) program.
REFERENCES
Anderson, T.L. 2005. Fracture Mechanics: Fundamentals
and Applications. Baton Rouge: CRC/Taylor and Francis.
Atkinson, B.K. (ed.) 1987. Fracture Mechanics of Rock.
Orlando: Academic Press.
843
Lianjie Wang
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences
Liming Ge
Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration
ABSTRACT: This paper briefly presents the principles of piezomagnetic stressometers, repeated observation
and experiment results under hydro-pressure in crust rocks. It was expounded that the values measured by suspended element were compared with those by forced element. The crustal stress changes and the micro displacement of fault were ynchronously rippled.That the similar crustal stress changes were measured in the corresponding period at the stations ten to hundreds km apart. In the regions of few earthquakes the crustal stress were stable,
and that earthquakes was predicted successfully many times by anomalies of crustal stress, we found and proved
that the direction of anomalous principal stress is pointed at or mined to epicenters, the stations with higher anomalous principal stress were near the epicenters, and the duration time of long-term anomaly was linearly related with
the magnitude of earthquakes. It has been demonstrated that we can measure the process of change of stress field
with the gauges in the borehole and make time, location and magnitude prediction for earthquakes. It has been 50
years since the method was used for the study of the premonitory stress observation and earthquake prediction
under the late proposition of Prof. J. S. Lee and under the concrete direction of Academician Chen Qingxuan.
1
INSTRUCTIONS
845
Figure 3. The calibration of stressometer and the calibration curve. Readings can be converted into the conversion
displacement, by means of the curve and then the principal
stress can be calculated.
846
The piezomagnetic stress gauge is made up of a suspended element and three or four forced elements. The
gauge has powerful anti-disturb capacity to temperature. The suspended element set up above the forced
elements was used to measure air pressure, temperature and other circumstances but not to measure crustal
stress. Forced elements were used to measure crustal
stress changes.
Fig. 5 shows typical measured curves with piezomagnetic stress gauges, from which we can see that
measured values of the forced elements change with
time. The measured values of the uspended element are
stable, and the measured values of the forced elements
reflect crustal stress changes.
3.2
It has been found that, in Xibozi and Dahuichang, Beijing, and Xiaguan Yunnan province,relative changes
of the crustal stress measured by the gauge and the
micro-displacement of fault showed a similar change
time section before and after strong earthquakes as
shown in Fig. 6. The phenomenon indicated that the
847
848
The effective premomtory distance with the piezomagnetic stressometer is generally 500 km for an M7
earthquake, 200300 km for M5-6 earthquakes.
3.5.4 The trend anomaly time of the crust stress
presented a linear relation to earthquake
magnitude
Having analyzed 2030 earthquake cases of crust
stress trend anomaly, we found that the duration time
of the crust stress trend anomaly had a linear relation
with earthquake magnitude, as follows:
849
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Hast, N., 1958. The measurement of rock pressures in mines,
Sverigs Geol. Undersoknig Ser C. Arsbok, 52(3).
850
Jieyuan Ning
School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: At present, borehole strain observations are generally in the horizontal longitudinal components
of the strain. These observations take stress concentration model of an infinite flat plate with hole as their
theoretical basis and are used for measuring stress distribution and stress change. Measuring both horizontal
and vertical normal components of the stress, we can perform three-dimensional stress distribution. This article
describes the horizontal and vertical strain measurement units of a deep-seated RZB-type integrated wideband
deformation observing system, especially focusing on the measuring principle of the vertical longitudinal strain
and technological breakthrough. Finite element method has been used to test the robust of the equipment.
1
INTRODUCTION
The earths crust has differential movement and deformation under the action of tectonic stress field. While
the accumulated energy eventually leading to quick
destruction of a place of the earths brittle crust, there
is an earthquake. Employing the measured data of
crust deformation, we can better understand the crust
movement, which is important to establish the dynamics model of earthquakes and to reveal tectonic stress
field.
Since the 70s of last century, China has exerted
strain observation and has already accumulated a large
number of borehole strain data. Nowever, for technical limitations, the observation only limited to the
horizontal strain measurements, which are difficult to
carry out three-dimensional stress inversion. Japanese
scholars exerted vertical strain measurements, which
were used to achieve three-dimensional strain observation together with horizontal strain measurements.
However, its magnetic sensor prevent them from having large dynamic range of measurement and high
sensitivity. Large magnetic drift is also a severe problem. In 2009, Prof. Zuxi Ouyang and his coworkers
designed and manufactured deep-seated RZB-type
integrated wideband deformation observing system.
The system has been accepted by the National Science and Technology. It integrates measurements of
horizontal strain, vertical strain, gravity, tilt, seismic wave produced strain, water level, temperature.
The measurement system adopts capacitance sensor as the sensory component which overcoming the
shortcomings of the magnetic sensor. The strain measurement achieves a large dynamic measurement range
(2 103 ), high sensitivity (1010 ), and a 10 years
STRUCTURE OF A THREE-DIMENSIONAL
MEASURING DEEP-SEATED RZB-TYPE
INTEGRATED WIDEBAND DEFORMATION
OBSERVING SYSTEM
The measuring probe of deep-seated RZB-type integrated wideband deformation observing system is
composed of multiple independent measurement units
which are installed in series. Integrated probes independently measure horizontal strain, vertical strain,
borehole tilt, seismic waves. On the top of the system
locates the main centralizer, while the weight locates
on the bottom which can guarantee an equipment set
in the center position of a borehole. The diameter of
the cylinder-shaped borehole is 130 mm and the installation depth of the set is at 50400 m depths. After the
set being laid down into the borehole, the space of
the borehole is casted by special cement. This case,
the probes could be completely coupled with the surrounding earth, and carry out accurate measurements
of deformation. (Ouyang Zuxi, Zhangjun, Chenzheng,
et al, 2009)
2.1 The working principle of capacitive
micro-displacement sensor
Capacitive sensor is a kind of micro-displacement
sensor with high sensitivity, good stability, simple
851
structure. Especially when the differential capacitive displacement sensors and precision ratio transformer are combined to form the bridge, it can
obtain very precise measurements. Deep-seated RZBtype integrated wideband deformation observing system uses the three-terminal differential capacitive
micro-displacement meter as the deformation sensing
852
CONCLUSION
853
RZB-type integrated wideband deformation observation system meets the requirements of the threedimensional measurement. It can provide a more accurate three-dimensional observation of additional strain
field and is significant for the inversion of regional
deformation field, displacement field and stress field.
Furthermore it is important for the studies of structure
and earthquake activity of the crust.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is founded by Institute of Crustal Dynamics, CEA, Basic scientific Special Fund (ZDJ2009-29,
ZDJ2009-26).
Figure 8. Vertical displacement map of the cement in meter.
REFERENCES
854
855
ABSTRACT: A RZB-type Capacitive Borehole Inclinometer (RZB-type CBI) is designed to measure the
inclination angle by the reaction of a capacitance with small displacement or small angle. It is characterized
by high sensitivity (2 104 degree/sec.), good linearity (1%) and simple circuit structure. In addition, one
pre-adjusting platform controlled by a micro motors is designed for this instrument to meet the requirement that
an inclination sensor may change in a rather large range during downhole installation. In this paper, we introduce
the operational principle and the constitution of RZB-type CBI and one application case in a borehole of 250-m
depth. The measurement recordings show that this probe can detect the variation of Earth tide, the abnormal
phenomenon before an earthquake and the seismic wave during an earthquake, which prove that this probe can
meet the requirements to detect the inclination deformation of the upper crust.
Keywords:
INTRODUCTION
The earthquake monitoring is an observation discipline and is always advanced by new observing
techniques and methods. When force is acted on a
part of the crust, stress and deformation will be produced, and then may result in an earthquake; therefore,
there is surely a link between an earthquake and
the crust deformation. The deformation observation
has attracted much attention from the explorers of
earthquake prediction and monitoring. The observation of stresses and strains in the upper crust plays
a very important role in the earthquake prediction
and monitoring as well as the analysis of tectonic
stress regime. The inclination deformation, vertical
deformation and horizontal deformation are all necessary parts of stress and strain observation system
(Ouyang Zuxi & Zhangjun & Chenzheng, et al., 2009,
Qiu Zehua & Xie Furen & Su Kaizhi, et al., 2004).
The high-precision inclinometer is mainly a gauge to
observe the inclination deformation of upper crust,
which can be used to detect small inclination variation, inclination earth tide and to capture the abnormal
phenomenon shortly before earthquakes.
Generally, there are two observation techniques
widely adopted for crust inclination measurement.
One technique is to measure the excursion of swing
compared with the plumb line, and the other technique is to measure the relative displacement of
the crust in the gravitational direction within a certain span with the horizontal plane as the reference plane. If classified with the reference line of
device, there are two kinds of inclinometers, longreference-line inclinometer and short-reference-line
inclinometer. The commonly used long-reference-line
inclinometer is water-tube inclinometer, and the shortreference-line inclinometer includes horizontal swing
inclinometer, vertical swing inclinometer, diamagnetic inclinometer, bubble inclinometer, and so on
(Huangyu & Wu Lihua, 2006, 2008, He Chengping
& Ouyang Zuxi, 2006).
In the long-term earth inclination observation histories, the key techniques and parts have been advanced
step by step in performance. The traditional inclinometer was updated technically with new techniques and
methods, such as digital technique, intelligent technique. On the other hand, delicate-structured and goodperformance inclinometers come into use continuously. The new generation high-precision inclinometer
tends to become small, practical, digital and easy to
use. This paper introduces something about one new
RZB-type capacitive borehole inclinometer, including
the working rinceples, structure constitution, performance and an application case in Zhangzhou, Fujian
Province, China.
2
The inclination sensor of RZB-type CBI is a gravitational swing vertically hanging on a rigid bracket. As
indicated in Figure 1(a), fixed polar plateA, fixed polar
plate B and gravitational swing M form the three-end
capacitive differential-displacement inclination sensor. The gravitational swing M is under the action
of gravitational force, and keeps in line with vertical
direction. When the ground surface incline to a certain
direction with an angle , the swing bracket will dip
at an angle of , but the gravitational swing is still in
the vertical direction under the action of gravitational
857
the capacitance. After such a conversion, the relationship between the to-be-measured physical parameter and the able-to-be-measured capacitance is
established.
3
Combining equation 1.1 with equation 1.2, the displacement of swing is proportional to the inclination
angle of ground surface. Through such a conversion, the problem of measuring an angle becomes
a problem of measuring a displacement. Moreover,
the capacitance is proportional to the displacement of
swing; therefore, the problem of measuring displacement can be converted into a problem of measuring
858
Figure 4. RZB capacitive principle of borehole strain measurement system block diagram.
the medium polar plate, is demodulated and amplified, and then transferred to data acquisition device.
The digital signal, converted by an A/D, is sent to the
epistatic machine by the MCU control unit through
RS485 bus.
Because DPB digital potentiometer is employed as
the adjustment end of a measuring bridge, the MCU
control unit can program to control the central tap
joint of DPB digital potentiometer so as to reach the
balance adjustment of measuring bridge and to attain
the high-efficiency integration of sensors. In order to
improve the reliability of the whole system, the circuits
and devices after the bridge, including the demodulating and amplifying circuit, AD converter, data
transmission and cable circuits, employ two identical
but independent systems, one of which is standby one.
859
of the platform. Moreover, the motor-driving adjustment platform can adapt to micro variation angle to
calibrate the working inclination sensors.
CONCLUSION
860
REFERENCES
861
H.S. Mitri
McGill University, Canada
ABSTRACT: Incoherent results of in-situ stress measurements and their implications in designing a crude
oil storage caverns project are presented in this paper. Core-discing at depths corresponding to abnormally
higher stress magnitude values were observed at the project site. It is brought to the notice that an optimistic
assessment of in-situ stresses may result into costly design surprises during the excavation stage. Consideration
of incoherency in the computed in-situ stress magnitudes and orientation resulted into lowering of the caverns
level farther 5m from the surface than the design requirements as per the storage pressure. The paper also briefly
outlines the project settings, fundamentals of crude oil storage projects in unlined mined caverns and in-situ stress
measurements using hydro-frac technique. Impacts of in-situ stress regime on the caverns design is evaluated by
using numerical modeling for which plain strain numerical models are prepared using a general purpose finite
difference code, FLAC3D.
INTRODUCTION
injection/hydraulic fracturing using test set-up of wireline technique by MeSy, India. A total of 14 tests
could be carried out at depth between 18 m and 60 m.
Most of the tests provided distinct fracture initiation phases, subsequent re-fracturing cycles yielded
rather clear pressure values for fracture opening
and closure. For fracture initiation injection pressures up to almost 17 MPa was required, fracture
re-opening/closure occurred at injection pressures of
about 2 MPa independent of depth. The characteristic
hydrofrac pressure values for fracture opening and closure has shown a scatter in calculated horizontal stress
magnitudes and also, the orientation of stress tensors
has shown scatter due to scatter in fracture orientation
data. MeSy had the opinion to utilize an average value
for in-situ stress regime. The project, however, could
have different design implications if the average values
had been chosen. The measurement values are therefore critically re-evaluated in the light of the information that core discing was observed in corresponding
depth levels those reflected higher fracture initiation
injection pressure. The paper presents details discussion on the different design implications in light of the
incoherent stress magnitude and orientation values and
the logic for the chosen option in design of the underground openings. A brief introduction to the design
863
Figure 1. Fundamentals of crude oil storage in unlined mined caverns (Pillai & Saharan, 2007).
In order to ensure fulfilment of the mechanical tightness criterion for the storage of crude oil facilities
in unlined mined caverns, it is desired that the caverns should be housed (1) at a depth level which
has consistent orientation for the principal stresses of
in-situ stress regime, (2) the caverns axis is parallel to
the major principal stress, and (3) shape of the caverns induce changes in in-situ stress regime in such
a way that compressive stresses are induced around
the caverns. Thus, one of the most critical inputs for
the feasibility design of crude oil facility in unlined
mined caverns is identification of the in-situ stress
regime. Classical hydrofracturing stress measurement
technique (Hubbert and Wills, 1957) and its analysis employing the method given by Cornet (1986)
for hydraulic fracturing through pre-existing fractures
(HTPF) or Rummel (1989) for PSI inversion methods are conducted for the test site. The test method
demands assumption for the direction of the one of the
864
Table 1.
Test no.
depth
m
k
Darcy
Pc
MPa
Pr
MPa
Pco
MPa
Psi
MPa
degree
degree
degree
B1/8
15
10.5
5.6/5.7
4.9/4.8
2.3/1.8 0.2
325
B5/6
18
64
2.5
2.0
B1/7
B5/5
25
25
25
61
(4.8)
(4.4)
2.0/1.8
1.7
(2.8/2.6)
(2.7)
1.7/1.5
1.56
B5/4
30
50
(4.7)
2.7
(2.0)
2.4/2.2
B1/6
35
520
(3.7)
3.0
(0.7)
2.2
B5/3
B5/2
B5/1
B1/4
B1/3
B1/2
35
40
43
45
51
58
0
150
1700
76
18
3
8.4
(2.8)
16.8
15.7
1.9/2.4
0.9
1.85
1.8/2.1
(11)
5.2
6.5/6.0
(0.8)
(5)
10.5
1.6/1.7
1.1
1.5/1.4
1.95
(10)
4.2/4.4
B1/1
60
53
(6.7)
2.7
(4)
2.6/2.55
90
81
27
90
58
90
25
63
90
18
85
36
90
0
16
74
90
90
56
68
172
91
85
38
53
157
58
97
118
56
179
86
152
41
172
72
118
13
143
322
67
148
187
146
269
176
311
262
283
233
865
866
Table 2.
Point 2
Point 3
Preposition 1:
Min
Max
zz
xx
Max Min
SCF
0 MPa
6 MPa
0 MPa
4 MPa
6 MPa
1.4 MPa
1 MPa
4 MPa
4 MPa
0 MPa
3 MPa
2.3 MPa
1.0 MPa
4.0 MPa
2.0 MPa
0.0 MPa
3.0 MPa
0.23 MPa
Preposition 2:
Min
Max
zz
xx
Max Min
SCF
0 MPa
1 MPa
0 MPa
0.5 MPa
1 MPa
5.0 MPa
2.5 MPa
5 MPa
5 MPa
0 MPa
2.5 MPa
3.27 MPa
2.5 MPa
5.0 MPa
5.0 MPa
0.0 MPa
2.5 MPa
3.27 MPa
Preposition 3:
Min
Max
zz
xx
Max Min
SCF
0 MPa
2 MPa
0 MPa
2.5 MPa
2 MPa
15.5 MPa
0 MPa
2 MPa
0 MPa
0 MPa
2.0 MPa
1.73 MPa
2.0 MPa
2.0 MPa
2.0 MPa
0.0 MPa
4.0 MPa
3.73 MPa
Preposition 4:
Min
Max
zz
xx
Max Min
SCF
2 MPa
5 MPa
0 MPa
5 MPa
7 MPa
5.0 MPa
2.0 MPa
10 MPa
0 MPa
0 MPa
12 MPa
2.5 MPa
2.0 MPa
10.0 MPa
0.0 MPa
0.0 MPa
12 MPa
2.5 MPa
It is clearly evident from the Table 2 that Preposition 4, i.e. ignoring the incoherency and designing the
caverns as per the basis of storage products pressure,
would lead to the highest level of deviatoric stresses
(Max Min ) and also tensile stresses in the roof level
to manage. The preposition 3 will result into a uniform low level of deviatoric stresses in the roof and
a good amount of stress relaxation for the design in
terms of the major principal stress. Comparative plots
of principal stress tensors for the preposition 2 and 3
are also shown in Figure 5 and 6. It can be noticed from
Figures 5 and 6 that unlike the other prepositions, the
preposition 3 will generate compressive stresses in the
roof level which is a desired position for the success
of the crude oil storage projects. Other alternative for
the management would be to opt for a shape which
is closer to an oval shape for generation of uniform
compressive stresses all around the proposed caverns
for other preposition.
a later stage. The incoherent result could not be corroborated from the field testing in another borehole due
to practical difficulties. This resulted into consideration of Preposition 3 with caverns level repositioning
to +5m deeper than the required depth level by the
product storage pressure demand. Other difficulty
encountered during the field testing was identification
of proper locations for in-situ stress estimation along a
particular borehole. The locations were selected based
on the soundness of core drills which could have obviously ignored the possible influence of a joint set
near to the borehole boundary but not exposed during the core drilling. A geophysical method, such as
acoustic televiewer, could have assisted in identifying
these hidden joint sets so a proper HTPF calculation
incorporated for the stress estimation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
It is evident from Table 2 that ignoring the incoherency
in stress measurement data may lead to undesired geological surprises resulting into costly design changes at
867
REFERENCES
Bieniawski, Z.T. 1976. Rock mass classification in rock engineering. In Z.T. Bieniawski (ed.), Exploration for Rock
Engineering; Balkema: Rotterdam. 97106.
Cornet, F.H. 1986. Stress determination from hydraulic tests
on pre-existing fractures the HTPF method. In Proc. Int.
Symp. Rock Stress Measurements; Stockholm, CENTEK.
301312.
Hubbert M.K. & Willis, D,K. 1957. Mechanics of hydraulic
fracturing. Trans AIME. 210, 153163.
868
H.S. Mitri
McGill University, Canada
ABSTRACT: Incoherent results of in-situ stress measurements and their implications in designing a crude
oil storage caverns project are presented in this paper. Core-discing at depths corresponding to abnormally
higher stress magnitude values were observed at the project site. It is brought to the notice that an optimistic
assessment of in-situ stresses may result into costly design surprises during the excavation stage. Consideration
of incoherency in the computed in-situ stress magnitudes and orientation resulted into lowering of the caverns
level farther 5 m from the surface than the design requirements as per the storage pressure. The paper also
briefly outlines the project settings, fundamentals of crude oil storage projects in unlined mined caverns and
in-situ stress measurements using hydro-frac technique. Impacts of in-situ stress regime on the caverns design
is evaluated by using numerical modeling for which plain strain numerical models are prepared using a general
purpose finite difference code, FLAC3D.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
M/S South Asia LPG, Visakhapatnam (India) has constructed the first mined unlined caverns for LPG
storage in South-East Asia. India. The project site is
located at 17 41 N and 83 18 E in southern part of
India. The caverns with 1,23,600 m3 capacity are storing maximum 60,000 MT of LPG and they are located
at a depth between 162 m to 186 m below ground surface. The major axis of the caverns is in the N30 E
direction. Geologically, the project caverns are located
in Khondalite group of metamorphic Archaean rocks.
The main joint set family strikes in the N85 E direction and has a near vertical dip. The joints are tight
(separation less than 1 mm), less persistent, widely
spaced (spacing more than 1 m) and are clear of infillings. The current project is cited in metamorphic rocks
having rock strength (Uniaxial) of 100 MPa, Modulus of Elasticity equals to 78 GPa, Poissons ratio as
0.22 and density equals to 2877 kg/m3 . A detailed
geotechnical investigation has been carried out and
the rock mass was characterized using the 1976 Bieniawskis Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system (Bieniawski,
1976). According to this classification, the rock mass
was classified as Good Quality Rock with an average
RMR value of 78. This rock mass structure provides
an environment similar to Continuously Homogenous
Isotropic Linear Elastic (CHILE) material.
Feasibility of the project was established on the
basis of optimistic assumption of the stress regime
and an oval shape for the caverns was determined.
Later on, in-situ stress measurements were conducted
at the project site and M/S Geostock, France considered a change in the caverns shape and proposed a
new basket shape to accommodate the new knowledge of in-situ stress regime which was higher than
the assumed stress regime. Change for the new design
meant higher input for the rock reinforcement measures and a longer period of excavation program for
SALPG. CIMFR, India undertook the auditing of this
design change using numerical modelling. This paper
presents outcome of this auditing apart from a brief
description of the design requirements for LPG storage
in unlined mined caverns.
869
flow towards the caverns always remains under controlled conditions. This tightness criterion is achieved
by adopting the following step-wise procedure in the
caverns designs.
(i) Citing of the caverns in good rock mass conditions.
(ii) Locating the Caverns at a depth having consistent
stress-regime.
(iii) Aligning the caverns major axis.
(iv) Designing a Suitable Shape of the Caverns.
3
the caverns depth. The reasons behind a good stability of the caverns are very good rock mass, high
rock strength and less persistent tight joints devoid of
infillings surrounding to them.
Further, the stress measurements at the project site
established that on average the major principal stress
(H ) is at 59 3 Degree (ENE-WSW). The caverns
major axis is planned at 30 Degree (30 Degree ENEWSW) from the major principal stress direction.As per
the stress transformation equations, this will invoke
shear stresses in the horizontal plane of the order of
3 MPa at the caverns level. Though the caverns axis
is not aligned with the major principal stress, serious
adverse impacts from the shear stresses are not forecasted due to the fact that the jointing in rock mass is
sparse, less persistent and is tight.
PREPARATION OF NUMERICAL
MODELS
870
A sub-routine program is added in FLAC3D to calculate Safety Factor which reads induced principal
stresses (1i and 3i ) and calculates the safety factor
as per the above.
Figure 1. Geometric and boundary conditions for the prepared numerical models.
Table 1.
Parameter
Measured rock
property
Elastic Modulus
78 GPa
56 GPa
Poissons ratio
Density
0.22
2877 kg/m3
0.22
2650 kg/m3
Compressive
Strength
Tensile
Strength
In-situ stresses
100 MPa
33.29 MPa
10 MPa
4.43 MPa
As per relations 1 to 3
871
Table 2.
Roof
Floor
Side wall
Oval
Basket
64 MPa
43 MPa
38 MPa
37 MPa
26 MPa
17 MPa
Cavern Shape
872
6 CONCLUSIONS
The results presented in this study predict over-all a
safe scenario for the both shapes. It is, however, can be
noticed that the decision for change of shape slightly
reduced safety factor contours, generated additional
requirements for greater amount of rock reinforcement
measures and longer rock bolt lengths to maintain the
stability. This had forced the management to incur
higher costs towards the rock reinforcement measures
and also delayed the project schedule due to changes
required for loading and unloading at the shaft bottom.
REFERENCES
Figure 6. The safety factor contour plots for oval shaped
caverns.
Bieniawski, Z.T. 1976. Rock mass classification in rock engineering. In Z.T. Bieniawski (ed.), Exploration for Rock
Engineering; Balkema: Rotterdam. 97106.
Bieniawski ZT. 1978. Determining rock mass deformability:
experience from case histories. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci
Geomech Abstr; 15:23747.
ITASCA 2007. Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua in
3 Dimensions. Version 3.0, Users guides, Minneapolis,
USA.
Sheorey, P.R. 1997. Empirical Rock Failure Criteria;
Balkema: Rotterdam. 194p.
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