5.

Beam element
(matematical model)

THE BEAM
- small displacements [equilibrium is enforced in the undeformed configuration]
- linear elasticity

global and local axes

- centroidal axis
- cross section

principal axes of inertia

Bar: beam subjected only to axial load.

For the moment we refer to plane beams: that is beams with a longitudinal plane of symmetry,
the applied loads should act in this plane. As a consequence, the beams deflects in this plane
and the problem reduces to a plane problem.
Indeed, this means that the cross section is symmetric about y-axis, y-axis is principal, the
shear center belongs to the y-axis -> there is no torsion and the bending is symmetric (flessione
retta).

KINEMATICS
Euler-Bernoulli
Fundamental assumption:
plane sections remain plane
and normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam
deformed cross section
deformed beam axis
undeformed beam

d x ( x, y )
d( x, y )
pointwise displacements
d
(
x
,
y
)
y

u( x )

u( x ) v ( x )

( x )

beam (generalized)
displacements

d x ( x, y ) u( x ) y ( x ) small displacements

d y ( x, y ) v ( x )
d

section rotation

v
slope of the beam axis

This theory considers flexural deformations only.

KINEMATICS
Timoshenko
Fundamental assumption:
plane sections remain plane
but not necessarily perpendicular to the beam axis

vI

deformed beam axis

vI

deformed section
direction of undeformed section

This theory considers both flexural and shear deformations.

KINEMATICS
Compatibility
d x

(
x
,
y
)

u y
xx
x

pointwise strains
( x, y ) 1 d y d x 1 v

xy
2 x
y 2

Timoshenko

section deformations

[generalized strains] e

( x ) u

( x ) v

( x )

( x ) u

( x )

dx

dx

dx

d
dx
xx y

e Du D 0

xy

2
0

Eulero-Bernoulli

e

dx

xx y

xy 0

d
dx
e Du D

dx

dx

0
d
dx
0

2
d
2
dx

dx

STATICS
normal stresses

xx 0

xy 0 shear stresses

All the other stress components are assumed to be zero.

imaginary cutting plane

xx

xy

N dA
axial force
xx

shear force
T A xy dA

M A y xx dA bending moment

internal forces
[section forces]
[stress resultants]
[generalized stresses]

STATICS
Equilibrium

Timoshenko
p
f q

c

N
s T

M

N p 0

M T c 0

T q 0

Eulero-Bernoulli
p
N
f
dc s
q

dx

N p 0

dc
M
''

q 0

dx

d
dx

D s f D 0

dx

D s f D

d
dx

d

dx

2
d
2
dx

To maintain a correct paring with kinematics (we have just 2 components of deformations)
we can take the first derivative of the moment equilibrium equation and then substitute into
the shear equilibrium equation.

CONSTITUTIVE LAW
Linear isotropic elasticity
Youngs modulus
xx E xx

shear modulus
xy 2G xy

xx E y

xy G

N dA
xx

A
N EA

d
A

M EI
xy
A

T GA

M A y xx dA

N EA

M EI

T GA

De Saint Venant theory

y dA

shear correction factor (5 / 6 for rectangular cross sections)

Timoshenko

Euler-Bernoulli

0
0
EA
s Ce C 0 GA 0

0
0
EI

EA 0
s Ce C

0 EI

- Why this discrepancy?

- How to compute the shear correction factor?
- The procedure is general and applicable to more complex material behaviors?
- Stress distributions are consistent with De Saint Venant results?

NOTATION
Euler-Bernoulli

Timoshenko
u

u v


d
dx

D0

p
f q

c
0
d
dx
0

0
dx

1 D 0

d
0

dx

N
s T

M
0

d
dx

d

dx

1 0 0
0
0
EA
T

C 0 GA 0 n 1 N 0 1 0

0 0 1
0
0
EI

p

u
N

u f
dc

M

dx
d
dx
D

2
d
2
dx

in the boundary conditions there is

the first derivative

M N
M
N
y
y
EI A
I
EA

xy

T
T

A At

2
d
2
dx

EA 0
C

0 EI

Using the previous equations we get:

xx E y E

d
dx

6. Beam element
(discrete model)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NODAL FORCES AND NODAL DISPLACEMENTS

Prismatic beam, linear elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material

H1

EA
L

H1
V
1
C1

H 2
V2

C2

12EI

6EI

L (1 )

L (1 )
EI (4 )
L(1 )

EA
L
0
0

EA
L

V1
C1

V2
C2 H 2

0
0
2

0
EA

L
1
12EI
6EI
0

0
3
0
2

2
1

L (1 ) L (1 ) u1

6EI
EI (2 ) v1
L
L
2
0

EI
p 0
L(1 ) 1
12
2(1 )
L (1 )
q

EA 0
u2 L

0
0
0
0
c
v 2
2

0
0
L
1
12EI
6EI 2

2
3

2
1

L (1 )
L (1 )

EI
2
0
EI (4 )

L
L

0
L(1 )
12
2(1 )

12EI
L GA
2

2
L (1 )

6EI

L(1 )

0


12EI

2
L (1 )
6EI

L(1 )
0
12EI

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NODAL FORCES AND NODAL DISPLACEMENTS

Prismatic beam, linear elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material
V1
V2
C1
C2 H 2
H1

12EI

EA
0
L

12EI

3
H1
L
V
1
C1

H 2
V2

C2

0
6EI
2

L
4EI
L

L GA
2

EA
L
0
0

12EI
3

L
6EI
2

L
EA
L

0
12EI
3

12EI

0
0
0
2

0
EA

L
6EI
0

1
0
0
2
u

2
1

2EI v1
L
0
0 p 0
EI

L 1
12
q
u L
EA 0
0
0 c
0 2

v 2 2
0
0

6EI 2

1
0
2

L
0
EI
2

4EI
L

0
0

12
2

0
12EI

2
L
6EI

0

12EI
2
L

6EI

6EI

6EI

shear deformation not permitted

6EI
2

12EI
3

4EI
L

6EI
2

2EI
L

7. Frame structures via stiffness analysis

(Direct Stiffness method)

PLANE BEAMS
Beams with a longitudinal plane of symmetry, the applied loads should act in this plane, the
beam deflects in the same plane.
(deformed) cross section
deformed beam axis

d
3 dofs per node

undeformed beam

H1

H1
V
1 3x3
C1

H 2
V2 3x3

C2

V1
C1

u1

3x3 v1
1

u2
3x3 v 2

2

V2
C2 H 2

PLANE BEAMS
(neglecting shear deformation)
12EI
6EI

6EI

12EI

4EI
L

6EI
L

6EI

2nd column

EA
0
L

12EI

3
H1
L
V
1
C1

H 2
V2

C2

0
6EI
2

L
4EI
L

EA
L
0
0

12EI

L
6EI
2

L
EA
L

0
12EI
3

6EI
2
L u1

2EI v1
L 1
u
0 2
v 2
6EI 2
2
L
4EI

2EI
L

PLANE FRAMES
Transformation matrix
V2

H1
C1

C2 x

H2

H2
H1

V1

C1

V1

C2 x

V2

u,v and H,V are transformed

as already discussed for bars

transformation of nodal rotations

C C transformation of nodal couples
u1 c s 0
u1
v s c 0
v
1

1
1 0 0 1
1

u
c
s
0
2

u2
v 2
s c 0 v 2

0
0
1
2
2

q Tq

H1 c s 0
H1
V s c 0
V
1

1
C1 0 0 1
C1

H
c

s
0
2

H 2
V2
s c 0 V2


C
0
0
1
C2
2
T

ST S

c cos
s sin

FRAMES

stiffness matrix
dim = (4nodes x 3dofs)

LOADS BETWEEN NODAL POINTS

y
q

C2

H1
C1

V1

V2

H2

How to take into account for distributed loads?

[owing to linearity we exploit
S Kq r superposition of effects]

We can apply fictious external constraints by clamping the nodes and compute the fixed end
reaction forces.

pL
2

q 0, S r

qL
q
12

qL
12

qL
2

qL
2

uniformly distributed load

pL
2

pL
2

qL

2
qL
12
r

pL

2
qL

qL2

12

LOADS BETWEEN NODAL POINTS

REACTION FORCES/COUPLES

LOADS BETWEEN NODAL POINTS

Another way to reinterpret the relation: apply fictious external constraints by clamping the
nodes and compute the fixed end reaction forces.

Then we remove the fictious constraints by applying to the nodes loads that are equal and
2
2
opposite to the fixed-end forces.
qL
qL
pL
g r
12
12
C
2
H1
2
pL
pL

+
qL
2
qL
2
qL

H2
V2
C1 V
2
1
2
2
2
qL
This holds owing to linearity.
S g Kq
12
In this way any kind of internal loads can be treated
g

pL
t
S Kq g
(also initial strains
).

2
qL

2
qL

12

ASSEMBLY
(e )

T S

(e)

T g

S
g

(e )

(e)

(e)

(e)

Kq F

(e)

(e)

K q
(e)

(e)

K q

(e)

(e)

local system
global system

F fc g fr

applied nodal forces

reactions

EXAMPLE
q

1
1

2
2

g (1) g(1)

y
x

0
0

fc P

0
qL
2
qL2

12
0
qL
g
2
qL2

12
0
0

0

0
fr 0

0

0
qL
2
qL2

12

qL
2
qL2

12

EXAMPLE
P

It can be successfully treated by

inserting a node

1
1

2 2 3
3

RIGID CONNECTIONS

How to model the circumstance that the joint is

of finite dimension and extremely more stiff than
columns and beams concurring in it?

How to model a joint where axes do not

intersect at a common node?
How to model rigid portions?
plinth
What we need is a beam with rigid end zones:

these quantities are called offsets

RIGID CONNECTIONS
y,v

ty

v1
1

x,u

u1

tx
uA u1 0 1 t x
v v
t ,
0
A 1 1
y
u A 1 0 t y u1
v 0 1 t v
x 1
A
A 0 0 1 1

uA Tu
1 1

A 1

rigid body motion

A similar relation for the other end

uB T2u2

You can put them together using a compact notation

uA T1
u1

u
T2 u2
B
qdef Tq

RIGID CONNECTIONS
y,v
V1
1
C1

VA
A

H1

VA

CA CA

x,u

HA HA

Equilibrium joint 1
H1 H A 0
V1 VA 0
C1 CA H At y VAt x 0

H1 1
V 0
1
C1 t y

0 0 H A

1 0 VA

t x 1 CA
T

S1 T1 S A

In compact notation
T

S1 T1
S A

S
T2 SB
2
T

S T Sdef

Analogously
T

S2 T2 SB

RIGID CONNECTIONS
y,v

x,u
1
Sdef Kdef qdef

T Sdef T Kdef Tq
T

S Kq

K T Kdef T

RIGID RESTRAINTS

2
M

The same idea can be used to model a rigid body connection among nodes.
The technique is called master-slave. We select a node called master whose
dofs are assumed as independent. The dofs of the other nodes are referred
to the master node using the previous relations:
ui Tu
i M

Equilibrium of forces is enforced by:

T

SM T1 S1 T2 S2 T3 S3
forces transmitted
at node 1

RIGID RESTRAINTS
In some cases it is useful to adopt a rigid restraint which is limited only to certain dofs.
The most common example is a restraint enforcing rigid relations only within a plane (it is
sometimes called diaphragm), that is in-plane dofs are rigidly connected, out of plane dofs
are free.

rigid floor

M: typically is the center of

stiffness or the center of
mass of the floor.

ELASTIC CONNECTIONS
translational spring
y
ka
1

rotational spring

y
kr
x
1

1 0 0 1
0 0 0

0 0
K ka
1

0
0
0
0
0

0
0

0
0

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1
K kr

0
0
0

0 0

For example they can be used to model joint deformation.

ELASTIC CONNECTIONS

ELASTIC CONNECTIONS
Rigid links can always be modelled using deformable elements with large stiffness.
Large is to be intended with respect to the stiffness of deformable elements:
K def [ max(K )] 10
K rig 10

order of magnitude

The larger is the smaller is (in theory) the constraint violation.

However, in practice too large values of (dramatically) increases numerical errors in the
solution procedure.

A heuristic rule is:

p 2

p : (p-digits) working machine precision

INTERNAL CONNECTIONS
First approach: using connection elements

zero lenght
1

2 3

k1
k2

k1 0

k2

connection elements

0 k1 0
0 0 k 2
0 0
0
k1
0
k2

0
0

0
0

k1
k2

INTERNAL CONNECTIONS
Second approach: modifying element stiffness [end release]

element 1





2

It does not transmit moment because of the hinge.

This equation can be solved for 2 and substituted in the other ones:

q g
S
K
5 x1

5x5

5 x1

5 x1

To use the same format the above relation is rewritten as:

K 5 x 5
0

g
0
q 5 x1

0
0

INTERNAL CONNECTIONS

2
end release

Which is the effect?

end release

3
Are they equivalent?

INTERNAL CONNECTIONS

beam on elastic foundation

foundation plinth

STRAIN ENERGY OF DEFORMATION

linear elasticity

beam element

strain energy

force
work

displacement

1
Sq
2

1 T
q Kq
2

FEATURES OF THE STIFFNESS MATRIX

Sparse [discussed in a previous lecture]

Symmetric [Betti theorem, energy kernel]

Semidefinite positive
If we compute the eigenvalues we find nrig eigenvalues equal to zero,
where nrig is the number of rigid body motions permitted

qTrigKqrig 0

if qrig is a rigid body motion

The remaining eigenvalues are positive since to deform a body we

need to do work

qT Kq 0 positive work

FEATURES OF THE STIFFNESS MATRIX

Thus singularity of the stiffness matrix means kinematically unstability (labilit)

beam
singularity of order 3

after applying b.c.

singularity of order 1

OTHER METHOD TO OBTAIN K: FLEXIBILITY APPROACH

Consider the element with the minimum number of constraints to prevent from rigid
body motion:
C
C
H1
H1
1
1
2 2
2 2

V2

C1

H2

H2

C1

V1

V1

V2

Compute the free node displacements in terms of the applied forces:

u2
v
2
2

L
EA

0
3

L
3EI

0
H 2
2
L
V2
2EI
C
L 2
EI

1
u
2
2

L
3EI

0
L
EA

L
6EI C
1
0 H2

C
L 2
3EI

flexibility matrices H

[statically determinate structure: you can use the PVW in the complementary form
also known as Principle of Virtual Forces]
H 2
u2
V H1 v
2
2
C2
2
S2 H1u2

FLEXIBILITY APPROACH

To form the stiffness matrix you should compute the reaction forces by equilibrium
condition:
V1 V2 0

H1 H2

H1 H2 0

V1 V2

C1 C2 V1L 0

C1 C2 V2L

H1 1 0 0 H2
V 0 1 0 V
1
2
C1 0 L 1 C2
S1 S2

Now you can put all together to obtain the stiffness matrix:

H1T
K 1 T
H
by symmetry

H1

H1

ADDENDUM FLEXIBILITY APPROACH

S2 H1u2

u2 HS2

S1 S2 equilibrium S1 H1u2

H1T
K 1 T
H

Reciprocity (symmetry):

S2 H1 u1

H1

H1

H1T u1

Equilibrium:

S1 H1T u1

An alternative interpretation:

u2 T u1 rigid body motion [see the equations for rigid connections]

thus total displacement
rigid body component
S2 H1 u2 ( T u1 )
H1u2 H1T u1

S1 T H1u2 H1u1

equilibrium

3D BEAMS

6 dofs per node

y

doubly symmetrical cross

section
centroid and shear center
coincide
stretching, torsion and
bending in each principal
plane are uncoupled

A
0
L

12Iz

Vx1
V
y1
Vz1

C
x
1

Cy 1

Cz 1
Vx 2

Vy 2
V
z2
Cx 2
C
y2
Cz 2

6Iz

A
L

12Iz

L
12I y
3

6I y
2

0
4I y
L

L
J
2(1 )L

12I y

L
0

0
6I y

6I y
2

J
2(1 )L

0
2I y

12Iz

L
4Iz
L

6Iz
2

L
A
L

L
symm

12I y
3

6I y
2

L
J
2(1 )L

0
4I y
L

6Iz
2
L

u
1
0 v
1
w
1
0
x1

2Iz y 1

L z1

u2
0
v2
6I w
2z 2
L x 2

0 y2

z2
0

4Iz

OPEN QUESTIONS
Generic cross section?

How to compute shear and torsion factors?

How to compute shear center?
How to evaluate the shearing stress distribution over the cross section?
Warping and non-uniform torsion.
Composite beams.

To answer to these questions we need to briefly recall some topics generally covered by the
undergraduate course of Structural Mechanics. In particular, I wish to point out the relation
between beam and solid models, and within this framework we will review some DSV results.

THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOS

Displacement formulation

S Kq g
S Kq g

u(x ) N(x )q
u (x ) N(x )q

e(x) DN(x)q B(x)q

e (x) DN(x)q B(x)q

s(x ) C B(x )q e
ele
J (q, q )

q B CBq dV q B Ce dV q N f dV q s 0
T

J ele (q, q ) q TKq q Tg q T S 0

S Kq g
K

BTCB dV

BTCe dV

JEele (q) 21 qTKq qTg qT S

NT f dV

Bt

NT t dS

BEAM
Euler-Bernoulli

BEAM
Eulero-Bernoulli

8. Composite beams

COMPOSITE BEAMS
A beam of two or more materials having different moduli of elasticity. Typical examples are reinforced
concrete beams and multilayered beams made by bonding together several sheets of different materials.
y

0, 0

1 E1

xx y

E1( y )
E2 ( y )

xx

d
2 E2

xx

xx

0, 0
y

0, 0
y

1 E1

1 E1
z

d
2 E2

2 E2

xx
Notice that: N 0, M 0

xx
bending about z-axis

xx
Notice that: N 0, M 0

xx

COMPOSITE BEAMS
Computing the constitutive equations:

N E1( y ) E2 ( y ) (E1A1 E2 A2 ) (E1sz1 E2sz2 )

A1

A2

sz1 y dA
A1

sz2 y dA
A2

M yE1( y ) y E2 ( y ) (E1sz1 E2sz2 ) (E1Iz1 E2I z2 )

A1

A2

Iz1 y 2 dA
A1

Iz2 y 2 dA
A2

In a compact notation:

N CN CNM
M CNM CM

coupled

COMPOSITE BEAMS
Shear

T G1 G2 (G1A1 G2 A2 )
A1

A2

shear correction
factor

0
y
1 E1
z

equilibrium
violation
x

2 E2

xy

Equilibrium on the
intermaterial surface:

1
2

1 2

As in the case of homogeneous beams we need to recover shear stresses from 3D theory and
introduce the shear correction factor.

COMPOSITE BEAMS
Transformed section method

n = E1/E2

dA

ndA

The transformed section represents the cross section of a member made of a homogeneous
material with a modulus of elasticity E1.
The centroid and the moments of inertia of the new section should be computed.

COMPOSITE BEAMS
Transformed section method
y

M 0, N 0

1
z

centroid

neutral axis

xx

My
I

moment of inertia of the

transformed section

Using the previous equations:

N 0 CN CNM 0

xx

CNM
CN

CNM

y
1

C
C
N

xx 0 y NM
CN

CNM
E

2 C

to obtain the true stress we must

multiply by n

COMPOSITE BEAMS
Transformed section method
y

y
1

d
2

coupled
equations

CNM
sz1 sz2
d

CN
A1 nA2

centroid position of
the transformed section

uncoupled
equations

9. Solids

SOLIDS
Continuum medium, deformable body.

particle X (occupying position X)

P

undeformed, reference, initial configuration

particle X (occupying position x)

PI deformed, current configuration

d: displacement

d dX

SOLIDS
Strain analysis
We consider a particle P in the reference configuration and we want to study the deformation
in the neighborhood of P.

P : X0

Q:X

dX

d X d X0 d X0 X X0 ....

neglect higher
order terms

d0

d0

PI

translation of the
entire portion

QI

We want to isolate rigid body motion in order to define a measure of deformation or strain. The
body is strained if the relative positions of points is altered.
Assuming small displacements:

symmetric

1
d dT
2

1
1
d dT d dT
2
2

linear strain tensor

[infinitesimal strain tensor]

skew symmetric

rigid rotation
this means to linearize roatations

STRAIN ANALYSIS
22 : normal strain

x3

(unit change in length)

>0 elongation
<0 contraction

12 212

x2
x1

11 12 13

22 23

33

22dx2
12 : shear strain
is (the tangent of) the total
change in angle occurring
between two originally
perpendicular lines

x3

x2

d1
dx2
x2
x2
x1

x1

d 2
dx1
x1

11

22

e 33
23
13

12

Matrix notation

e Du
uu

Ld

STRESS ANALYSIS
State of stress in a point
x3

infinitesimal cubic element

(isolated from the body)

23

22

21

Cauchy stress tensor

11 12 13

22 23

33

x2

x1

div f 0

n t

Matrix notation

D f [L f ]

NT t

All is referred to the current configuration.

11

22

33
23
13

12

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORKS

(small displacements)

Wi : 1111 22 22 33 33 2 12 12 2 13 13 2 23 23
V

Wi T T
V

We f u t u
V

St

It can be proved that D and D are adjoint operators.

You can pass from one to the other by doing the transpose and changing sign to
derivatives of odd order.

ELASTIC EQUILIBRIUM PROBLEM

linear theory
- compatibility

- equilibrium

e Du in B

Dsf

uu

N s t on Bt

on Bu

in B

- constitutive equations
s C(e e) in B

CONTINUUM
notation

u1
f1


u u2 f f2

f3
u3

n1 0
N 0 n2

0 0
T

n1
n n2

n3

11
11


22
22


e 33 s 33
23
23
13
13


12
12

0
n3

n3
n2

n2
n1

n1

C
(1 )(1 2 )

n3

1
0

0
D
0
3

0
0

2
1

0
2
0
3
0
1

symm

D D

0
0
0
1 2
2

0
0
0
0
1 2
2

1 2

2
0
0
0

kinematical hypothesis
[plane section]

b
They are generally
not satisfied

uu

L b

Ld
Ds f

e Du

beam link: black

solid link: red
inter link: blue

C( )

s C(e e)

C ET CE
A

NT s t

STRAIN ENERGY
It is defined as the increase of energy associated with the deformation of the body. It is
equal to the work done by a slowly increasing load applied to the body. The strain energy
density is the strain energy per unit volume (it is equal to the area under the stress-strain
diagram of the material).

In the case of elastic deformation we have the elastic strain energy.

Elasticity means that the stress state only depends on the instantaneous strain state and
not on the stress path.

(e) elastic potential function

s

d
de

stress

complementary
strain energy density

current
state

strain

U (e )

current
state

Linear elasticity

(e )

1 T
1
1
e Ce eT s sT C1s
2
2
2
complementary
strain energy density

ENERGY PRINCIPLES
kinematically admissible (or compatible) solutions (or configuration)

e Du
u u on Bu
statically admissible (or equlibrated) solutions (or configuration)

Ds f

NT s t on Bt

JE (u) U W
elastic strain energy

Total potential energy

work of applied forces

1
1
T
T
e

e
C
e

Du

e
C Du e

2 B
2 V
W fT u t T u
U

Bt

Among the kinematically admissible configurations JE is minimum in correspondence of an

equilibrated configuration.
It holds for elastic bodies and is equivalent to the PVD.

ENERGY PRINCIPLES
Total complementary energy

JC ( s) U W
complementary elastic strain energy

Total complementary energy

work of reaction forces

1
sT C1s e

2 B
W uT NT s
U

Bu

Among the statically admissible configurations JC is minimum in correspondence of a

compatible configuration.