3.

5: The Differential Equation for the Orbit, and Integrable

Power-Law Potentials
From Section 3.2, the orbits can be calculated from

d" =

ldr
mr 2

2 (E # V (r) # l 2 )
m
2mr 2

If the variable of integration is changed to u = 1/r,

" = "0 # $
u0

Fortunately, n = 1 (f(r) = kr) corresponding to isotropic 3D

simple harmonic oscillator, and n = -2 (f(r) = kr-2) is inverse
square law force: Gravitation or Coulomb. Analytical
solutions exist for these most important situations.

du
2mE
l2

2
# 2mV
2 #u
l

Once the central force potential V is specified and E is

given, we can in principle, do the integral and get the orbit
!(u).
!
In general, the integral must be evaluated numerically. True
even for most power law forces:
f(r) = krn ; V(r) ! rn+1
(1) For n = 1, -2, and -3, the result can be expressed
trigonometric functions.
(2) For n = 5, 3, 0, -4, -5, and -7, the result can be expressed
as elliptic integrals.
(3) For other n, the results are not so simple, and in many
cases, only numerical results exist.

* Rewrite Conservation of angular momentum:

l = mr 2" = constant,

d
l d
= 2
dt mr d"
!
The equation of motion in r direction (Section 3.1)
l2
#V
mr " 3 = "
= f (r)
#r
mr
!
as

becomes
!

1 d # l dr & l 2
= f (r)
%
()
r 2 d" $ mr 2 d" ' mr 3

Substitute u = 1/r

d 2u
d"

+u=#

1
f( )
u
l u
2 2

In terms of potential V(r) = V(1/u)

d 2u
d"

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

+u=#

m d
1
V( )
2 du
u
l

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

*Proof: The resulting orbit is symmetric about two

adjacent turning points. Equivalently, the orbit is
invariant under reflection about the apsidal vectors
rmin or rmax.

# du &
(Note: if ! = 0 is NOT a turning point, % ( ! 0 and it
$ d" '" =0
changes sign with the ! to ! substitution. Although the
differential equation is still invariant with the substitution, the
resulting orbit will be different, since the initial condition is
!
different.)
A Brief Discussion of Closed and Open Orbits

Closed orbit r(!) = Periodic motion: After a finite number of

oscillations of r between rmax and rmin, the motion repeats itself

exactly.

Open orbit:

If the orbit does not close on itself after a finite

number of oscillations between rmax and rmin,

The argument used is very general and clever: Assume that the
coordinates are chosen so that the turning point occurs at ! = 0.
As a turning point, it has following properties:
# du &
u(!=0) = 1/ rmin (or 1/ rmax ) and % ( = 0
$ d" '" =0
2
d u
m d
1
+
u
=
#
V
(
) AND the above
The differential equation
d" 2
l 2 du u
initial conditions are the same if!! is substituted by -!.
Therefore, the orbit is symmetrical and is invariant under
reflection about the apsidal vectors.
!
By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

Use the equation for the orbit !(r) to find the change in ! due
to one complete oscillation of r from rmin " rmax " rmin:

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

The angular change is 2# the change in going once from

rmin to rmax:
rmax

"# = %

rmin

2ldr
mr

2 (E $ V (r) $ l 2 )
m
2mr 2

As shown in Section 3.3, for a given !, the orbit is circular if

the total energy E = min (or max!) value of the effective
potential, which occurs at some r ($ r0),
E # V(r0) = V(r0) + !2 {2m(r0)2},
and the radial velocity r = 0.

Results in periodic motion and a closed orbit only if "! = a

rational fraction of 2!: "! $ 2!(a/b),
!

(a, b = integers)

If the orbit is closed, after b periods, the radius vector of the

particle will have made a complete revolutions and the particle

will be back at its original position.
3.6 Conditions For Closed Orbits (Bertrands theorem)
Circular Orbits
Recall: the radial motion for a particle of mass m in a
central potential V(r), the centrifugal term !2 (2mr2) (the
angular part of the KE) acts as an additional potential,
2
E = 12 mr2 + l 2 + V (r) = 12 mr2 + V '(r)
2mr

where

2
V '(r) = l 2 + V (r) is the effective potential.

2mr

A circular orbit is allowed for ANY attractive potential V(r):

% If and only if V has a min (or a max!) at r = r0

Circular orbits are always ALLOWED, but they are not always

STABLE! Here, we examine the stability issue.

!
By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

 At r = r0, the force coming from the effective potential is

#V '
= 0 . Which leads to
zero: f '(r0 ) = "
#r r0

f(r0) = -!2 (m r03) .

Therefore, the attractive force from V(r) exactly balances the
repulsive centrifugal force

Stability of Circular Orbits

For a given !, whether a circular orbit is stable or unstable
depends on whether V is a minimum or a maximum at r = r0.

If V has a maximum at r = r0 (right figure), the circular orbit

is unstable: If give m an energy slightly above V(r0), the orbit

will no longer be circular, and also will now be unbounded (m
moves through r = 0 or out to r " )). Mathematically, "2V/"r2
< 0 at r = r0.

For a stable circular orbit:

" 2V '
"f
3l 2
=
#
+
>0
"r r0 mr04
"r 2 r
0

If V has a minimum at r = r0 (left figure), the circular orbit is

stable. If give m an energy slightly above V(r0), the orbit will
no longer be circular, but will still be bounded (r will oscillate
between apsidal values, as for E3 in figure). Mathematically,
"2V/"r2 > 0 at r = r0.

unstable
&'

Since f(r0) = -!2 (m r03),

"f
3 f (r0 )
d ln f
<#
> "3
or
"r r0
r0
d ln r r0

Suppose, f(r) is ann attractive power law force

f(r) = -k r (k >0),
n-1
n-1
the
stability
condition
!
! becomes: -knr < 3kr .
or n > -3

Stability criterion for circular orbits for power law central force
% Stable circular orbits for f(r) = -krn only exist for n > -3
% All attractive power law forces f(r) = -krn with n > -3 can
have stable circular orbits.

(
stable

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

Small Deviation From A Circular Orbit

$ = k /m =

If a circular orbit (r = r0) is stable, then a small increase in the

particle energy above the value for a circular orbit results in
only slight variations from the circular orbit r0.
Taylor series expansion of V at r0 gives

V '(r) = V '(r0 ) +

frequency.
Note: Perturbation around a potential minimum can always
be approximated by a Simple Harmonic Oscillation. This is
a very general conclusion (QM, EM, CM).

"V '
1 " 2V '
(r # r0 ) +
(r # r0 )2 + ...
2
"r r0
2 "r
r0

To understand the orbit, it is more useful to analyze the

oscillation as a function of %, instead of t:
r = r0 + A sin(&%).
d"
l
= 2 , & = $mr02/l
Since
dt mr
mr 4 # 2V '
or " 2 = 20
l #r 2 r
0
!
2
" V'
"f
3l 2
+ 4
Since 2 = #
"r r0 mr0
"r r
0
!

The first term V(r0) is a constant (a minimum).

The second term = 0, since V is a minimum at r0.
The third term > 0, since V(r0) is a minimum.
1 # 2V '
1
V '(r) " V '(r0 ) = +
(r " r0 )2 + ... $ k(%r)2
2
2 #r
2
r0

here k =

" 2V '
> 0.
"r 2 r
0

Therefore, for small deviation from

r0, fr = -k#r (k > 0).

!
The particle executes a simple harmonic
oscillation in r about r0.

" 2V '
/ m is the time domain angular
"r 2 r

"2= #
!

mr04 $f
l 2 $r

Finally, " 2 =

r = r0 + A sin($t)

+ 3=
r0

d ln f
d ln r

r $f
+3
f $r r
0

+3
r0

!
By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

Consider the stable circular orbit case:

As the radius vector r sweeps around the plane, r goes

through $ cycles of oscillation. If $ = q/p with, q, p integers, (so
$ is a rational number) then after q revolutions of the radius
vector, the orbit retraces itself. % The orbit is closed

Integrating the above equation gives a force law:

f (r) = "

k
r 3"#

All force laws of this form (with $ a rational number) lead to

closed, stable,
almost circular orbits.
!

Examples:

$ = 1 ' f(r) = -(k/r2) (Inverse r squared law)

$ = 2 ' f(r) = -kr (Isotropic harmonic oscillator)
$ = 5/3 Not interesting from the physics viewpoint.

Bertrands Theorem

Method: Keep additional terms in Taylors series expansion (to

compute $2) and solve orbit equation.
Answer: Solved by J. Bertrand (1873). Proved that in such
cases, the orbits are closed ONLY for:
$ = 1 ' f(r) = -(k/r2) (Inverse r squared law!)
$ = 2 ' f(r) = -kr
(Hookes Law:
Isotropic harmonic oscillator!)
Bertrands Theorem: The only central forces that result in
bound, closed orbits for all particles are the inverse-square law
and Hookes law.
A very important result! For example, bound celestial
objects (planets, stars, etc.) all are OBSERVED to have
orbits that are * closed.
Using only celestial observations PLUS Bertrands theorem,
one can conclude that the gravitational force fg(r) varies as
1/r2.

Question: If initial conditions are such that the perturbed

circular orbit is not close to those required for circular orbit (the
orbit is not circular), will the same type of force law ($ a
rational number)
k
f (r) = "
2
r 3"#
still give closed orbits?
By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.

By Prof. Juyang Huang, Texas Tech University. All rights reserved.