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The Desktop Music Handbook PDF
The Desktop Music Handbook PDF
A brief guide to the technology behind
Computer Music
By Cakewalk Software
Addition by Et Cetera Distribution
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CONTENTS
Welcome to the World of DESKTOP MUSIC! .............................4
MIDI...............................................................................................4
History ........................................................................................................ 4
What is MIDI ............................................................................................... 4
How Does it Work...................................................................................... 5
What it Takes ............................................................................................. 5
MIDI Channels............................................................................................ 6
MIDI Messages........................................................................................... 6
Note On and Note Off Messages.......................................................... 7
Program Change Messages ................................................................. 8
Control Change Messages ................................................................... 8
System Messages...................................................................................... 8
General MIDI .............................................................................................. 9
MIDI Hardware ........................................................................................... 9
Synthesizers ........................................................................................ 10
General Features of MIDI Hardware................................................... 11
Programmability.................................................................................. 13
MIDI Samplers ..................................................................................... 13
Drum Machines ................................................................................... 15
Guitar and Wind Controllers .............................................................. 15
MIDI Software........................................................................................... 16
Notation Programs .............................................................................. 18
Patch Editor/Librarians....................................................................... 18
Integrated Programs ........................................................................... 19
Digital Audio...............................................................................20
What is Digital Audio............................................................................... 20
Recording a Sound.................................................................................. 22
Digital Audio Software ............................................................................ 24
Sound Cards ............................................................................................ 25
Putting it Altogether ................................................................................ 26
Synchronization....................................................................................... 26
Integrated Software................................................................................. 27
Summary.............................................................................................. 28
MIDI
MIDI, or the Musical Instrument Digital Interface, is a means by which computers and
musical instruments can communicate. It's a language that allows you to give instructions to a
computer that it will then send to the synthesizer on your sound card, or to any other MIDI
devices that you may have available. MIDI is a great way to work with music and has very
powerful capabilities that will appeal to users of all levels. There are lots of unfamiliar terms
and concepts in the MIDI language, though, and it's easy to get frustrated if you don't have a
grasp of some basic ideas. The first section of this guide will help you understand what MIDI
is and teach you what it can do for you.
History
MIDI was born in the early 1980's when electronic instrument makers, primarily in the US
and Japan, recognized that their instruments must be able to talk to one another. After the
details were worked out, manufacturers soon began to include electronic circuitry in their
equipment that allowed them to understand the instructions MIDI used. Before long, nearly
every instrument maker in the world had adopted the standard, and though there have been
refinements and modifications to MIDI along the way, even the earliest MIDI instruments are
still capable enough to be used today. Since its adoption, MIDI has dramatically changed the
way music is created, performed and recorded.
What is MIDI
MIDI is a universally accepted standard for communicating information about a musical
performance by digital means. It encompasses both a hardware and software component, and
though it could be used for sending information about many other things, such as the control
of lighting in a theater, or even to control your coffee maker, it was developed to transmit
instructions about music. Like a music score, on which notes and other symbols are placed, a
MIDI transmission carries instructions that must be acted on by some device that can make
sound. While a clarinet or guitar player will interpret a written music score and produce the
sound required, it is most likely a synthesizer or drum machine that will react to MIDI
information. Fortunately for us, a complete set of these instructions can be captured and
stored by a computer, and several types of music software can be used to edit and alter them.
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4
If the information is sent to several different MIDI devices, an entire electronic orchestra can
be at the musician's disposal. MIDI does not (except in rare cases) actually transmit sound
electronically; you couldn't connect a MIDI cable to a loudspeaker and expect to hear
anything (you'd probably damage both your speakers and your ears if you tried!). Instead, it is
the sound-producing capabilities of the synthesizer, whether it's on a sound card in your
computer or a stand-alone device, that will create the sound you hear.
Fig 1. -MIDI data is transmitted using a 10-bit packet that includes a start and stop bit.-
Some MIDI messages detail specific aspects of a musical performance: what notes should be
heard; how loud they should be; what type of sound (trumpet, drum, flute) should play the
notes, etc.; while others are more general in nature. Together, MIDI messages represent an
entire language of musical actions, and can be used to convey all the details of a complete
symphony or a simple hymn.
What it Takes
In order to communicate in the language of MIDI, a device should be able to send and receive
MIDI information, though many common devices are created to do primarily one or the other.
A sound card in a computer, for example, must be given instructions that are generated by
some other source; it cannot create any MIDI messages on its own. Similarly, certain
THE DESKTOP MUSIC HANDBOOK
5
electronic instruments known as tone or sound modules, are also only able to respond to
messages generated from the "outside." By contrast, a class of instruments called keyboard
controllers are intended for transmitting MIDI data only, and have no way to make sound.
Whatever their capabilities, all MIDI devices must contain a microprocessor, which is a
computer chip that deciphers and acts upon MIDI messages, as well as physical connections
called Ports, for sending and receiving data.
MIDI Channels
One of the great capabilities of MIDI is its ability to transmit messages to different electronic
musical instruments at the same time. Each instrument can distinguish which messages are
for it because the messages contain channel information, which acts like an address or
shipping label for the message. These MIDI channels are not physically separated, i.e., they
are not transmitted on separate strands of wire. Rather, the different channel numbers (1-16)
are contained in the beginning of the MIDI message, and determine whether an instrument or
device will respond to that message. In this way, messages can be directed to certain devices,
while other devices, which might also be receiving the information, will ignore them. Most
new instruments can be programmed to respond to any one or even all MIDI channels.
Because of this, the user has extensive control over how different instruments react to the
information that they receive.
Fig 2. Most MIDI devices can be set to receive on one or more MIDI channels
There are certain classes of messages called system messages that don't use a channel, since
they are intended for all devices connected to the MIDI chain. Messages that deal with tuning
or timing information are in this category. There are also other cases where individual
messages do not need their own channel label, for example when all the notes of a melody are
to played by a certain instrument on the same channel. In this case, a channel designation can
be set at the beginning of the melodic sequence and used for all messages in that series.
MIDI Messages
MIDI messages are the language of MIDI; they are the words MIDI uses in a transmission to
communicate the information that must pass from a source to a destination. There are many
types of MIDI messages, though they all fall into two categories: channel messages and
system messages. Channel messages are those that carry specific channel information, such
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as those described above. These include messages such as what note an instrument should
play (called a Note Message), and Program Change messages, which tell the instrument what
sound it should make while playing the note. System messages, as described above, are either
intended for all the instruments currently connected to the transmitting device, or are meant
to convey information to a specific instrument that is general in nature and doesn't represent
specific details of a performance.
Most messages consist of at least two bytes. The first byte is called the status byte, which
tells the receiving device what type of message it is. Basically, it identifies the message and
prepares the device for a response. MIDI uses the numbers between 128 and 255 for this part
of the message. What follows is the actual data the device needs; these bytes are called data
bytes. They represent the details of the message; the values the instrument will use to perform
its task. MIDI uses the numbers 0 to 127 for data bytes. Some messages use only one data
byte, others need two, while some need none at all. We'll look at a few common messages to
see what type of information they contain.
Fig 3. -The MIDI message Note On is followed by two data bytes, as is the Note Off
message.-
System Messages
One final category of MIDI messages is called system messages. There are several types of
system messages, but they all share the characteristic of transmitting information without a
channel assignment. As a result, all instruments that receive messages of this type would act
upon them, though one particular type of system message, called system exclusive, is
intended for communicating only with a device or devices made by a specific manufacturer.
System exclusive is often used when a musician wants to transmit large amounts of data to a
specific synthesizer or receive data from the device. Because all major instrument makers
have an ID number (#7 for Kurzweil devices, #67 for Yamaha, etc.), a message can be
"addressed" to one device and all other receiving instruments will see it, but ignore it. For
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8
example, all the instructions specifying how a synthesizer makes it sounds could be
``dumped'' from the device and stored on a computer. Users could then trade custom libraries
of sounds, or reload all the original factory settings if their equipment's memory were wiped
out. Moreover, a whole new setup of sounds could be sent by a computer just before actual
note data was transmitted, thereby getting the instrument properly configured before the
music starts.
Other system messages include timing messages, which provide information about the tempo
of the music; and Song Position messages, which indicate where a recorded MIDI sequence
should begin playback. These last messages are particularly useful with synthesizers that
contain built-in sequencing capabilities.
General MIDI
Before General MIDI (GM) was popularized, there was no consistency in the way
manufacturers numbered the sounds in their instruments, so that on one device program #1
might be a piano, while on another, it might be a flute. Because MIDI data files (or
sequences) often contain program change instructions, i.e., the actual specifications for which
sound an instrument should use to perform each layer of the music, it was unlikely that music
created for one synthesizer would sound correct when performed by another. With the
adoption of General MIDI, files that use its numbering scheme are now ``portable,'' meaning
they will sound identical, or nearly so, when played by different instruments. This assumes,
of course, that the instruments conform to the GM specification (Appendix 1)
In addition to a standardized assignment of program change numbers, General MIDI includes
several other guidelines, the most important of which is the use of Channel 10 for drum
sounds. It also provides a Drum Map, which is the fixed assignment of certain drums sounds
too specific MIDI note numbers (Appendix 1).. For example, sending middle C, MIDI note
#60, will trigger a high bongo sound on the receiving General MIDI instrument. A ``C'' one
octave below, note #48, will produce a Hi-Mid tom, and so on. This mapping scheme
provides yet another layer of standardization, thereby insuring that MIDI sequences can be
transported among different studios and desktop systems around the world.
MIDI Hardware
Different MIDI devices have different capabilities and functions. We'll look closely at the
various options on a traditional synthesizer first, then explore some of the other options that
are found on different types of instruments.
Synthesizers
When you first look at a synthesizer, you are likely to see a piano-style keyboard, one or more
rows of buttons and perhaps a few "sliders" or "wheels" (Figure 4).
Inside the synthesizer are the sound-producing components, the actual brains of the unit, that
respond to messages received when a key is pressed on the keyboard or when a MIDI
message is sent from some other source. The keyboard part of the unit is called a controller,
which is a term used for any MIDI device that can initiate an action. There are other types of
controllers, including those in the form of a guitar (guitar controllers), drum machines (drum
controllers), and even those that look and work like wind instruments (wind controllers). It's
possible to buy a controller that does not include the capability to make any sound, and it's
just as easy to buy the sound producing components alone, which are devices commonly
known as tone or sound modules. In essence, the devices we commonly refer to as
``synthesizers'' are actually tone modules with integrated keyboard controllers attached.
Keyboard synthesizers are by far the most common MIDI devices, although the tone modules
included with nearly all sound cards for the PC are also extremely common. Like any device
that wants to join into a MIDI conversation, synthesizers are equipped with the proper
connectors that allow MIDI information to pass in, and sometimes out. These connectors,
called MIDI ports, are usually grouped in threes: MIDI In, MIDI Out and MIDI Thru. Figure
5 below shows a standard arrangement of the Ports on the back of a synthesizer, and also
shows the end of a MIDI cable, which connects the sending and receiving devices. Unlike
single ended audio plugs (guitar cords and stereo RCA plugs), MIDI cables and Ports use a 5
pin DIN connection. The MIDI communication does not have to be two-way; for example the
MIDI input of device one can be connected to the MIDI Out of device two, but not vice versa.
The MIDI Thru port is used to relay the information that is sent to a device on to yet another
unit without altering it in any way. By using this port, many MIDI instruments can be chained
together, allowing a single controller to transmit to numerous different sound-producing
devices simultaneously.
To connect a MIDI synthesizer to a computer, the computer must have a MIDI interface,
which typically contains the same three MIDI ports described above. Like the synthesizer, the
MIDI interface converts the electrical signals it receives to the proper format needed by the
computer. The MIDI interface might be a separate card that installs into a free PC expansion
card slot; it could be a stand-alone, external unit that attaches to the PC's parallel or serial
port; or it might be an integrated part of a sound card. Some sound cards use proprietary
connectors for their MIDI hookup and require an optional MIDI adapter for connections to
external MIDI units. On the Macintosh, the interface is almost always external, and typically
connects to either the modem or printer port.
When a synthesizer can make more than one type of sound at the same time, it is called
multitimbral. This term comes from the French word timbre (pronounced ``tam-ber''), which
means tone or sound color. If a synthesizer can make the sound of a trumpet, flute, clarinet
and oboe simultaneously, it is clearly multitimbral. How many different timbres can be used
at once is a significant factor in determining the usefulness of a tone module for one's music;
for example if you plan to write your next symphony using a single synthesizer, you should
be sure it is at least 16-part multitimbral and has 24 or more voices of polyphony. For choral
music, four-part multitimbral and 8-voice polyphony might be adequate, but obviously the
more the merrier.
One final basic feature of a MIDI device is its ability to respond to instructions on several
different MIDI channels at once. This subject was mentioned earlier, but to review, MIDI can
keep all the different layers of a musical performance separate from one another by
transmitting each layer on its own channel, so an instrument should be able to handle the full
"bandwidth" of a MIDI transmission, which is 16 different channels. Most instruments allow
the user to set the Reception Mode of a MIDI device, which determines how it will respond
to the messages it receives. The most common (and useful!) Reception Mode is called OMNI
OFF \ POLY, which tells the device to distinguish what channel messages are on (OMNI
OFF), and play back several notes at once if requested to do so (POLY, from polyphonic).
Many older synths were limited to other reception modes, which kept them from
distinguishing the different channels of a transmission. For example, if OMNI were ON, the
device might play all messages without regard for their channel status. In nearly all recent
devices, Reception Mode is selectable, though OMNI OFF/POLY is by far the most common
Mode in use today.
Most synthesizers have the ability to assign one sound to play over part of the keyboard, and
another sound to play over the rest. This is called keyboard splitting or zoning, and would
allow you, for example, to play a bass guitar sound with the left hand on the low notes, and a
piano sound with the right hand on the high notes (Figure 6). Synthesizers, by the way,
typically offer keyboards that range from as few as four octaves, or forty-eight notes, to full,
traditional piano lengths of just over seven octaves, or eighty-eight notes.
Programmability
There is a wide range of programming options available on synthesizers today, but most have
capabilities that allow the user to design sounds with great precision. Normally, you can layer
different sounds, combining a flute with a cymbal for example, or merging the beginning
portion of a trumpet with the sustaining segment of a cello. Numerous filters are also
typically available, which, like the tone controls on a stereo system, let you raise or lower a
sound's treble or bass response. Another useful programming feature is an envelope
generator. Because natural sounds do not remain static throughout their duration-the piano,
for example, begins to fade away or decay immediately after a note is struck-these generators
allow the user to change the way a sound evolves over time. Normally, the characteristic that
changes most is the sound's amplitude (loudness), but envelopes might also be applied to the
sound's pitch or even timbre. The shape of the envelope is usually alterable, which allows the
user to determine how long it takes for the sound to move through each of its ``segments.'' In
the example below, the sound will move gradually to its peak level during the attack segment,
get a bit softer during the decay, maintain a steady level over the sustain segment, then slowly
fade during the release (Figure 7).
MIDI Samplers
MIDI Samplers (sampler) are electronic devices that allow you to take recorded audio, and
create a MIDI instrument from it and then manipulate it, and play it back using MIDI
commands. In effect, they allow the entire range of acoustic sounds to be employed in a
musical composition. Under the control of MIDI messages, dog barks, train whistles, car
horns and more can be integrated alongside violins and guitars, but samplers can be used for
a lot more than just sound effects. Because of their extensive capabilities, samplers are used
to create entire original compositions, using exacting reproductions of traditional instruments.
Composers can preview their orchestral works and arrangers can listen to elaborate horn
arrangements before committing the music to notation. In addition to these tasks, an entire
musical style has evolved that uses samplers to store short phrases from existing recordings
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13
that are then used as the basis for entirely new musical compositions. While some of these
capabilities are possible using traditional synthesizers, samplers expand the musician's palette
of sounds enormously.
All samplers contain sample RAM that is used to hold digital recordings while the sampler
processes them and plays them back. The amount of RAM determines the total length of
recording time available to the unit. For example, if a sampler were to record sound using the
quality of a commercial CD, it would require just over 10 MEGS (10,000,000 bytes) of RAM
to hold just one minute of stereo or two minutes of monophonic sound. Many professional
standalone samplers contain hard disk drives for more permanent storage of recordings, while
some also include floppy drives for moving sounds into and out of the unit. Besides the
standard audio outputs used to record and playback, some samplers provide direct digital
connections so sound can be moved back and forth to a digital tape recorder (DAT) or
computer. Now as well as standalone samplers there are PC sound cards with sampling
capabilities such as the Turtle Beach Pinnacle and the MaxiSound Home Studio Pro.
Among the many features of most samplers, one particular favorite is looping. This function
allows the sampler to play repeatedly a short segment of sound. Using looping, small
recordings can be played back for long periods of time, saving RAM and storage resources.
When a sound loops, it merely plays through to the end, then restarts at the beginning or at
some other point while the key is being held down. Looping works particularly well with
string and wind sounds, but some sounds cannot be sustained; drum hits and other short
sounds with sharp attacks, for example, simply do not loop well.
Among the other techniques samplers provide are filtering; crossfading, in which one sound
fades out while another fades in; and pitch shifting, where the original pitch of a sampled
sound is raised or lowered. Pitch shifting is very useful when you need to change or transpose
the pitch of a sound, perhaps to change the key of your music. Unfortunately, after a certain
amount of shifting in either direction, the sound will no longer resemble the original. It is
very common for a sampler to use a technique known as multisampling, in which the original
sound is recorded at numerous different pitch levels, and each individual sample is assigned
to playback over a different range of the keyboard. In this way, no single sample has to be
shifted beyond a small amount.
Samplers provide numerous other manipulation techniques, some of which will be mentioned
in the section on digital audio. These include time compression/expansion, which is the
ability to stretch or shrink sounds without changing their pitch; amplitude modulation, a
technique used to change the sample's amplitude (loudness) at a variable rate; and playing
back a sound in reverse. In all, samplers offer versatile options to the musician for shaping
and crafting their music.
Drum Machines
One final MIDI device is the drum machine and a related instrument, the drum controller
(Figure 8). The drum machine, one of the most common of all MIDI peripherals, typically
contains buttons or ``pads'' for playing drum sounds ``live,'' and internal software to generate
or store MIDI data. The sounds in the drum machine are most often sampled drums, i.e.,
digital recordings of actual acoustic drums. Unlike a sampler, you can rarely add your own
sounds to such devices; instead you are limited to playback of the internal sounds, perhaps
with some minor alterations.
Fig 8. -A drum machine contains recordings of acoustic drums and can be played by pressing
its buttons or sending it MIDI commands.. -
While the buttons on a typical drum machine can be used to play the instrument in ``realtime,'' you can also record any pattern of button presses right into the device. When
requested, the drum machine will then play back the patterns you've created. In this way, one
can create elaborate drum parts ``note by note,'' then play them back repeatedly and at any
tempo required. Drum machines also typically include preset patterns, providing very realistic
drum parts that musicians who don't play the instrument can use in their own productions.
Unfortunately, many of these patterns sound ``canned,'' and their overuse has created
somewhat of a backlash against this type of device. Creative drum programming by capable
musicians can, however, produce excellent results.
have been closed by the player, but must make far more difficult measurements of the amount
of air pressure passing through the device's mouthpiece. Typically, a sensor in the mouthpiece
is used for such measurements, and over the years, the accuracy of wind controllers has
improved dramatically. Because a single MIDI note can be used to generate an entire chord,
(if the receiving synthesizer is so programmed), musicians who have spent most of their lives
playing monophonic (single note) instruments, now have the ability to play elaborate, chordal
textures.
One final controlling device is the pitch-to-MIDI converter. This somewhat uncommon
device is attached to a traditional acoustic wind instrument such as a saxophone or trumpet
and converts the acoustic tones the instrument generates into MIDI notes. The Pitch-to-MIDI
converter offers perhaps the best of both worlds, in that a musician can use his or her favorite
instrument to create a performance that combines ``natural'' and synthetic sounds.
Unfortunately, the conversion is not always accurate, and these devices still must undergo
some refinements before they will be completely reliable. Nevertheless, converters are
becoming more common, and offer musicians including singers tremendous expressive
qualities in a MIDI performance.
MIDI Software
There are many categories of MIDI software available. Perhaps the most common is the
MIDI sequencer, which is a type of program that can record, edit and playback MIDI data.
Sequencers, which originally were often found as stand-alone hardware devices, have very
powerful capabilities to transform MIDI information, and today represent a very complex and
mature category of software. Sequencers share many basic features, and allow the user to put
the strength of a personal computer to the task of making music.
Like a multi-track tape recorder, sequencers most often arrange multiple layers of MIDI
information into tracks. Each track represents an independent melody or part of the music.
The number of tracks in a sequencer can range from as few as sixteen in an entry-level
program, to hundreds, or even thousands in others. Each track can be used to hold any type of
MIDI data, and there is no single standard for how this information should be arranged.
Rather, the best sequencers give the user a high degree of flexibility in organizing the various
types of information their music requires.
Figure 9 below shows the main screen of a popular Windows-based sequencer, Cakewalk Pro
Audio(TM). Along the left side of the figure you can see the various tracks; the first sixteen
tracks are shown here, but different screen resolutions would allow you to see more or fewer
at once on your own monitor. Each track is assigned to a specific MIDI channel, though you
can see that several of the tracks have the same setting. This indicates that the events on all of
these tracks will go to the same destination. Most sequencers allow you to put information for
several channels on the same track, though this could make editing the information somewhat
more difficult. The right half of the screen represents the actual data, which is organized into
segments called clips in Cakewalk.
Sequencers typically provide different ways to view and edit your data, and it's important to
understand the function of each of a program's work areas. Usually, one will find a Piano
Roll view, where individual or small groups of notes can be altered; a Track Overview, where
entire measures or even whole tracks can be manipulated; a Notation or Staff view, where the
music is represented using standard music notation; and an Event View, which is a text-based
list of all the events in one or more tracks. The editing options that such programs provide are
numerous and vary greatly among programs, but typically, one can cut, copy and paste data,
as well as apply extensive modifications to the music, such as raising or lowering the pitch
and volume characteristics, and expanding or compressing the amount of time a section takes
to playback.
Some programs also provides features that can assist the user with the operation of his/her
MIDI hardware. It is not uncommon to find sequencers that will list all the different sounds in
your synthesizer, allowing you to work with specific names rather than the less familiar patch
numbers. Some will also import or export system exclusive (Sysx) data to a synthesizer,
meaning you can load an entire setup of sounds before the first note is played. While they
don't offer all the editing capabilities of full-blown patch editors (discussed later), these patch
librarian features are very useful, especially in settings where there are two or more MIDI
devices.
Overall, sequencers are the most common of all MIDI software programs, and provide
tremendous power that can be applied to the production of music.
Notation Programs
Another category of MIDI software is the notation, or transcription program (Figure 10).
Because standard notation remains the most common way to represent music, an entire
market has been established for programs that let musicians work ``the old fashioned way.''
Typically, these programs provide huge libraries of musical symbols that can be entered onto
the page to produce professional looking scores. Some even allow the user to create new
symbols. Sophisticated page layout features, often comparable to high-end desktop
publishing programs, are also included in the more advanced notation software, and all
programs of this type offer printing options.
Most programs allow ``point and click'' entry as well as real-time transcription from a MIDI
keyboard. With real-time entry, musicians can play their music directly into the program and
see it appear instantly on screen as notation. Once the notes are recorded, numerous editing
capabilities, such as the cut, copy and paste features of a word processor, are available. Other
editing functions needed by musicians, such as the ability to shift or "transpose" the music up
or down are also commonly found.
Patch Editor/Librarians
Because of the complexity of many of today's synthesizers, an entire software niche has
developed to facilitate the control of such devices from a computer. Patch editors typically
display all of a synthesizer's programming controls on one or two computer screens, allowing
the user to ``see into'' the synthesizer and control it directly from the computer keyboard
(Figure 11). Rather than spend many minutes pushing buttons, trying to locate a particular
screen within the synthesizer's own display, the patch editor lays all the device's parameters
THE DESKTOP MUSIC HANDBOOK
18
before the user, and allows him or her to make extensive changes with the sweep of the
mouse or press of a few keys. Changes made on the computer screen are typically sent
immediately to the device, making it possible to preview them before any permanent changes
are made.
Fig 11. -Patch editors provide access to a Synth's controls from a computer
Stand-alone librarian programs, or those usually included with the patch editor, simply store
all the device's sounds and make them available for quick searching or sorting. Typically, a
librarian will request a ``dump'' from the device via Sysx, then show the user the sounds
currently available on the instrument. This listing can then be stored on a computer and
reloaded into the device if needed. Not only are the names of the patches stored, but also the
specifications as to how the sounds are created. In other words, if the internal memory of a
synthesizer were wiped out, the librarian could send a list of the original factory programs
back to the synthesizer and return it to its original status.
Librarians are also commonly employed when users owning the same equipment wish to
share programs they have created. Simply load the sounds into the librarian and save them on
a floppy disk, then transport them to another computer anywhere in the world.
Integrated Programs
An interesting trend in MIDI software today is the appearance of integrated programs that
combine many of the features of the programs listed above. Like their counterpart in the
business world, the ``desktop suite,'' these integrated programs offer professional sequencing,
notation, patch librarian, and in some cases, digital audio functions in an all-in-one
environment. This trend shows tremendous promise, and has far-reaching implications for the
user. It will be exciting to see how far it develops.
Digital Audio
One of the most exciting developments in desktop music in recent years is the ability to work
with digital audio on a home PC. Long the province of research institutions and recording
studios, digital audio editing software has become nearly commonplace on the desktop, and is
now among the most accessible and powerful types of computer software available.
Recording, editing, and playing digital audio on a home computer gives the user considerable
power to design and produce new sounds, and to edit and craft one's own music with great
precision. Digital audio can be a highly technical and elusive concept though, and we'll try to
make the terms and concepts perfectly clear.
As the string moves, it displaces the molecules around it in a wave-like pattern, i.e., while the
string moves back and forth, the molecules also move back and forth. The movement of the
molecules is propagated in the air; individual molecules bump against molecules next to
them, which in turn bump their neighbors, etc., until the molecules next to our ears are set in
motion. At the end of the chain, these molecules move our eardrum in a pattern analogous to
the original string movement, and we hear the sound. This pattern of motion, which is an air
pressure wave, can be represented in many ways, for example as a mathematical formula, or
graphically as a waveform. Figure 13 below shows the movement of the string over time: the
segment marked "A" represents the string as it is pulled back by the pick; "B" shows it
moving back towards its resting point, "C" represents the string moving through the resting
point and onward to its outer limit; then "D" has it moving back towards the point of rest.
This pattern repeats continuously under the friction of the molecules in the air gradually
slows the string down to a stop. In order for us to hear the string tone, the pattern must repeat
at least twenty times per second. This threshold, 20 cps, is the lower limit of human hearing.
The fastest sound we can hear is theoretically 20,000 cps, but in reality, it's probably closer to
15 or 17,000 cycles.
Fig 13. -The vibration pattern of a plucked string over time. Gradually, the motion will die out.-
If this back and forth motion were the only phenomena involved in creating a sound, then all
stringed instruments would probably sound much the same. We know this is not true, of
course, and alas, the laws of physics are not quite so simple. In fact, the string vibrates not
only at its entire length, but also at one-half its length, one-third, one-fourth, one-fifth, etc.
These additional vibrations occur at a rate faster than the original vibration, (known as the
fundamental frequency), but are usually weaker in strength. Our ear doesn't hear each
vibration individually however. If it if did, we would hear a multi-note chord every time a
single note were played. Rather, all these vibrations are added together to form a complex or
composite waveform that our ear perceives as a single tone (Figure 14).
Fig 14. -The making of a complex waveform. Vibrations occurring at different frequencies are
added together to form a complex tone.-
This composite waveform still doesn't account for the uniqueness of the sound of different
instruments, as there is one more major factor in determining the quality of the tone we hear.
This is the resonator. The resonator in the case of the guitar is the big block of hollow wood
that the string is attached, i.e., the guitar body. This has a major impact on the sound we
perceive when a guitar is played as it actually enhances some of the vibrations produced by
the string and diminishes or attenuates others. The ultimate effect of all the vibrations
occurring simultaneously, being altered by the resonator, adds up to the sound we know as
guitar.
Recording a Sound
So what has all this got to do with digital audio? What is it we need to record from all of this
motion in the air? It is the strength of the composite pressure wave created by all the
vibrations that we must measure very accurately and very often. That is the basic principle
behind digital audio. When a microphone records a guitar playing, a small membrane in the
Mic (called the diaphragm) is set into motion in a pattern identical to the guitar wave's own
pattern. The diaphragm moves back and forth, creating an electrical current that is sent
through a cable. The voltages in the cable are also "alternating" in strength at a very rapid
rate: strong, weaker, weak, strong again. When the cable arrives at our measuring device,
called an analog to digital (ADC) converter, the device measures how strong the signal is at
every instant and sends a numeric value to a storage device, probably the hard drive in your
computer. The ADC converter, along with its counterpart, the digital to analog (DAC)
converter that turns the numbers back into voltages, is typically found as a component of your
sound card, or as a stand-alone device.
There are several important aspects of this measuring process that we need to discuss. First is
the rate at which we choose to examine the signal coming into the converter. It is a known
fact of physics that we must measure or sample the signal at a rate twice as fast as the highest
frequency we wish to capture. Let's say we are trying to record a moderately high note on a
violin. Let's also assume that the fundamental frequency of this tone repeats 440 times per
second (the note would be an "A," of course), and that we want to capture all vibrations up to
five times the rate of the fundamental, or 2,200 cycles per second. To capture all the
components of this note and convert the resulting sound into numbers, we would have to
measure it 4,400 times per second.
But humans can hear tones that occur at rates well up into the tens of thousands of times per
second, so our system must be capable of much better than that! In theory, we might want to
capture an extremely high sound, for example one that actually contains a frequency
component of 20,000 cps. In that case, our measurements must occur 40,000 times per
second, which in fact, would allow us to capture every possible sound that any human might
be able to hear. Because of some complex laws that digital audio obeys however, we use a
rate of 44,100 measurements or "snapshots" of a sound per second in our professional
equipment. This sampling rate, abbreviated 44.1 kHz (44.1 kilohertz) is one aspect of what
we call CD-quality recording, as it is the same rate that commercial CDs use. Other common
sampling rates are 11kHz, 22kHz, and for some professional equipment, 48kHz.
The other important issue is how accurate our measuring system will be. Will we have 20
different values to select from for each measurement? How about 200 or 2,000? How
accurately do we need to represent the incredible variety of fluctuations in a pressure wave?
Think about the different types of timepieces you know about. If your digital watch shows
you minutes and seconds, that's adequate for most purposes. If you are doing scientific
measurements of time, then you might need more accuracy, perhaps minutes, seconds, tenths,
hundredths and even thousandths of seconds. Soundwaves actually encompass an infinite
range of strengths, but we must draw the line somewhere, or else we would need gigantic
hard drives just to store the information for a short amount of sound. The music industry has
settled on a system that provides 65,536 different values to assign to the amplitude (strength)
of a waveform at any given instant. In a certain sense, that number represents a compromise,
as we will definitely not capture every possible value that the amplitude can take. However,
our ears can live with that compromise, and in any event, using a more sophisticated
measuring system is simply not worth the extra cost in computing and storage resources.
Obviously you are wondering, "Why in the world did they choose 65,536?" The answer is
simply because it is 216, that is, 2 to the 16th power (2 multiplied by itself sixteen times).
This is the largest number we can express in the binary numbering system if we use 16 bits,
or 16 places. Recall from your high school math that the binary numbering system uses only
two digits, 0 and 1, and that this is what computers use as well. A string of sixteen 1's in the
binary system produces the number 65,535 in decimal, and a string of 16 0's is, of course the
decimal number 0. So from 0 through 65,535 we have 65,536 different numbers that we can
express using 16 bits. Computers actually think in terms of 8 digit strings, which you will
remember are called bytes. Therefore, if we use numbers that are two bytes long to represent
every different value in our system, we have the total range described above. One byte, or a
string of 8 bits, would allow us to represent the numbers 0 through 255, and MIDI is quite
happy with that range, but there is so much more detail in the digital audio world that our
system must be far more sophisticated.
THE DESKTOP MUSIC HANDBOOK
23
If you've followed the discussion up until now, you should have a pretty good idea of what is
on a compact disc. It's a massive amount of numbers, each two bytes long, that represent the
fluctuating amplitude of the pressure wave in front of the microphone that made the
recording. No matter if the sound was an orchestra, a guitar or a car horn, the CD simply
contains measurements for the pattern of motion produced by that sound. We can use our
hard drives to record the information in the same form as that on a CD, or if we wish, we can
use a somewhat less accurate representation. For example, if we choose not to capture the
data as accurately as the CD, we might only use eight bits, or one byte, for each amplitude
value. Such a measuring system has only what we call 8-bit accuracy or resolution. This will
have a significant impact on the quality of our representation, but it may be adequate for the
purpose at hand. Or we might wish to look at the sound and take a measurement only every
eleven or twenty-two thousands times a second, i.e., an 11k or 22 kHz sampling rate,
realizing that we will miss some detail, in particular the high end (upper frequencies) in the
sound. In truth, that rate may be good enough to represent certain types of sound, for example
the frequencies produced by the human voice are much lower than those produced by a
cymbal, so we might be able to get the whole picture by looking at the voice at a lower rate
(for more details on digital audio see appendix 5). The decision regarding how accurate we
need to be will be determined by the material we are recording and the amount of storage
space we have available to hold the recording. These choices are usually made from within
our audio software, so perhaps it's time to turn our attention to the PC.
Usually, wave editing software can accommodate no more than a single, stereo file, though a
new category, called multi-track software, lets the user work with several stereo files at once.
After being manipulated and edited, these files are mixed together into a single composite
stereo file that is sent to the left and right channel outputs of a sound card. In many cases, the
multi-track software doesn't offer a full range of editing options; most often it is the signal
processing functions that are omitted, but the ability to mix many different layers of audio is
very appealing.
One other type of editing software is used with dedicated hard-disk recording systems. These
professional products are very sophisticated, and often very expensive. Their key advantage is
that they provide extensive editing capabilities, such as those needed to make commercial
audio recordings, and often include storage devices devoted to holding large amounts of high
quality audio. They also provide multiple tracks of digital audio, in some cases up to ten or
even twelve simultaneous tracks on a single PC, as well as multiple audio outputs. This
makes them well suited for the production of radio and television commercials, where a vocal
narration, sound effects and music soundtrack are often combined.
Sound Cards
Far less expensive than the dedicated hardware described above are the massively popular
sound cards found in nearly every PC today. Much of the success of these products can be
attributed to the fact that IBM-compatible computers never enjoyed the quality of sound
production that the Macintosh had from its inception. When card maker Creative Labs
reached the consumer with its industry standard Sound Blaster card, they found a huge
untapped market that is now quite saturated with products.
Sound cards typically serve several important functions. First, they contain a synthesizer that
uses either frequency modulation (FM) synthesis to produce sound, or that stores actual
recorded audio data in wavetables for use in playback. FM is a somewhat dated method of
synthesis that uses one or more wave(s), called the modulator, to alter the frequency and
amplitude of another, called the carrier. The range of sounds that can be produced is limited,
though often adequate for simple sound effects or other game sounds. While the FM-style
card has nearly disappeared from the market, most software manufacturers must include
support for it in their products because of the vast number of cards that are still installed in
computers.
THE DESKTOP MUSIC HANDBOOK
25
Nearly all newer such as Turtle Beach Pinnacle, Malibu and Montego cards use the preferable
wavetable approach because it provides far more realistic sound. Wavetables are digital
recordings that exist in some type of compressed form in the card's ROM (read only
memory). in general the size of the Wavetable ROM determines the quality of the sound.
These sounds can never be erased, but can be altered in numerous ways as they playback. For
example, a trumpet sound could be reversed, or a piano could be layered with a snare drum.
Depending upon the programmability provided by the manufacturer, this type of card can be
quite flexible in the sounds it makes. Most wavetable cards, regardless of their manufacturer,
offer a General MIDI soundset, which makes them compatible with many popular
multimedia programs. Despite what their ads may claim, sound cards vary tremendously in
quality, even those that use the same playback method. Magazine reviews and roundups are a
good source of information for evaluating a card's characteristics.
Most cards also contain a MIDI interface for MIDI input and output, plus the digital to analog
(D/A) and analog to digital (A/D) converters described above. While all MIDI interfaces are
essentially created equal, there can be major differences among the converters on these cards.
Many cards claim ``CD Quality Sound,'' which simply means they can record and playback
audio at a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz using 16-bit resolution. Unfortunately, the personal
computer was not originally intended to be a musical instrument, and the high level of
electronic activity inside its case can cause interference problems with some cards. With
properly built cards, these problems can be avoided, and most users won't experience any
difficulties.
Putting it Altogether
MIDI and digital audio have coexisted in separate worlds until very recently. Now, using an
entirely new class of software, we have the potential to work with both types of data within a
single program. This new category, called simply, integrated MIDI and Digital audio
software, solves many of the most nagging problems desktop musicians have had for years.
The capabilities it offers greatly facilitate the integration of ``real world'' audio with the
``virtual'' world of MIDI tracks. Before we discuss this software, let's look at the way things
used to work. Here's how musicians combined audio and MIDI in the past.
Synchronization
For many years, in home and professional music studios around the world, musicians have
employed elaborate and somewhat complex means to join live audio with MIDI music.
Guitarists, vocalists, drummers and others have used different synchronization techniques to
mix their live playing with the music produced by their MIDI software. Typically, a musician
would record live audio onto a tape recorder, then use the tape recorder to send information
to the computer which told it when to start and stop playing. In this way, the music on the
tape and the sequenced music could be perfectly aligned.
The information sent by the tape recorder in this case is known as SMPTE time code, and is
actually an audio signal recorded (or ``striped'') on the tape. SMPTE (pronounced ``simp-tee'')
serves as a timing reference for both the tape and the computer running the MIDI software. In
essence, this code tells the software ``what time it is,'' i.e., where into the music it should be.
If a MIDI drum part must start exactly one minute after the music on the tape recorder begins,
then the sequencer will watch the time pass from the beginning of the tape (time 00:00), until
it reaches time 01:00, at which point it begins to play. Sequencers can jump instantly to any
time point that's required, so the sequencer will simply wait for its ``cue'' then start playing.
SMPTE, which stands for the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, was
initially created by the NASA space agency for use with its tracking stations. It provided an
absolute timing reference that allowed the agency to keep track of when transmissions
occurred. Like a digital clock, SMPTE works on a 24 hour cycle, and the precision it
provides is considerable: a normal SMPTE time represents hours, minutes, seconds, and
``frames,'' (Figure 16). The ``frames'' designation is important to the television and movie
industry for tracking time in film and video productions. A frame in television occurs 30
times a second, while in film it represents an interval of 1/24th or 1/25th of a second, so
SMPTE can measure time quite accurately. Because most professional video equipment is
SMPTE-compatible, musicians creating audio for video productions can also use it to
synchronize their music with the various types of video equipment they commonly work
with. When scoring for films, it is an invaluable way for the composer to know exactly when
a sound effect or music cue must begin and end.
Fig. 6 -An example of SMPTE time code, showing time in hours, minutes, seconds, and
frames.-
Integrated Software
Rather than deal with the intricacies of SMPTE, today's musician can work with integrated
software to combine audio and MIDI tracks with great precision. New programs like
Cakewalk Pro Audio represent digital audio data in the same form as MIDI data, and allow
the user to manipulate the two with ease. Once audio files are recorded onto disk, they can be
aligned for playback along with the MIDI information, and what's more, numerous tracks of
audio can be performed simultaneously. If synchronization with an external device is needed,
that device can still control the entire project. Thus, the best features of multi-track audio
software can now be found integrated with the advanced options of MIDI sequencers.
The number of audio tracks that can be mixed together in an integrated program, or in a
stand-alone audio editor for that matter, is very much a function of the computer hardware
being used for the task. In the IBM world, the processor (CPU) speed, access or ``seek'' time
of the hard drive, and available system RAM are among the key components to evaluate. In
the early years of desktop multimedia, software leader Microsoft produced a ``multimedia''
specification that described the minimal requirements for work of this type. That spec has
been modified to keep up with enhancements in today's computers, and has, as of this
writing, reached ``Level III'' status. This calls for a computer with a Pentium 75 MHz or
better processor, at least 8 MEGS of RAM, a 540 MEG hard drive, a quad-speed CD-ROM
player, a sound card that uses wavetable synthesis, and a video card that is MPEG 1 (a form
of compression) compliant. Keep in mind that any component of a system can slow the
process: a fast CPU with an inadequate hard drive can bring a system to its knees, for
example. It's important that all the pieces of the system are well balanced and in good
working order.
THE DESKTOP MUSIC HANDBOOK
27
Here's a tip to keep in mind: one of the easiest and most effective tasks you can do to prepare
your system for recording or playing audio is defragmenting your hard drive. A fragmented
drive contains pieces of files spread over different physical locations, and makes the job of
streaming data to and from that disk very difficult. Use one of the cleanup programs, such as
defrag, which comes with your operating system, before making recordings. Also if possible,
devote a separate drive partition to digital audio. When you first setup your computer, you
can create partitions easily using DOS's fdisk program, but later, you'll have to backup your
drive and reformat it.
Summary
We hope you've enjoyed this initial presentation of the ins and outs of desktop music and that
it will encourage you to experiment on your own. Much of today's software is very powerful,
though manufacturers have done a good job in making it easy to use, and you've got many
hours of pleasure and excitement to look forward to. Of course the more you can learn about
desktop music, the more you will get out of your equipment, so keep your eyes on the
numerous books and magazines devoted to the subject, and consider subscribing to some of
the multimedia newsgroups on the Internet. There's a whole world of music waiting for you,
right on your desktop.
BITS (BYTES) - a binary digit. Mode of information used by a computer to store numbers.
One bit equals a \Qone' or a \Qzero'. Usually 8 bits equals one byte, however, MIDI uses a 10
bit-byte that includes a start bit, the 8 - bit data message, and a stop bit.
BUFFER - an area of RAM used to temporarily store data.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) - a silicon chip that performs calculations and
acts as the brain of a computer.
CHANNELS - one of 16 different data paths that are available to carry messages in MIDI.
CHANNEL MESSAGE - a type of MIDI message that carries specific channel information.
CHORUSING - a doubling effect commonly found on a synthesizer or sampler that makes a
single sound appear to sound like an entire ensemble. The initial signal is split and appears at
a slightly altered pitch from the original, or at a slightly later point in time. This time and
pitch level are often controllable by a low frequency oscillator (LFO).
CONTINUOUS CONTROLLER - a type of MIDI message that is generated by the
movement of a continuous control.
CONTROLLERS - various sliders, levers, knobs, or wheels typically found on a MIDI
controller. Used to send continuous (as opposed to discrete) data to control some aspect of a
sound.
DECIBEL -a decibel (or dB ) is 1/10th of a bel, which is a relative measure of two sounds.
DC (DIRECT CURRENT) - an electrical current that flows in one direction.
DECAY - one of the four basic stages of an envelope. Refers to the time the sound takes to
settle into its sustain level.
DEFAULT - the ``normal'' or ``startup'' state of a hardware device or software application.
DELAY - a common effect in a sampler or synthesizer that mimics the time difference
between the arrival of a direct sound and the first reflection to reach the listener's ears.
DIGITAL AUDIO - the numeric representation of sound. Typically used as the means for
storing sound information in a computer or sampler.
DIGITAL SYNTHESIS - the use of numbers to create sounds. Method most often used in
today's synthesizers for generating sounds, as compared to analog method employed
previously.
DIN PLUG - a five-pin connector used by MIDI equipment.
DISTORTION - a process, often found desirable by guitar players, that alters a sound's
waveform.
DRUM MACHINE - an electronic device, usually controllable via MIDI commands, that
contains samples of acoustic drum sounds. Used to create percussion parts and patterns.
DSP - digital signal processing. Processes used to alter sound in its digital form.
DYNAMICS - the relative loudness or softness of a piece of music.
ECHO - the repetition of a sound delayed in time by at least 50 milliseconds after the
original. An effect often found in synthesizers and samplers.
LOCAL ON/OFF - a three byte channel message that determines the status of the Local On
function of a MIDI device. LOCAL ON allows the instrument to produce sounds from
incoming MIDI data and its own keyboard. LOCAL OFF states that only external MIDI data
is responded to.
LOOP - to repeat a sequencer pattern or portion of an audio sample repeatedly. The point to
which the program returns, whether the beginning or some other point, is usually definable by
the user.
METRONOME - a device or software function that produces a discrete pulse. Used to
synchronize music with a specific tempo.
MIDI - the Musical Instrument Digital Interface. An international standard for
communication between a musical instrument and a computer.
MIDI CLOCK - a system real time message that enables the synchronization of different
MIDI devices. The standard rate is 24 divisions per beat.
MIDI INTERFACE - a device that adds a MIDI In, Out and sometimes Thru port to a
desktop computer.
MIDI MERGE - used to combine MIDI data from various sources into a single source.
MIDI MESSAGE - the different packets of data that form a MIDI transmission.
MIDI PATCHER - a device that allows the routing of one or more MIDI signals to various
MIDI devices. Typically reconfigurable to allow for different routings of the data.
MIDI PORTS - the three connectors that pass MIDI data into (MIDI IN), out of (MIDI
OUT) and through (MIDI THRU) a MIDI device.
MIDI SAMPLER - an electronic device that can record, alter and playback digital audio data
under the control of a MIDI data stream.
MIDI TIME CODE (MTC) - a timing system used as a universal reference for all the
devices in a MIDI network. Represents the information contained in a SMPTE signal using
MIDI messages.
MIXER - a recording device that allows several different audio sources to be combined.
Provides independent control over each signal's loudness and stereo position.
MODULATION WHEEL - one of several common continuous controls on a MIDI device.
Often used to add a vibrato effect to a sound.
MONOPHONIC - the ability to play only one note at once. A characteristic of some older
synthesizers.
MULTITIMBRAL - having the ability to produce many different musical timbres (sounds)
at once.
MULTITRACK - in traditional recording technology, the ability to layer multiple different
audio signals at once. In MIDI software, the ability to layer numerous MIDI data streams.
NOTE ON COMMANDS - a channel voice message that indicates a note is to begin
sounding. Contains two additional data bytes: Note number and Note velocity.
NYQUIST FREQUENCY - the highest frequency that any given digital audio system can
capture. Defined as one half the sampling rate of that system.
THE DESKTOP MUSIC HANDBOOK
32
SAMPLER - an electronic device that can record, alter and playback digital audio data under
the control of a MIDI data stream.
SAMPLING - digitizing a waveform by measuring its amplitude fluctuations at some
precisely timed intervals. The accuracy of the measurements is a function of the bit
resolution.
SAMPLING RATE - the rate at which samples of a waveform are made. Must be twice the
highest frequency one wishes to capture. Commercial compact discs use a rate of 44,100
samples per second.
SEQUENCER - MIDI software or less commonly, a hardware device that can record, edit
and playback a sequence of MIDI data.
SINE WAVE - the most basic waveform, consisting of a single partial. Forms the basis of all
complex, periodic sounds.
SMPTE TIME CODE - a timing standard adopted by the Society of Motion Picture and
Television Engineers for controlling different audio and video devices. Allows a sequencer
and an external device such as a tape recorded to stay synchronized.
STEP TIME - entering notes one by one, as opposed to real time recording in a sequencer.
SONG POSITION POINTER (SPP) - a system-common message that specifies where in a
sequencer a device should begin to play.
STANDARD MIDI FILE - a standardized form of data used for exchanging MIDI files
between programs.
STATUS BYTE - the first byte of a MIDI message that specifies what type of message it is.
SUSTAIN PEDAL - a pedal on a MIDI controller (or acoustic piano) that keeps all notes
sounding even a key is released.
SYSTEM COMMON MESSAGES - MIDI messages used for various functions including
tuning an instrument and song selection.
SYSTEM EXCLUSIVE MESSAGE - MIDI message used to communicate with a device
made by a specific manufacturer.
SYSTEM REAL TIME MESSAGES - commands used to synchronize one MIDI device
with another.
TEMPO - the rate of speed at which a musical composition proceeds. Usually uses a quarter
note as the timing reference.
TIMBRE - the property of a sound that distinguishes it from all other. Tone color.
TREMELO -a rapid alternation of two tones. Usually a third apart. On a synthesizer, this
effect can usually be controlled by the modulation wheel or modulation amount.
VELOCITY - a measure of the speed with which a key on a controller is pressed. Used to
determine volume characteristics of note.
WAVEFORM - the graphical display of a sound pressure wave over time.
WAVETABLE - a storage location that contains data used to generate waveforms digitally.
1-8 PIANO
Instrument
Acoustic Grand
Bright Acoustic
Electric Grand
Honky-Tonk
Electric Piano 1
Electric Piano 2
Harpsichord
Clav
Prog# 49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
49-56 ENSEMBLE
Instrument
String Ensemble 1
String Ensemble 2
SynthStrings 1
SynthStrings 2
Choir Aahs
Voice Oohs
Synth Voice
Orchestra Hit
Prog# 57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
57-64 BRASS
Instrument
Trumpet
Trombone
Tuba
Muted Trumpet
French Horn
Brass Section
SynthBrass 1
SynthBrass 2
Prog# 105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
105-112 ETHNIC
Instrument
Sitar
Banjo
Shamisen
Koto
Kalimba
Bagpipe
Fiddle
Shanai
113-120 PERCUSSIVE
Instrument
Tinkle Bell
Agogo
Steel Drums
Woodblock
Taiko Drum
Melodic Tom
Synth Drum
Reverse Cymbal
Prog# 17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
17-24 ORGAN
Instrument
Drawbar Organ
Percussive Organ
Rock Organ
Church Organ
Reed Organ
Accordion
Harmonica
Tango Accordian
Prog# 65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
65-72 REED
Instrument
Soprano Sax
Alto Sax
Tenor Sax
Baritone Sax
Oboe
English Horn
Bassoon
Clarinet
Prog# 113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
Prog# 25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
25-32 GUITAR
Instrument
Acoustic Guitar(nylon)
Acoustic Guitar(steel)
Electric Guitar(jazz)
Electric Guitar(clean)
Electric Guitar(muted)
Overdriven Guitar
Distortion Guitar
Guitar Harmonics
Prog# 73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
73-80 PIPE
Instrument
Piccolo
Flute
Recorder
Pan Flute
Blown Bottle
Skakuhachi
Whistle
Ocarina
Prog# 33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
33-40 BASS
Instrument
Acoustic Bass
Electric Bass (finger)
Electric Bass (pick)
Fretless Bass
Slap Bass 1
Slap Bass 2
Synth Bass 1
Synth Bass 2
Prog# 81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
Prog# 41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
41-48 STRINGS
Instrument
Violin
Viola
Cello
Contrabass
Tremolo Strings
Pizzicato Strings
Orchestral Strings
Timpani
Prog# 89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
NOTE NAME
35
B1
INSTRUMENT
Acoustic Bass Drum
36
C2
Bass Drum 1
37
C#2
Side Stick
38
D2
Acoustic Snare
39
D#2
Hand Clap
40
E2
Electric Snare
41
F2
42
F#2
Closed Hi-Hat
43
G2
44
G#2
Pedal Hi-Hat
45
A2
Low Tom
46
A#2
Open Hi-Hat
47
B2
Low-Mid Tom
48
C3
Hi-Mid Tom
49
C#3
Crash Cymbal 1
50
D3
High Tom
51
D#3
Ride Cymbal 1
52
E3
Chinese Cymbal
53
F3
Ride Bell
54
F#3
Tambourine
55
G3
Splash Cymbal
56
G#3
Cowbell
57
A3
Crash Cymbal 2
58
A#3
Vibraslap
59
B3
Ride Cymbal 2
60
C4
Hi Bongo
61
C#4
Low Bongo
62
D4
Mute Hi Conga
63
D#4
Open Hi Conga
64
E4
Low Conga
65
F4
High Timbale
66
F#4
Low Timbale
67
G4
High Agogo
68
G#4
Low Agogo
69
A4
Cabasa
70
A#4
Maracas
71
B4
Short Whistle
72
C5
Long Whistle
73
C#5
Short Guiro
74
D5
Long Guiro
75
D#5
Claves
76
E5
Hi Wood Block
77
F5
78
F#5
Mute Cuica
79
G5
Open Cuica
80
G#5
Mute Triangle
81
A5
Open Triangle
Polyphony
GM: 24 notes, dynamically allocated.
GS: Minimum requirement: 24 notes, dynamically allocated. Optional support for additional polyphony. Roland
SC-88 has 64-note polyphony; SC-55 Mk II has 28-note polyphony.
XG: Minimum requirement: 32 notes, dynamically allocated. Optional support for additional polyphony. Yamaha
MU80 has 64-note polyphony; MU50 has 32-note polyphony.
Rhythm Channels
GM: GM specifies that MIDI channel 10 is to be used exclusively as a rhythm channel, and further designates a
single standard GM Percussion Map, in which note numbers 35 - 81 are assigned particular drum and
percussion sounds.
GS: Uses channel 10 for rhythm parts. Minimum requirement: 9 drum sets. These include one that provides
the standard GM Percussion map, as well as 7 variation sets (which use the same note numbers as the GM
Percussion Map but substitute alternate drum sounds), and a single SFX Set (which contains non-standard
percussion sounds). Roland SC-88 provides 24 drum sets, including two SFX Sets; SC-55 Mk II provides 10
drum sets, including one SFX Set. Some drum sets expand the range of the GM Percussion Map to include
additional note numbers. System exclusive messages are utilized for non-real-time designation of up to two
rhythm channels (including channel 10) which can optionally access a single alternate percussion map.
When a GS-compatible instrument receives a program change message on channel 10 pointing to a drum set
that doesnt exist, no sound is heard.
XG: Normally uses channel 10 for rhythm parts (though channel 10 can optionally be designated to play melody
voices). XG-compatible instruments which support 32 MIDI channels normally use both channel 10 and
channel 26 (the tenth channel in the second set of 16) as rhythm channels. Any number of additional
channels can be designated for rhythm parts (in real time) by transmitting a Bank Select MSB value of 7Fh.
Minimum requirement: 11 drum kits. These include one that provides the standard GM Percussion map,
as well as 7 variation sets (which use the same note numbers as the GM Percussion Map but substitute
alternate drum sounds), and two SFX kits (which contain non-standard percussion sounds). Optional
support for additional SFX kits. Some drum kits expand the range of the GM Percussion Map to include
additional note numbers. When an XG-compatible instrument receives a program change message pointing
to a drum kit or SFX kit that doesnt exist, it is ignored and the currently selected drum kit or SFX kit is
substituted, ensuring that sound is heard.
Volume (cc #7) is to be used to set the overall volume of the channel prior to music
data playback as well as mixdown Fader-style movements, while Expression (cc #11) is to be used during
music data playback to attenuate the programmed MIDI volume, thus creating diminuendos and crescendos.
In the case of rhythm instruments, the balance between individual sounds is preset, and Volume and
Expression messages adjust the overall level of the instrument. Panpot (cc #10) is used to place the stereo
position of the sound between hard left (0) and hard right (127), with a value of 64 (40h) indicating center
position. GM-compatible instruments are not required to necessarily provide 128 steps of adjustment, but at
least three points (hard left/center/hard right) are necessary. Though recommended, it is not required that a
currently-sounding note be moved when a Panpot message is received; it is acceptable to apply the new pan
position starting with the next note. Some GM-compatible instruments therefore do not allow the pan
position to be changed while a note is sounding. It is not required that rhythm instruments respond to Panpot
messages since pan is preset for each individual sound. If a GM-compatible instrument does allow reception
of Panpot over the rhythm channel, the entire set of percussion sounds will be shifted left or right. The
Sustain message (cc #64) is the only pedal-related message whose reception is required by GM. In general,
only On and Off values are recognized by GM-compatible instruments for Sustain; for this reason, GM
specifies that Sustain data of 0 - 63 be considered Off and data of 64 - 127 be considered On (some GM
instruments may optionally accept continuous data for piano-type sounds, this allowing half-damper and redamper effects).
GS: Minimum requirement: All seven GM cc messages, plus: Bank Select (cc #0 [MSB] and cc #32 [LSB]);
Portamento Time (cc #5); Data Entry (cc #6 [MSB] and cc #38 [LSB]); Portamento (cc #65); NRPN (NonRegistered Parameter Numbers) (cc #98 [LSB] and #99 [MSB]). The Data Entry MSB and LSB (cc #6 and
cc #38) are used in conjunction with NRPNs (Non-Registered Parameter Numbers) (cc #98 and #99).
Optional support is provided for the following: Sostenuto (cc #66); Soft (cc #67); Portamento Control (cc
#84); External Effects Depth (cc #91); and Chorus Depth (cc #93).
Registered Parameter Numbers, or RPNs for short, are simply a standardized list of voice
parameters (for all MIDI instruments) that can be changed in real time using control change
messages. Currently, the MIDI standards committees have approved three RPNs: Pitch Bend
Sensitivity, Fine Tuning, and Coarse Tuning. To access these parameters, control change
#101 (carrying the RPN MSB) and #100 (carrying the RPN LSB) are used.
GM: GM-compatible instruments must be capable of receiving all three RPNs: Pitch Bend Sensitivity (RPN #0),
Fine Tuning (RPN #1), and Coarse Tuning (RPN #2).
GS: Minimum requirement: Same as GM. Data values are set using Data Entry (cc #6 [MSB] and cc #38
[LSB]). If a range of 128 values is sufficient, the MSB alone (cc #6) can be used. If greater resolution is
required, both the Data Entry MSB and LSB (cc #38) can be used.
XG: Minimum requirement: Same as GM and GS, but Pitch Bend Sensitivity is set in semitones only (the Data
Entry LSB is always ignored).
Non-Registered Parameter Numbers (NRPNs) are similar to RPNs except that they provide a
list of voice parameters unique to a particular instrument. This is an area of MIDI that is quite
open, since manufacturers are given the freedom to implement NRPNs as they like. Control
change #99 (carrying the NRPN MSB) and #98 (carrying the NRPN LSB) are used to access
manufacturer-specified NRPNs.
GM: GM makes no mention of the usage of NRPNs.
GS: Minimum requirement: None (the use of NRPNs is optional, though recommended). Optional support is
provided for the following 13 NRPNs: Vibrato Rate, Vibrato Depth, Vibrato Delay, Filter Cutoff, Filter
Resonance, Attack Time, Decay Time, Release Time, Drum Instrument Pitch, Drum Instrument Level,
Drum Instrument Pan, Drum Instrument Reverb Send, Drum Instrument Chorus Send. All NRPN values are
set with the Data Entry MSB (cc #6) only (the Data Entry LSB [cc #38] is ignored). When the drum
instrument Pan data value is 0, panning for that sound is ran-dom. Roland SC-88 responds to 14 NRPNs;
SC-55 Mk. II responds to 13 NRPNS.
XG: Minimum requirement: XG compatible instruments must utilize the following 19 NRPNs: Vibrato Rate,
Vibrato Depth, Vibrato Delay, Filter Cutoff Frequency, Filter Resonance, EG Attack Rate, EG Decay Rate,
EG Release Rate, Drum Filter Cutoff Frequency, Drum Filter Resonance, Drum EG Attack Rate, Drum EG
Decay Rate, Drum Instrument Pitch Coarse, Drum Instrument Pitch Fine, Drum Instrument Level, Drum
Instrument Pan, Drum Instrument Reverb Send Level, Drum Instrument Chorus Send Level, Drum
Instrument Variation Send Level.
All NRPN data changes are specified as being relative, with a Data Entry value of 64 (the zeroed center
value) causing no change to the sound, and values greater or less than 64 causing increased or decreased
change. As with GS, the Data Entry LSB (cc #38) is ignored; all NRPN values are set with the Data Entry
MSB (cc #6) only. As with GS, when the drum instrument Pan data value is 0, panning for that sound is
random. Yamaha MU80 responds to 19 NRPNs; MU50 responds to 19 NRPNS.
Effects
GM: GM provides no provision for the use of either onboard or external effects.
GS: Minimum requirement: None (reverb and chorus recommended but not required). Optional support for a
maximum of four internal effects: reverb, chorus, delay and EQ. If used, reverb send level is determined by
cc #91, chorus send level is determined by cc #93, and delay send level is determined by cc #94. NonRegistered Parameter Numbers (NRPNs) can optionally be used to set reverb and chorus send levels for
individual sounds within drum instruments. System exclusive messages are used for non-real-time selection
from among preset reverb and chorus types and to customize effects settings. Roland SC-88 provides 3
onboard effects (reverb, chorus, and delay), plus a two-band equalizer, with 8 reverb types, 8 chorus types,
and 10 delay types; SC-55 Mk II provides 2 onboard effects (reverb and chorus), with 8 reverb types and 8
chorus types .
XG: Minimum requirement: Three onboard effects (reverb, chorus, and Variation, the latter of which must be
able to be used either in a standard send-return configuration or in a unity gain insert configuration, with a
system exclusive message used to set the desired condition), with 8 defined reverb effects types, 8 defined
chorus effects types, and 35 defined Variation effects types. Optional support for two additional effects:
distortion and graphic EQ. Reverb send level is determined by cc #91, chorus send level is determined by cc
#93, and Variation send level is determined by cc #94. Non-Registered Parameter Numbers (NRPNs) are
used to set reverb, chorus, and Variation send levels for individual sounds within drum instruments.
System exclusive messages are not only used to select preset effects types and customize effects settings but
are also used to specify effects routings (allowing for parallel or variable amounts of serial routing). A userdefined real-time controller (such as a foot pedal or wheel) can be used to alter one effects parameter
(usually dry/wet mix) in the selected Variation effect. Yamaha MU80 provides 4 onboard effects (reverb,
chorus, Variation, distortion) plus a 5-band graphic equalizer, with 12 reverb types, 10 chorus types, 42
Variation types, and 3 distortion types (as well as 4 EQ Presets); MU50 provides 3 onboard effects (reverb,
chorus, Variation), with 11 reverb types, 11 chorus types, and 41 Variation types.
The ability to input external audio signal into a MIDI tone generator and then control that
signal via MIDI messages is a relatively new phenomenon, largely made possible through the
increased availability of affordable analog-to-digital converter chips. This advanced feature
enables real-time participation in the MIDI music being generated and effectively forges a
bridge into the worlds of karaoke and multimedia.
GM: No provision for external audio input.
GS: No provision for external audio input. Roland SC-88 provides two channels of audio input, though these are
not under MIDI control.
XG: Provides optional support for one or more external audio inputs, called A/D channels. The digital signal
from these channels (derived from the onboard A/D converter) is processed and controlled in the same way
as the tone generator signals being produced by MIDI channels: overall level and pan position can be
controlled in real-time, as well as send levels to any or all internal effects. System exclusive messages are
used to set input gain, MIDI receive channel number, and on-off reception status for incoming volume (cc
#7), pan (cc #10), and expression (cc #11) messages and are also used to select from among various A/D
channel Presets, each of which call up complete settings complementary to the instrument type. For
example, an A/D preset for a mic. input might include reverb and compression effects, whereas one for
guitar might include chorusing, echo and distortion effects. Yamaha MU80 provides 2 MIDI-con-trolled
A/D channels.
The MIDI Specification designates control change numbers 120 - 127 for carrying what are
known as Channel Mode messages.
GM: GM-compatible instruments must be capable of receiving the following two Channel Mode messages: Reset
All Controllers (cc #121) and All Notes Off (cc #123). When a Reset All Controllers message is received,
the GM guidelines specify that data on all channels be reset as follows:
Pitch bend is centered
Channel pressure is zeroed
Modulation is zeroed
Expression is set to maximum
(data value of 127)
Sustain is set to Off
(data value of 0)
RPN is set to Null
GS: Minimum requirement: In addition to following the GM guidelines described above, GS-compatible
instruments are also capable of receiving the following Channel Mode messages: All Sounds Off (cc #120)
and Mono/Poly (cc #126, 127) GS instruments normally operate in MIDI Mode 3 but are changed to Mode
4 upon receipt of a Mono On message. Receipt of either Mono On or Poly On cause the same processing
operation as an All Sounds Off message. Because they cannot operate in Modes 1 or 2, receipt of Omni On
or Omni Off causes the same processing operation as an All Notes Off message and Omni remains off.
XG: Minimum requirement: XG compatible instruments respond to Channel Mode messages in the same way as
GS compatible instruments.
System Messages
MIDI System messages include messages that control the entire instrument and messages that
handle data unique to a manufacturer and model. The concept of channel does not apply to
System messagesthey affect all voices. Many of these messages are used only for
synchronization and the only System messages that are applicable to tone generators are the
broad category of system exclusive messages (which set global functions such as operating
mode and deal with sound and effects
parameters) and the Active Sensing message (which prevents problems that could result from
broken connections). It is worth noting that the category of system exclusive messages
include some general-purpose messages, known as Universal system exclusive. Universal
system exclusive messages are further divided into real-time and non-real-time messages.
GM: GM-compatible instruments must recognize the following two Universal Non-Real Time system exclusive
messages: Turn GM System On and Turn GM System Off. If a GM-compatible instrument has operational
modes that allow it to function other than as a GM instrument, the reception of the Turn GM System On
message must cause it to switch to GM mode and initialize itself. Even if the instrument functions only in
GM mode, reception of this message must cause reinitialization to the following states:
Program Change 00 (first program)
Modulation Depth 00
Volume 100
Pan 64 (center)
Expression 127 (maximum)
Sustain 00 (off)
RPN Fine Tune 64,00 (0)
RPN Coarse Tune 64,00 (0)
RPN Null
Pitch Bend 64 (center)
Channel Pressure (all channels) 0
The Turn GM System Off message is used to exit GM mode, but will be ignored if the instrument functions
only in GM mode. GM recommends but does not require that Active Sensing be implemented. Nearly all
GM instruments do include this feature.
GS: Minimum requirement: Reception of the Turn GM System On Universal Non-Real-time system exclusive
message, as well as the following additional system exclusive messages: GS Reset (which places the
instrument in GS operational mode), Master Volume (a Universal Real-time message), Receive Channel
(per part), Use For Rhythm Part (which changes a melody part to a rhythm part), and Scale Tuning (which
sets the tuning globally).
Optional support is provided for 16 system exclusive messages (which are recommended but not required)
for the alteration of voice and effects parameters, as well as global messages to set voice and channel
assignments, scale tuning and effects routings. Additional system exclusive messages may be utilized by
individual instruments.
The recognition of Active Sensing is recommended but not required. Roland SC-88 and SC-55 both
respond to Active Sensing.
XG: Minimum requirement: Reception of Active Sensing and the Turn GM System On Universal Non-Real-time
system exclusive message, as well as the following additional system exclusive messages: XG System On
(which places the instrument in XG operational mode, not only setting the instrument to a default state but
also enabling the reception of XG-specific NRPNs), Master Volume (a Universal Real-time message), and
Master Tuning (which provides a convenient way to tune all channels simultaneously)
In addition, XG defines a generic Parameter Change SysEx message, which can be used to alter almost
every XG parameter, including voice and effects data, as well as messages to set the effects routings,
optional A/D input(s), and optional master equalizer. The advantage to using one generic template such as
this is that the procedure for setting parameters is basically the same for all XG instruments.
XG also defines Parameter Request and Dump Request SysEx commands (requests for an instrument to
transmit data for one particular parameter or all internal data). Yamaha MU80 and MU50 both respond to
Active Sensing.
Appendix 3 - Selecting a PC
Before you decide to purchase any hard- or software read the rest of the Desktop Music
Handbook, which should give you an idea of what software (Notation, MIDI sequencer,
Integrated MIDI and Audio sequencer or Multi Track Audio editor) you will need for your
music. Of course, you will need computer hardware that is powerful enough to run it all and
some means of getting Music in the form of MIDI and/or digital audio into and out of your
PC.
This means that you should consider the following components as the minimum requirements
for your Desktop Music PC:
A powerful PC (you can rarely have enough CPU cycles, RAM or hard disk space)
A low noise (<-85dB) sound card, with a MIDI synthesiser and a MIDI interface, and/or MIDI
sampling capabilities,
and
Notation software
and/or
and
Creativity and lots of perspiration (remember: any great piece of music contains 1 part
inspiration and 99 parts perspiration!)
The list mentioned above provides you with the basics. Other items can be added based on
your specific requirements:
A MIDI keyboard
MIDI sampling facilities (either as a stand-alone hardware sampler or in the form of a PC sound
card such as the Turtle Beach Pinnacle)
Effects plug-ins, ranging from the bread and butter type (reverb, delay, compression etc.) to the
esoteric (vocoder, various types of filters etc.) to the downright strange (sonic decimators, 3D
expanders, specialised plug-ins etc.)
Various MIDI tools that aid composition, sequencing and MIDI effects (harmonisers,
arpeggiators, MIDI echoes, analogue-style mini-sequencers etc.)
Various sound editing tools and specialised editors that offer options that a standard sound editor
does not offer (e.g. sample loop editors, specialised voice processing packages etc.)
Before you start spending, it is a good idea to think about what kind of music you want to
make and which tools you might need. Spend your money wisely; it's frustrating to pay a lot
of money for a great-sounding software plug-in only to find out that your PC is not powerful
enough to run it
PC Hardware Summary
It may seem strange to put the summary of the do's and don'ts of choosing your Desktop
Music PC at the beginning, if you just want advice and don't want to go into all of the
technical details just read this and leave the rest:
Your hard disk needs to be fast enough to deliver the audio data from the disk to your
system, so a low average access time (<10 ms) and lots of throughput, (Sustained transfer
rate >5 MB/sec the higher this number the more audio tracks) are essential.
Make sure the sound card you choose supports true simultaneous record and playback.
The manufacturer will always say it does, as this is a very big selling point, they will say
something like "Enhanced Full Duplex", or "Full Duplex at full bandwidth" or
"Simultaneous Record and Playback". If you're not sure, be specific and ask "does
this sound card support simultaneous record and playback at 16-bit 44.1/48 kHz
with my software"? Cards from Turtle Beach, Digital Audio Labs, AdB, Gadget Labs
are all Enhanced Full Duplex at a least 16-bit/44.1kHz.
Don't use the sound cards internal amplifier if it's got one
Use good quality Speakers (at least at the Yamaha YST M20 level)
Make a note of all of your hardware settings (IRQ's etc) including your sound card and
keep it somewhere safe.
Avoid installing programmes, drivers etc. from Magazine Cover CD's that you don't
know anything about, if you must install, make sure you know how to uninstall it.
Use an external modem rather than an internal modem (internal modems are notorious for
the noise they generate and the resources they use)
Ensure that the MIDI adapter cable for your sound card is opto-isolated
they prefer to give the more persuasive maximum throughput or burst transfer rate, which is
the maximum amount of data per second that the disk can deliver, even if it cannot sustain
this rate. The max throughput of a disk is relevant for most applications, but not hard disk
recording, because hard disk recorders will exhaust a disks burst speed in the first second or
so of recording. The disk must be able to sustain the transfer rate or the recorder will stall.
Therefore it is critical when buying a hard disk for recording that you make sure the seller is
quoting the sustained transfer rate.
Access times:
The one stroke seek is the time the head needs to settle to a
contiguous track. The full stroke seek is the time required to travel from the first to the last
track of the disk. The average seek is the time required for a 1/3 full stroke, and is the value
most often supplied by manufacturers. Some times, average access time is specified, this
means the average seek time plus the average sector search time (depends mainly on
rotational speed).
Internal transfer rate:
This specifies the peak burst transfer rate from disk surfaces to
heads. Its usually expressed as MB/s (megabytes per second). This is not the same as the
sustained transfer rate, although the higher the internal transfer rate the higher the sustained
transfer rate. This internal transfer includes not only the user data, but also the sector headers,
servo info, ECC data, etc. There are gaps between sectors and while the head passes over
them, no useful data is transferred. The internal transfer is also stopped when switching heads
and seeking. This is the reason internal transfer rate is not the same as sustained transfer rate,
but manufacturers usually give this number instead of the more meaningful sustained one.
Channel type:
There are mainly two kinds of disk interfaces: IDE and SCSI.
The SCSI interface is better for digital audio, but SCSI disks are much more expensive than
IDE disks. You should not base your selection only in the channel type, but in all disk
specifications, as some of the fastest IDE disks are faster than non-high-end SCSI disks.
SCSI is only faster if selecting the newest and fastest disks available at the time, or if there is
a requirement for the other advantages of the SCSI interface.
The major differences between IDE and SCSI are:
In a SCSI channel, there can be concurrent operations for several devices. The system can
order a transfer for device 0 and then for device 1; each device requests the bus when they
have data available, sharing the total channel bandwidth. In an IDE channel, an operation
for a device must complete before beginning a new operation for other device in the same
channel, although different IDE channels can work concurrently.
Also there are often some incorrect assumptions about SCSI vs. IDE:
SCSI requires less CPU usage. This is totally wrong. This depends on the controller
technology, mainly the bus-mastering capability or the ability to use DMA channels, not the
channel type.
SCSI is faster. This is misleading. it depends on the disk performance, not the channel type.
Bus mastering controllers: These request direct accesses to the bus and do the transfer,
signalling the completion to the CPU through an interrupt.
In some PCs there is a peripheral called a DMA controller, which is a bus master device
specialising in transfering between memory and other peripherals. The ISA and PCI buses
include signals to control DMA transfers.
Both methods are valid, but most modern PCI based controllers use bus mastering, the
preferred method for the PCI bus. ISA doesnt support bus mastering properly, so the only
solution for ISA cards is DMA.
Bus mastering is not the same as the DMA mode of the IDE disks, but it is usually related
because most IDE controllers can only operate in bus master mode when using the IDE
devices in DMA mode.
To get the great advantages of bus mastering, you need the following:
In case of IDE channel, DMA mode capable devices. Most modern devices support at
least DMA1 (16 MB/s), or better DMA2 (Ultra DMA 33 MB/s).
Install bus master drivers if your system supports it. The CPU usage typically goes down
from above 50 % to below 5 %. Freeing up your PC for audio processing.
A note about bus mastering drivers: most manufacturers (Adaptec, Intel, Asus, etc), provide
bus master drivers for their bus master capable controllers. Those drivers automatically run in
bus master mode. But sometimes, if a device doesnt work in DMA mode, the device cant be
used. Win95B (OSR2) automatically installs the Microsofts bus master drivers, these are
reliable and give good performance, but they dont work in bus master mode by default. To
enable bus master mode for each device, you must go to Control Panel | System | Devices |
THE DESKTOP MUSIC HANDBOOK
50
Disks | Configuration, and check the DMA box. This option might not be visible if your
controller does not support bus mastering or if you installed specific drivers. For versions of
Win 95 previous to OSR2 do not install bus master drivers.
Another note: the DMA mode of IDE devices includes error checking in the transfers to
detect data corruption in the bus. Data corruption should never occur, but with some
misbehaving devices or bad quality and/or too long cables this can happen. The Microsoft
drivers do not check the CRC error reported by the controller, however there is an upgrade
the Microsofts website. Users should be sure that the disk subsystem is not causing CRC
errors, because errors cause retries, which degrades the performance substantially. As a
general rule, use the shortest possible high quality cables, and reliable and proven devices
tested in DMA mode.
Disk partitioning:
For the best performance, use either a dedicated disk for the audio files or the FIRST
partition of your fastest disk. Dedicating a disk or partition for audio files also helps to
achieve less fragmentation of the files.
Always use FAT file system for the audio partitions. Its faster than NTFS and others.
You can use FAT32 if you have Windows OSR2. FAT32 allows for very large disk sizes
- FAT16 only allows up to 2GB partitions - so you can create a large audio disk with only
one partition. The performance of FAT32 is about the same as with FAT16 however,
FAT32 will try to create smaller cluster sizes than you want. Disks dont read one bit at a
time, they read clusters of bits. For many applications, smaller clusters mean less wasted
space on your disk - but for audio, smaller clusters mean more discrete read/write
operations. Translation: slowness. Therefore when formatting a FAT32 device, always
use the format command with the /z:32 or /z:64 (the largest possible for your disk) to
create bigger cluster sizes. It helps to get a bit better performance and less file
fragmentation.
Win 95 disk access optimisation: There are some things that can be fine tuned to increase
performance:
Bus Mastering drivers:
Always install bus-mastering drivers if your system supports them. The CPU usage typically
goes down from above 50 % to below 5 %. Free power for audio processing!
File caching:
The minimum and maximum size of memory used to cache file accesses can be adjusted in
the SYSTEM.INI file, section [VCACHE]:
MinFileCache = n1
MaxFileCache = n2
n1 and n2 are the sizes in KB. By default, these entries do not exist and Windows adjusts the
size automatically. But file caching is not useful with audio files (or any other kind of very
large, streaming files). If running short of physical memory, set the MaxFileCache setting to
limit the maximum quantity of memory dedicated to file caching, resulting in more memory
available for other things. MinFileCache can be left undefined or set to 0.
MaxFileCache (KB)
1024-2048
2048.-4096
4096.-8192
8192
Synthesiser
The quality of the synthesiser you use, whether it is built into your sound card, an add-on to your
sound card or an external unit, determines the quality of your MIDI playback. Whatever synthesiser
you choose ensure at the very minimum that it is a wave table synthesiser with at least a 2Mb sample
set (preferably more). In general the larger the wave table sample set the better the quality of the
instrument sound. Although it can very subjective and some manufacturers do a much better job on
certain instruments than others.
DECIMAL
000000000000000000000000
000000000000000000000001
000000000000000000000010
000000000000000000000100
000000000000000000001000
000000000000000000010000
16
000000000000000000100000
32
000000001111111111111111
65,535
111111111111111111111111
16,777,215
Sample Size
The more bits that are used to store the sampled value, the more closely it will represent the
source signal. In an 8-bit system, there are 256 possible combinations of zeroes and ones, so
255 different analogue voltages can be represented. A 16-bit system provides 65,535 possible
combinations. A 24-bit system provides 16,777,215 possible combinations. A 24-bit signal is
capable of providing far greater accuracy than a 16-bit signal. and 16-bit signal is capable of
providing far greater accuracy than an 8-bit signal
Figure 2 shows how this works.The more bits that are available, the more accurate the
representation of the analogue signal and the greater the dynamic range.
For example Pinnacle and Fiji sound cards analogue inputs use 20-bit ADCs, which means that
the incoming signal can be represented by any of 1,048,575 possible values. The output DACs
are also 20-bit; again, 1,048,575 values are possible. The S/PDIF inputs and outputs support
signals with up to 24-bit resolution (16,777,215 possible values).
The number of bits available also determines the potential dynamic range. Moving a binary
number one space to the left multiplies the value by two (just as moving a decimal number one
space to the left multiplies the value by ten), so each additional bit doubles the maximum value
that may be represented. Each available bit provides 6dB of dynamic range. For example, a 16bit system can theoretically provide 96dB of dynamic range, a 20-bit system can theoretically
provide 120dB of dynamic range and a 24-bit system can theoretically provide 144dB of
dynamic range
Sample Rate
The rate at which the numbers are generated by the ADC is equally important in determining
the quality of a digital recording. To get a high level of accuracy when sampling, the sample
rate must be greater than twice the frequency being sampled. The mathematical statement of
this is called the Nyquist Theorem. When dealing with full-bandwidth sound (20Hz20kHz),
you should sample at greater than 40,000 times per second (twice 20kHz). Most modern sound
cards allow you to sample at rates up to 48,000 times per second.
If the sampling rate is lower than the frequency you are trying to record, entire cycles of the
waveform will be missed, and the result will not resemble the proper waveform. When the
sample rate is too low, the resulting sound has diminished high frequency content.
Figure 3. Increased sample rates yield a more accurate reproduction of the source signal.
By the way, the circuits that generate the sample rate clock must be exceedingly accurate. Any
difference between the sample rate used for recording and the rate used at playback will change
the pitch of the recording, just as with an analogue tape playing at the wrong speed. Also, any
unsteadiness, or jitter, in the sample clock will distort the signal as it is being converted from or
to analogue form
Make sure youve connected your MIDI Adapter cable to your synthesiser or keyboard
correctly. MIDI In to MIDI Out and MIDI Out to MIDI In.
2.
3.
Make sure you install a MIDI driver for your Sound Card or MIDI interface using Windows
Control Panel. Make sure you specify the correct configuration informationlike IRQ and
base port addressin the drivers setup dialog box.
4.
Now the driver is available for Windows programs to use. Next, you need to tell your Music
Software to use it. Here are examples for the main sequencers
Cakewalk:
Choose the MIDI Devices command on the Settings menu and make sure the
device (i.e. SB16 MIDI Out or similar for Sound Blaster 16, AWE and TBS Pro External
MIDI Out 1 for Fiji or Pinnacle) is selected (highlighted) in the MIDI Out list. Click on the
device name to be sure it is selected; if the name only has a dotted box around it but isnt
drawn in reverse video, then it is not selected!
Cubase & VST:
Open Setup MME in Cubase Program Group. In the section MME
Outputs, make sure the device (i.e. SB16 MIDI Out or similar for Sound Blaster 16, AWE
and TBS Pro External MIDI Out 1 for Fiji or Pinnacle) is active if not select the device
(highlight) and then click Set active.
Logic:
Question
Answer
If you arent getting any MIDI input, please run through this checklist:
1.
Make sure youve connected your MIDI Adapter cable to your keyboard correctly. MIDI In to
MIDI Out and MIDI Out to MIDI In.
2.
Make sure you install a MIDI driver for your Sound Card or MIDI interface using Windows
Control Panel. Make sure you specify the correct configuration informationlike IRQ and
base port addressin the drivers setup dialog box.
3.
Now the driver is available for Windows programs to use. Next, you need to tell your Music
Software to use it. Here are examples for the main sequencers
Cakewalk:
Choose the MIDI Devices command on the Settings menu and make sure the
device (i.e. SB16 MIDI In or similar for Sound Blaster 16, AWE and TBS Pro External
MIDI In for Fiji or Pinnacle) is selected (highlighted) in the MIDI In list. Click on the device
name to be sure it is selected; if the name only has a dotted box around it but isnt drawn in
reverse video, then it is not selected!
Cubase & VST:
Open Setup MME in Cubase Program Group. In the section MME
Inputs, make sure the device (i.e. SB16 MIDI In or similar for Sound Blaster 16, AWE and
TBS Pro External MIDI In for Fiji or Pinnacle) is active if not select the device (highlight)
and then click Set active.
Logic:
Question:
Answer:
Why can't I hear anything playing or my playback is very poor whilst I'm recording into my
Music or Sound Software.
This can be one of several things.
1.
Your software does not support simultaneous record and playback, so if you require this ability
you need to change your software (all Cakewalk products, Digital Orchestrator, Digital
Orchestrator Pro, Cubase and Cool Edit Pro support simultaneous record and playback).
2.
Your Sound card does not support simultaneous record and playback, (check manual) so if you
require this ability you need to change your Sound card. Unfortunately there is a lot of confusion
about this feature as there is a lot of cards claiming full duplex and passing this off as a the same
as simultaneous record and playback, unfortunately this is rarely the case, full duplex is a term
borrowed from the world of communications not music and refers to the sound cards ability to
work with InterNet Telephony.
3.
Your sound card is full duplex but only at 8-bit, so the playback whilst recording is at 8-bit and
hence sound noisy and generally poor. (the Sound Blaster 16/AWE family of products only
support 16-bit record with 8-bit playback hence have the 8-bit playback problem if the software
supports this mode) so if you require this ability you need to change your Sound card.
Sound cards that are truly simultaneous record and playback will always say so as this is a very big
selling point, they will say something like "Enhanced Full Duplex", or "Full Duplex at full
bandwidth" or "Simultaneous Record and Playback". If your not sure ask directly "does this
sound card support simultaneous record and playback at 16-bit 44.1/48 kHz with my
software"?
Some examples of cards which are "Full Duplex at full bandwidth"; Turtle Beach Montego,
Malibu, FIJI, Pinnacle, AdB Multi!WAV, Gadget Labs Wave/4 & MaxiSound Home Studio Pro.
Question:
Answer:
Why wont my Music or Sound Software install from my CD Drive or Im getting a Please
Insert Original Disk error message
If you have a CD-ROM drive which has not got a driver for Windows 95, it will significantly
degrade Windows 95 real-time performance and it can give you an error when trying to install and
run some true Window 95/NT 32 bit software and some copy protected software.
This may happen if theres a real mode CD-ROM driver being installed in Autoexec.bat or
Config.sys. You can check for this problem by going to Control Panel | System | Performance and
checking File System and Virtual Memory. Both need to read 32 Bit and not Compatibility
Mode.
Users need to reconfigure their system, eliminating the real mode drivers, or replace the real mode
driver with a true 32 bit version. In which case the only solution is to get a Windows 95 driver for
the CD Drive from where ever you bought the CD Drive, off the World Wide Web or get a new CD
Drive with a Windows 95 driver.
Note: Real-mode drivers are one terminology to describe older, Windows 3.1 style CD-ROM
drivers. The newer drivers are usually called 32 bit Windows 95 drivers. Compatibility Mode may
be in use for any of the following reasons:
An unsafe device driver, memory-resident program, or virus hooked the INT21h or INT13h
chain before Windows 95 loaded.
The hard disk controller in your computer was not detected by Windows 95.
The hard disk controller was removed from the current configuration in Device Manager.
There is a resource conflict between the hard disk controller and another hardware device.
The Windows 95 protected-mode driver is missing or damaged.
The Windows 95 32-bit protected-mode disk drivers detected an unsupportable configuration or
incompatible hardware.
Question
Answer
Why do I get a General Protection Fault or my print is all funny when I try to print a Score
from Sequencers or Notation software?
Contact the manufacturer of your printer and make sure you have the most recent version of their
driver for Windows. If not, obtain and install it.
Explanation: When most Sequencers or Notation software print, they use the printer driver that
youve installed in Windows. Many printer drivers have problems (bugs) which appear only
when certain applications use them, even when the application is using them correctly.
Unfortunately, Sequencers or Notation softwares intensive use of TrueType fonts may flush out a
problem with a printer driver, which is not apparent, when youre using other programs. The printer
driver may crash. You can tell this because the error message identifies the printer driver as the
program that crashed not your Sequencers or Notation software. The only solution, unfortunately, is
to obtain a fixed version of the printer driver. The good news is that many printer manufacturers
update their drivers frequently, and newer versions of many will work fine with Sequencers or
Notation software.
Hint: Most of the drivers that ship as standard with Windows work fine, so try using one of these
i.e. if you have a DeskJet 660C use the standard DeskJet driver that comes with Windows. You
can still leave the newer driver installed for printing colour from other applications.
Question:
Answer:
2.
3.
You may be asking yourself, What the heck is an IRQ, Port Address, or DMA? Good question.
Basically, IRQs, Port Addresses, and DMAs are settings for devices connected to your computer.
These settingsif correctenable the devices to work with your computer and avoid interfering
with each other.
Heres a simple analogy that might help you understand the nature of a conflict. Think of an IRQ as a
street address, and think of your computer as Forrest Gump the mailman. Then, imagine that both
you and your next door neighbour share the same address: 1 Strawberry Lane. Whats going to
happen when good ol Forrest tries to deliver mail to 1 Strawberry Lane? Hes going to see the same
address on both mailboxes at which point his brain will start churning and churning so much that he
wont know what to dohell lock uphell freezehell stand there unable to deliver the mail
hell crashhell General Protection Fault.
This is essentially what can happen when you have two pieces of hardware set to the same IRQ, Port
Address, or DMA. So the point is,
No two devices can share the same IRQ, Port Address, or DMA.
The goal here is to see if the Cool soundcard will work by itself. If it does work by itself, then you
know that the conflict happens when you introduce the other cards into the system. Next, one at a
time, you add back the other cards. Try your system a few different ways:
Try the Cool soundcard and the Game soundcard. Does it work? If so, then you know there is not a
conflict between the two of them. If not, then you know they are conflicting and you will have to
adjust their settings.
Try the Cool soundcard and the MIDI interface. Does it work? If so, then you know there is not a
conflict between the two of them. If not, then you know they are conflicting and you will have to
adjust their settings.
You might even need to try the Game soundcard and the MIDI interface without the Cool soundcard
in your quest to find the conflicting devices.
So, the moral of the story is detecting conflicts is best done through a process of elimination. Divide
and conquer.
The Risky WayIs There An Easy Way Out?
You now know the Safe way. The Safe way is the most thorough way to resolve conflicts and to
prevent future ones, but if youre the type of person that likes to find an easy way out, you can take
your chances and try the Risky way.
The Risky way is very simple. Lets use our previous example of the two soundcards and the MIDI
interface. If you thought that the Game soundcard was the problem, instead of removing all the cards
or taking an inventory of all the IRQs, Port Addresses, and DMAs in your system, you could simply
change some settings.
Lets say you werent able to record MIDI using the Game soundcard, and since not being able to
record MIDI is indicative of an IRQ conflict, you could change the Game soundcards IRQ setting to
one that you thought was free. If you guess correctly and change it to an IRQ that is free then youre
successful at the Risky way: You have nothing more to do. BUT...if you fail you can open yourself
up to potentially more nightmarish problemslike your computer not booting into Windows