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Contents
1
Motion (physics)
1.1
Laws of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Classical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
1.2.4
Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5
Continents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6
Internal body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.7
Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.8
Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.9
Subatomic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Types of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Velocity
2.1
2.2
2.3
Equation of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1
Average velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2
Instantaneous velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3
Relationship to acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4
Relative velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1
Scalar velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.4
ii
CONTENTS
2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
11
3.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.2
12
3.3
13
3.3.1
Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.3.2
Variable-mass systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.4
14
3.5
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.5.1
14
3.5.2
15
3.5.3
15
3.6
15
3.7
16
3.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.9
16
18
18
19
3.12.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.12.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
22
Chapter 1
Motion (physics)
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object
over time. Motion is typically described in terms of
displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time and
speed. Motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame
of reference to an observer and measuring the change in
position of the body relative to that frame.
If the position of a body is not changing with respect to a
given frame of reference, the body is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have constant (timeinvariant) position. An objects motion cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described. Momentum
is a quantity which is used for measuring motion of an
object. An objects momentum is directly related to the
objects mass and velocity, and the total momentum of
all objects in an isolated system (one not aected by ex- Motion involves a change in position, such as in this perspective
of rapidly leaving Yongsan Station.
ternal forces) does not change with time, as described by
the law of conservation of momentum.
As there is no absolute frame of reference, absolute motion cannot be determined.[1] Thus, everything in the universe can be considered to be moving.[2]:2021
More generally, motion is a concept that applies to objects, bodies, and matter particles, to radiation, radiation
elds and radiation particles, and to space, its curvature
and space-time. One can also speak of motion of shapes
and boundaries. So, the term motion in general signies a
continuous change in the conguration of a physical system. For example, one can talk about motion of a wave
or about motion of a quantum particle, where the conguration consists of probabilities of occupying specic
positions.
1. A body either is at rest or moves with constant velocity, until and unless an outer force is applied to
it.
In physics, motion is described through two sets of apparently contradictory laws of mechanics. Motions of all
large scale and familiar objects in the universe (such as
projectiles, planets, cells, and humans) are described by
classical mechanics. Whereas the motion of very small
atomic and sub-atomic objects is described by quantum
mechanics.
Newtons three laws of motion, along with his Newtons 1.2.1 Universe
law of motion, which were the rst to accurately provide
Spacetime (the fabric of the universe) is actually
a mathematical model for understanding orbiting bodies
expanding. Essentially, everything in the universe
in outer space. This explanation unied the motion of
is stretching like a rubber band. This motion is the
celestial bodies and motion of objects on earth.
most obscure as it is not physical motion as such,
Classical mechanics was later further enhanced by Albert
but rather a change in the very nature of the uniEinstein's special relativity and general relativity. Motion
verse. The primary source of verication of this exof objects with a high velocity, approaching the speed of
pansion was provided by Edwin Hubble who demonlight; general relativity is employed to handle gravitational
strated that all galaxies and distant astronomical obmotion at a deeper level.
jects were moving away from us ("Hubbles law") as
predicted by a universal expansion.[5]
1.1.2
Quantum mechanics
1.2.2 Galaxy
The Milky Way Galaxy, is moving through space.
Many astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving
at approximately 600 km/s relative to the observed
locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave
background. This frame of reference indicates that
The Milky Way is moving at around 582 km/s.[6]
Humans, like all known things in the universe, are in constant motion,[2]:89 however, aside from obvious movements of the various external body parts and locomotion, 1.2.5 Continents
humans are in motion in a variety of ways which are more
dicult to perceive. Many of these imperceptible mo The Theory of Plate tectonics tells us that the
continents are drifting on convection currents within
tions are only perceivable with the help of special tools
the mantle causing them to move across the surand careful observation. The larger scales of impercepface of the planet at the slow speed of approxitible motions are dicult for humans to perceive for two
mately 1 inch (2.54 cm) per year.[10][11] However,
reasons: 1) Newtons laws of motion (particularly Inertia)
which prevent humans from feeling motions of a mass to
the velocities of plates range widely. The fastestwhich they are connected, and 2) the lack of an obvious
moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos
frame of reference which would allow individuals to easPlate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/yr[12] (3.0 in/yr)
[4]
ily see that they are moving. The smaller scales of these
and the Pacic Plate moving 5269 mm/yr (2.1
motions are too small for humans to sense.
2.7 in/yr). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving
1.3. LIGHT
plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical
rate of about 21 mm/yr (0.8 in/yr).
1.2.6
Internal body
3
temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans whom
sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when
lower temperature objects are touched, the senses
perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as
feeling cold.[19]
1.2.7
Cells
1.3 Light
The cells of the human body have many structures which Main article: Speed of light
move throughout them.
Light propagates at 299,792,458 m/s, often approximated
Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which cells move as 300,000 kilometres per second or 186,000 miles per
molecular substances throughout the cytoplasm.[16] second. The speed of light (or c) is also the speed of all
massless particles and associated elds in a vacuum, and
Various motor proteins work as molecular motors it is the upper limit on the speed at which energy, matter,
within a cell and move along the surface of vari- and information can travel. The speed of light is the limit
ous cellular substrates such as microtubuless. Motor speed for physical systems.
proteins are typically powered by the hydrolysis of
In addition, the speed of light is an invariant quantity: it
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and convert chemihas the same value, irrespective of the position or speed
cal energy into mechanical work.[17] Vesicles proof the observer. This property makes the speed of light c
pelled by motor proteins have been found to have a
the natural measurement unit for speed.
velocity of approximately 0.00000152 m/s.[18]
1.2.8
Particles
1.6 References
[1] Wahlin, Lars (1997). 9.1 Relative and absolute motion.
The Deadbeat Universe (PDF). Boulder, CO: Coultron
Research. pp. 121129. ISBN 0-933407-03-3. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
[2] Tyson, Neil de Grasse; Charles Tsun-Chu Liu; Robert
Irion (2000). The universe : at home in the cosmos.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-30906488-0.
[3] Newtons Axioms or Laws of Motion can be found in
the "Principia" on page 19 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation.
[4] Safkan, Yasar. Question: If the term 'absolute motion'
has no meaning, then why do we say that the earth moves
around the sun and not vice versa?". Ask the Experts.
PhysLink.com. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
[5] Hubble, Edwin, "A Relation between Distance and Radial
Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" (1929) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Volume 15, Issue 3, pp. 168173 (Full
article, PDF)
[6] Kogut, A.; Lineweaver, C.; Smoot, G. F.; Bennett, C. L.;
Banday, A.; Boggess, N. W.; Cheng, E. S.; de Amici,
G.; Fixsen, D. J.; Hinshaw, G.; Jackson, P. D.; Janssen,
M.; Keegstra, P.; Loewenstein, K.; Lubin, P.; Mather, J.
C.; Tenorio, L.; Weiss, R.; Wilkinson, D. T.; Wright, E.
L. (1993). Dipole Anisotropy in the COBE Dierential Microwave Radiometers First-Year Sky Maps. Astrophysical Journal. 419: 1. arXiv:astro-ph/9312056 .
Bibcode:1993ApJ...419....1K. doi:10.1086/173453.
[7] Imamura, Jim (August 10, 2006). Mass of the Milky
Way Galaxy. University of Oregon. Archived from the
original on 2007-03-01. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
[8] Ask an Astrophysicist. NASA Goodard Space Flight Center.
[9] Williams, David R. (September 1, 2004). Earth Fact
Sheet. NASA. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[10] Sta. GPS Time Series. NASA JPL. Retrieved 200704-02.
[11] Huang, Zhen Shao. Speed of the Continental Plates.
The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
[12] Meschede, M.; Udo Barckhausen, U. (November 20,
2000). Plate Tectonic Evolution of the Cocos-Nazca
Spreading Center. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Texas A&M University. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
[13] Wexler, L.; D H Bergel; I T Gabe; G S Makin; C J Mills
(1 September 1968). Velocity of Blood Flow in Normal Human Venae Cavae. Circulation Research. 23 (3):
349359. doi:10.1161/01.RES.23.3.349.
[14] Bowen, R (27 May 2006). Gastrointestinal Transit: How
Long Does It Take?". Pathophysiology of the digestive system. Colorado State University. Retrieved 25 January
2014.
1.6. REFERENCES
Chapter 2
Velocity
This article is about velocity in physics. For other uses, constant velocity means motion in a straight line at a consee Velocity (disambiguation).
stant speed.
For example, a car moving at a constant 20 kilometres
per hour in a circular path has a constant speed, but does
not have a constant velocity because its direction changes.
Hence, the car is considered to be undergoing an acceleration.
a=
dt
dr
r + dr
v + dv
dv
v
m
v = dr
dt
displacement as a variable velocity in the same time interval, v(t), over some time period t. Average velocity
can be calculated as:
v
=
x
.
t
The average velocity is the same as the velocity averaged tween velocity v on the y-axis, acceleration a (the three green
over time that is to say, its time-weighted average, which tangent lines represent the values for acceleration at dierent
may be calculated as the time integral of the velocity:
points along the curve) and displacement s (the yellow area under the curve.)
v
=
1
t1 t0
t1
v(t) dt,
t0
x=
v dt.
t1
x =
v(t) dt
t0
and
t = t1 t0 .
Instantaneous velocity
v = lim
dx
x
=
.
t
dt
Although velocity is dened as the rate of change of position, it is often common to start with an expression for an
objects acceleration. As seen by the three green tangent
lines in the gure, an objects instantaneous acceleration
at a point in time is the slope of the line tangent to the
curve of a (v vs. t graph at that point. In other words,
acceleration is dened as the derivative of velocity with
respect to time:
dv
.
dt
From this derivative equation, in the one-dimensional
From there, we can obtain an expression for velocity as
case it can be seen that the area under a velocity vs. time
the area under an acceleration vs. time (a vs. t) graph.
(v vs. t graph) is the displacement, x. In calculus terms,
As above, this is done using the concept of the integral:
the integral of the velocity function v(t) is the displacement function x(t). In the gure, this corresponds to the
a=
CHAPTER 2. VELOCITY
Constant acceleration
In special relativity, the dimensionless Lorentz Factor appears frequently, and is given by
x=
v2
c2
(u + v)
t=v
t
2
2GM
It is also possible to derive an expression for the velocity
ve =
= 2gr,
independent of time, known as the Torricelli equation, as
r
follows:
where G is the Gravitational constant and g is the
Gravitational acceleration. The escape velocity from
2
2
2 2 Earths surface is about 11 200 m/s, and is irrespective
v = v v = (u+at)(u+at) = u +2t(au)+a t
of the direction of the object.
1 2
(2a)x = (2a)(ut+ at ) = 2t(au)+a2 t2 = v 2 u2
2
v 2 = u2 + 2(a x)
where v = | v | etc.
The above equations are valid for both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity. Where Newtonian mechanics and special relativity dier is in how dierent observers would describe the same situation. In particular,
in Newtonian mechanics, all observers agree on the value
of t and the transformation rules for position create a situation in which all non-accelerating observers would describe the acceleration of an object with the same values.
Neither is true for special relativity. In other words, only
relative velocity can be calculated.
Quantities that are dependent on ve- If an object A is moving with velocity vector v and an
object B with velocity vector w, then the velocity of object
locity
A relative to object B is dened as the dierence of the
2.3.4
v A to relative B = v w
Ek =
2
1
2 mv
p = mv
2.4.1
Scalar velocities
9
such that
L = mrvT = mr2
where
m
r = r.
The expression mr2 is known as moment of inertia. If
forces are in the radial direction only with an inverse
square dependence, as in the case of a gravitational orbit,
angular momentum is constant, and transverse speed is
inversely proportional to the distance, angular speed is inversely proportional to the distance squared, and the rate
at which area is swept out is constant. These relations are
known as Keplers laws of planetary motion.
v = vT + vR
where
vT
vR
Group velocity
vR =
vr
|r|
where
Phase velocity
Proper velocity (in relativity, using traveler time instead of observer time)
Rapidity (a version of velocity additive at relativistic
speeds)
Terminal velocity
Velocity vs. time graph
r
The magnitude of the transverse velocity is that of the
cross product of the unit vector in the direction of the displacement and the velocity vector. It is also the product
of the angular speed and the magnitude of the displacement.
vT =
Hypervelocity
|r v|
= |r|
|r|
2.7 Notes
[1] Wilson, Edwin Bidwell (1901). Vector analysis: a textbook for the use of students of mathematics and physics,
founded upon the lectures of J. Willard Gibbs. p. 125.
This is the likely origin of the speed/velocity terminology
in vector physics.
[2] Basic principle
10
2.8 References
Robert Resnick and Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of
Physics, Wiley; 7 Sub edition (June 16, 2004). ISBN
0-471-23231-9.
CHAPTER 2. VELOCITY
Chapter 3
3.1 Overview
Newtons First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687
Principia Mathematica.
Newtons laws of motion are three physical laws that, together, laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They
describe the relationship between a body and the forces
acting upon it, and its motion in response to those forces.
They have been expressed in several dierent ways, over
nearly three centuries,[1] and can be summarised as follows.
12
Consequently,
F=0
dv
= 0.
dt
Newtonian mechanics has been superseded by special relativity, but it is still useful as an approximation when
the speeds involved are much slower than the speed of
Newton placed the rst law of motion to establish frames
light.[10]
of reference for which the other laws are applicable. The
rst law of motion postulates the existence of at least one
frame of reference called a Newtonian or inertial refer3.2 Newtons rst law
ence frame, relative to which the motion of a particle not
subject to forces is a straight line at a constant speed.[8][12]
Main article: Inertia
Newtons rst law is often referred to as the law of inerThe rst law states that if the net force (the vector sum
tia. Thus, a condition necessary for the uniform motion
of a particle relative to an inertial reference frame is that
the total net force acting on it is zero. In this sense, the
rst law can be restated as:
In every material universe, the motion of a
particle in a preferential reference frame is
determined by the action of forces whose total
vanished for all times when and only when the
velocity of the particle is constant in . That is,
a particle initially at rest or in uniform motion in
the preferential frame continues in that state
unless compelled by forces to change it.[13]
Newtons laws are valid only in an inertial reference
frame. Any reference frame that is in uniform motion
with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame,
i.e. Galilean invariance or the principle of Newtonian relof all forces acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity ativity.[14]
Explanation of Newtons rst law and reference frames. (MIT
Course 8.01)[11]
13
3.3.1 Impulse
An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval
of time t, and it is given by[19][20]
J=
F dt.
t
J = p = mv.
The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body, is directly proportional to the force applied
and this change in momentum takes place in the direction
3.3.2
of the applied force.
Variable-mass systems
Fnet =
]
d[
dv
dm
m(t)v(t) = m(t) +v(t)
.
dt
dt
dt
(wrong)
14
3.5 History
3.5.1 Newtons 1st Law
From the original Latin of Newtons Principia:
Translated to English, this reads:
A description of Newtons third law and contact forces[23]
15
The law of inertia apparently occurred to several dier- 3.5.3 Newtons 3rd Law
ent natural philosophers and scientists independently, including Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan.[29] The 17th Translated to English, this reads:
century philosopher and mathematician Ren Descartes Newtons Scholium (explanatory comment) to this law:
also formulated the law, although he did not perform any
experiments to conrm it.[30][31]
Whatever draws or presses another is as
much drawn or pressed by that other. If you
press a stone with your nger, the nger is also
3.5.2 Newtons 2nd Law
pressed by the stone. If a horse draws a stone
tied to a rope, the horse (if I may so say) will
be equally drawn back towards the stone: for
Newtons original Latin reads:
the distended rope, by the same endeavour to
This was translated quite closely in Mottes 1729 translarelax or unbend itself, will draw the horse as
tion as:
much towards the stone, as it does the stone toAccording to modern ideas of how Newton was using his
wards the horse, and will obstruct the progress
terminology,[32] this is understood, in modern terms, as
of the one as much as it advances that of the
an equivalent of:
other. If a body impinges upon another, and by
its force changes the motion of the other, that
body also (because of the equality of the mutual pressure) will undergo an equal change, in
The change of momentum of a body is proits own motion, toward the contrary part. The
portional to the impulse impressed on the body,
changes made by these actions are equal, not
and happens along the straight line on which
in the velocities but in the motions of the bodthat impulse is impressed.
ies; that is to say, if the bodies are not hindered
by any other impediments. For, as the motions
are equally changed, the changes of the velocities made toward contrary parts are reciproThis may be expressed by the formula F = p', where p'
cally proportional to the bodies. This law takes
is the time derivative of the momentum p. This equaplace also in attractions, as will be proved in
tion can be seen clearly in the Wren Library of Trinity
the next scholium.[34]
College, Cambridge, in a glass case in which Newtons
manuscript is open to the relevant page.
In the above, as usual, motion is Newtons name for moMottes 1729 translation of Newtons Latin continued mentum, hence his careful distinction between motion
with Newtons commentary on the second law of motion, and velocity.
reading:
Newton used the third law to derive the law of
conservation of momentum;[35] from a deeper perspective, however, conservation of momentum is the more
fundamental idea (derived via Noethers theorem from
If a force generates a motion, a double force
Galilean invariance), and holds in cases where Newtons
will generate double the motion, a triple force
third law appears to fail, for instance when force elds as
triple the motion, whether that force be imwell as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mepressed altogether and at once, or gradually and
chanics.
successively. And this motion (being always directed the same way with the generating force),
if the body moved before, is added to or sub3.6 Importance and range of validtracted from the former motion, according as
they directly conspire with or are directly conity
trary to each other; or obliquely joined, when
they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion
Newtons laws were veried by experiment and observacompounded from the determination of both.
tion for over 200 years, and they are excellent approximations at the scales and speeds of everyday life. Newtons
laws of motion, together with his law of universal graviThe sense or senses in which Newton used his terminol- tation and the mathematical techniques of calculus, proogy, and how he understood the second law and intended vided for the rst time a unied quantitative explanation
it to be understood, have been extensively discussed by for a wide range of physical phenomena.
historians of science, along with the relations between These three laws hold to a good approximation for macroscopic objects under everyday conditions. However,
Newtons formulation and modern formulations.[33]
16
Newtons laws (combined with universal gravitation and
classical electrodynamics) are inappropriate for use in
certain circumstances, most notably at very small scales,
very high speeds (in special relativity, the Lorentz factor must be included in the expression for momentum
along with the rest mass and velocity) or very strong
gravitational elds. Therefore, the laws cannot be used
to explain phenomena such as conduction of electricity in a semiconductor, optical properties of substances,
errors in non-relativistically corrected GPS systems and
superconductivity. Explanation of these phenomena requires more sophisticated physical theories, including
general relativity and quantum eld theory.
17
[17] Halliday; Resnick. Physics. 1. p. 199. ISBN 0-47103710-9. It is important to note that we cannot derive a
general expression for Newtons second law for variable
mass systems by treating the mass in F = dP/dt = d(Mv)
as a variable. [...] We can use F = dP/dt to analyze variable mass systems only if we apply it to an entire system of
constant mass having parts among which there is an interchange of mass. [Emphasis as in the original]
[18] Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 133134. ISBN
0-07-035048-5. Recall that F = dP/dt was established for
a system composed of a certain set of particles[. ... I]t
is essential to deal with the same set of particles throughout the time interval[. ...] Consequently, the mass of the
system can not change during the time of interest.
[19] Hannah, J, Hillier, M J, Applied Mechanics, p221, Pitman
Paperbacks, 1971
[20] Raymond A. Serway; Jerry S. Faughn (2006). College
Physics. Pacic Grove CA: Thompson-Brooks/Cole. p.
161. ISBN 0-534-99724-4.
[21] I Bernard Cohen (Peter M. Harman & Alan E. Shapiro,
Eds) (2002). The investigation of dicult things: essays
on Newton and the history of the exact sciences in honour
of D.T. Whiteside. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University
Press. p. 353. ISBN 0-521-89266-X.
[22] WJ Stronge (2004). Impact mechanics. Cambridge UK:
Cambridge University Press. p. 12 . ISBN 0-52160289-0.
[23] Lewin, Newtons First, Second, and Third Laws, Lecture
6. (14:1116:00)
[24] Resnick; Halliday; Krane (1992). Physics, Volume 1 (4th
ed.). p. 83.
[13] Beatty, Millard F. (2006). Principles of engineering mechanics Volume 2 of Principles of Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics-The Analysis of Motion,. Springer. p. 24.
ISBN 0-387-23704-6.
[12] NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special relativity. London/Berlin: Springer. p. 6. ISBN 1-85233-426-6.
18
that nothing can change itself), is not so easily assented to. For men measure not only
other men but all other things by themselves.
And because they nd themselves subject after motion to pain and lassitude, [they] think
every thing else grows weary of motion and
seeks repose of its own accord, little considering whether it be not some other motion
wherein that desire of rest they nd in themselves, consists.
[30] Cohen, I. B. (1995). Science and the Founding Fathers:
Science in the Political Thought of Jeerson, Franklin,
Adams and Madison. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 117.
ISBN 978-0393315103.
[31] Cohen, I. B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution: With Illustrations of the Transformation of Scientic Ideas. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 183-4.
ISBN 978-0521273800.
[32] According to Maxwell in Matter and Motion, Newton
meant by motion "the quantity of matter moved as well
as the rate at which it travels and by impressed force he
meant the time during which the force acts as well as the
intensity of the force". See Harman and Shapiro, cited below.
[33] See for example (1) I Bernard Cohen, Newtons Second
Law and the Concept of Force in the Principia, in The
Annus Mirabilis of Sir Isaac Newton 16661966 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1967), pages 143
185; (2) Stuart Pierson, "'Corpore cadente. . .': Historians
Discuss Newtons Second Law, Perspectives on Science,
1 (1993), pages 627658; and (3) Bruce Pourciau, Newtons Interpretation of Newtons Second Law, Archive for
History of Exact Sciences, vol.60 (2006), pages 157207;
also an online discussion by G E Smith, in 5. Newtons
Laws of Motion, s.5 of Newtons Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica in (online) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007.
[34] This translation of the third law and the commentary following it can be found in the "Principia" on page 20 of
volume 1 of the 1729 translation.
[35] Newton, Principia, Corollary III to the laws of motion
19
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3.12.2
Images
22
File:Skaters_showing_newtons_third_law.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Skaters_showing_
newtons_third_law.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Skaters_showing_newtons_third_law.
png Original artist: Benjamin Crowell (Wikipedia user bcrowell)
File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_
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File:Thirdlaw.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Thirdlaw.ogg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:
Newtons First, Second, and Third Laws. MIT Course 8.01: Classical Mechanics, Lecture 6, (14:11-16:00). Cambridge, MA, USA.
Original artist: Walter Lewin
File:US_Navy_040501-N-1336S-037_The_U.S._Navy_sponsored_Chevy_Monte_Carlo_NASCAR_leads_a_pack_into_turn_
four_at_California_Speedway.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/US_Navy_040501-N-1336S-037_
The_U.S._Navy_sponsored_Chevy_Monte_Carlo_NASCAR_leads_a_pack_into_turn_four_at_California_Speedway.jpg
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3.12.3
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