In Eqs. (5.7), (5.

8) the operator 2 is called the Laplacian and is defined in terms of

x, y, and z cartesian coordinates as:

in other coordinate system (i.e. cylindrical or polar coordinates), appropriate

equations of 2 are available. Thus, space-charge free fields are obtained from the
solution of Laplace's equation whereas fields modified due to space change presence
are obtaned from a solution of the Poisson's equation.
In addition to the above, the Gauss Law which relates the flux density, D at an
enclosed surface, S to the total charge 'q' enclosed by this enclosed surface is given
As

D.ds q

This equation is very useful for finding the analytical solution of electric fields
In simple electrode geometries as will be shown later in this chapter.
Uniform and Nonuniform Fields
The field distribution in a region may be generally classified as homogeneous
(or uniform) and nonhomogeneous (on nonuniform). In a homogeneous field, E is
same throughout the field region whereas in a nonhomogeneous field, E is different at
different points in the region.
Uniform or approximately uniform field distributions exist between two
infinitely large parallel plates or two spheres of equal diameters with a gap spacing
which is much smaller than the sphere radius. Sphere electrodes are frequently used
for high voltage measurements and in impulse voltage generation circuits. Similarly
profiled parallel plates of finite sizes are also used to simulate homogeneous
fields. In a uniform field gap, the electric field in the gap is related to the voltage V
across the two electrodes and the gap distance d by:

V
d

Hence a dielectric medium between uniform field electrodes experiences same

stress everywhere. Minimum clearances are generally required if uniform field
electrode geometries are used in the design. of high voltage equipment. HV
components used in electric power systems, however, generally have
nonhomogeneous field distributions. In a space charge free nonhomogeneous field

case, usually E attains the maximum value at the surface of the conductor that has
the smallest radius of curvature and achieves the minimum value at the conductor
which has the largest radius of curvature or at the earth surface. In nonuniform field
geometries, the dielectric breakdown is very strongly related to the maximum
value Emax in the gap. For this reason, it is desirable to determine Emax in the high
voltage components. In such gaps, the average value of E i.e. Eav is simply equal to
V/d. Moreover, Eav is related to Emax by the equation:
where fi is called field intensification factor or simply field factor. Thus values of fi
or the field utilization factor (or field efficiency factor e = 1/ fi) are very important.
Values of fi for some common electrode geometries will be presented in subsequent
sections. Generally HV equipment is designed to have as large a value of as
possible in order to have a compact equipment.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Fields
In some gaps which produce nonhomogeneous field, the field along the gap axis may
by symmetrical towards both electrodes with respect to the gap's center. Examples of
such nonuniform symmetrical fields are fields produced by similar diameter rod-rod
or sphere-sphere gaps (with large distance between the spheres). When one of the
electrodes of such symmetrical fields gaps is earthed, the field symmetry may be
disturbed somewhat due to the earthing effect. Consequently, in such gaps the high
voltage electrode has somewhat higher electric stress than the grounded electrode and
the field is only approximately symmetrical.
When the two electrodes in a system have different sizes, the fields are nonuniform
and asymmetrical. Electrodes such as sphere-plane, point-plane, pointsphere, coaxial
cylinders and concentric spheres, etc. produce asymmetrical nonuniform field
distributions. A point-plane gap produces highly asymmetrical and non-uniform field
distribution in the gap and is normally used to study the prebreakdown phenomena in
insulating materials. Such an electrode system also exhibits polarity dependence of
the breakdown characteristics.
Field Behavior at Conductors
A conducting electrode represents an equipotential surface and the field inside a
conductor is always equal to zero. Thus, there is no component of field along the
conductor surface as otherwise a conductor surface can not be an equipotential
surface and current will circulate within such a conductor that has some potential
difference along its surface. Thus, at the conductor boundaries, the tangential
component of electric field is always equal to zero and the electric field lines are,

Therefore, perpendicular at the surface of a conductor

Figure 5.1 shows an example of field and equipotential lines in a pair of
profiled parallel plane electrodes. It shows that field distribution is uniform in the
middle region of such electrodes, but is nonuniform in the outer regions. The
following simple rules are helpful in sketching the field and equipotential lines and in
uderstanding such field plots:
(i) be equipotentials always cut the field lines at right angles,
(ii) when the equipotentials and field lines are drawn to form curvilinear squares,
the density of the field lines is an indication of the electric field or stress value in a
given region, and
(iii) any region, the maximum electric field is given by dV/dx, where dV is
the voltage difference between two successive equipotentials separated by
a distance dx .

Fig 5.1. Example of field and equipotentiallines in profiled parallel plate electrode
system. In such a case, the field is uniform in the central region of plates and becomes
nonuniform towards the edges.

Field Intensification at protrusions

Electrode surfaces of many high voltage components may be rough, thus
having protrusions. Such protrusions at the electrode surfaces are created
during manufacturing, installation or operation of the equipment. At the tip of such a
protrusion, the field lines will converge as shown in Fig. 5.2. Therefore, the
maximum field in the gap in such a case will increase due to the presence of the
protrusion. Consequently, the dielectric near and at the protrusion tip may suffer
premature breakdown because of higher electric stresses than other regions. For this
reason, high voltage equipment designers try to keep surfaces as smooth as is
practically possible and minimize any protrusions.

Fig. 5.2. Field intensification at a protrusion tip in a uniform field gap. Protrusion
height above base is h and its base diameter is 2r.
If there is a protrusion at an electrode where local field in the absence of the
protrusion is E, then the field, Ep at the protrusion tip will be Ep= fiE where the field
intensification factor ti depends on the shape and size of the protrusion. For a sernispherical conducting protrusion located on a conducting plane surface, fi 3. The
values of ti for other protrusion shapes are given in reference [5] and depend upon the
values of r andh (see Fig. 5.2). Since the highest field exists at the tip of a protrusion,
the protrusions and surface defects playa prominent role in the initiation

Of partial discharges and ultimate breakdown of air, oil and SF6 insulation,
polymeric insulated cables, and vacuum insulated equipment, etc. Consequently, the ,
number, density and size of such protrusions should always be controlled. For
hemispherical or spherical shaped protrusions of height h and end radius r, if h 5r ,
field enhancement factor fi is approximated as:

Field Factors for common Geometries

The designer of the high voltage apparatus must have a complete knowledge of
the electric field distribution in the component. However, in some cases, the
knowladge of the maximum value of the electric field Emax to which the insulation is
likely to be subjected and the location of such a maximum gradient point is
generally sufficient. Consequently, the spatial field distribution between electrodes
and the concept of field enhancement factor or simply field factor is extremely
useful. For this reason, field distributions and field factors for some common .
geometries which are used in high voltage equipment are given next.
(a) Parallel-plane electrodes
Since these produce uniform field distribution in the gap, fi = I for this case E = V/d
everywhere, where V = applied voltage, and d = gap distance between plates.
(b) Coaxial cylinders
Coaxial cylindrical construction is used in coaxial cables, gas insulated
switchgear (GIS) and cables, compressed gas capacitors and high voltage bushings,
etc. In such a system, the field varies radially and at a distance x from the center of
the cylinders, the field E(x), for a potential difference V between the cylinder, is
given as:
( x)

V
x ln (b / a )

The maximum field occurs at the surfaces of inner cylinder. The field factor in this i"
is given by:
fi

ba
a ln b / a

where a, and b are radii of the inner and the outer cylinders, respectively. The
produces of field calculations in coaxial cylindrical systems are illustrated in
examles (5.5) to (5,7) later in this chapter.

(c) Concentric spheres

Concentric spheres are spheres which have the same center but possess
different radii and are used in the construction of spherical capacitors as well as
some parts of GIS. These are also used to represent the dome of a high voltage
electrostatic generator and the room where the generator is placed. If there is a
potential difference of V between the inner and outer spheres of radii a and b,
thevariation of stress with distance x from the system center and the field factor given
as:
x

fi

a bV
x a b
2

b
a

(d) Two spheres

Sphere gaps are used for high voltage measurements as well as high voltage.
switches in impulse generators and other high voltage equipment. When sphere
gaps are used for high voltage measurements, usually d r, where d = allowable gap
spacing between spheres and r = sphere radius. In this case, the field is only slightly
non-uniform and the field factor is given as:

However, if d > r, the field becomes non-uniform and the field factor is approximated
by the equation [2]:

The spatial variation of the field along the sphere axis can be computed
by numerical methods or by successive image charge method [1-2]. In this case the
maximum field occurs at the sphere surface along the gap axis and is influeiced by
grounding of one of the spheres. The procedure for field calculation in such a case is
illustrated in solved examples in section 5.18.
(e) Parallel cylinders
Parallel cylindrical conductors are used for overhead transmission lines and bus bar
arrangement. The field factor for two cylinders, each of radius r and separated

By distance d where d > r and located far away from the earth is approximately given
by equation (5.20). This equation is derived assuming that the two cylinders are at
potentials of 0.5V.
2

2r

d
ln 1

2r

d
r
2

2r

d
r

In such a case, the field is symmetrical about the mid point between the cylinders.
On the line joining the two cylinder centers, it varies with distance x from the
cylinder surface according to the following equation for 0 x d:
x

max x

r x 1
d

Where Emax = V fi /d

If the effect of earth is considered, it will increase the field factor value.
However this effect depends upon the height of cylinders above the earth.
(f) Point/rod-plane
Point-plane gap or rod-plane gap is used to represent extremely nonuniform
produced when a small size, high voltage conductor faces a large conducting
such as earth, wall, tower, etc. If a hyperboloid point having a tip radius, r is
located at a distance d from the plane, then the electric stress at distance, x from the
needle tip and the field factor are given as:
x

2V d

d 2 x r x ln
2

fi

4d

1
r

2 d
4d

r ln
1
r

If a cylindrical rod with hemispherical end is used against a large plane electrode,
then the field factor can be estimated from the following equations which

have been derived by using numerical field calculations and curve fitting techniques
[5]:
d

f i 0.85 1 if d 3 r
r

6d
d
0.45

ln
r
r
fi
if 3 r < d
d
ln

500 r

(g) Isolated sphere

If a spherical electrode is located far away from earth or any nearby grounded
object, it may be treated as an isolated sphere. In such a case, if the sphere voltage
is V and sphere radius is r, the field varies with distance x from sphere center and is
given as:
x

rV
x2

The maximum field occurs at the sphere surface (x=r) and is given as :
max

V
r

(h) Sphere-plane
When a spherical electrode is used close to a grounded object, sphere-p field
configuration rysults. The field factor for a sphere of radius r separated by distance, d
from the plane electrode is given as:
f i 0.94

d
0.8
r

The field variation for this case can be calculated using method discussed for spheresphere electrodes at potentials of V and separated by a distance of 2d between
sphere surfaces. Example (5.6) illustrates this concept.
(i) Cylinder-plane
When a cylindrical conductor of radius, r is parallel to the ground at a distance.. d
from the ground and if d >> r, then fi is given as:

fi

d
r
d

ln 1
r

The spatial variation of the field between the cylinder and the plane along the
Gap axis can be estimated using two cylinders at voltages of V and separated by a ,
distance, 2d between the surfaces of the two cylinders and using equation (5.21).
(j) Confocal parabolids
for two confocal paraboloidal electrodes, the field at any point at a distance x
from the tip of the inner paraboloid along its axis is given as:
x

V
1
.
ln R / r ) x r

Where V is applied potential difference and r and R are focal lengths of inner and
outer paraboloids, respectively. The field factor for this configuration is given as:
fi

Rr
R
r ln

field factors for some other electrode geometries which are sometimes used in
high voltage systems and components are summarized in reference [5].
Fields in mixed Dielectrics
When more than one dielectric material is present in any region of an electric
Field as shown in Fig. 5.3, the conditions that must be satisfied by the electric field .
Intensity, E at the dielectric boundary are:
tan 1

1
tan 2
2
Et1 and Et2 are the tangential components of the electric field, Enl and En2 are
The normal components of the electric field, al and az are the angle of incidence and
Angle of refraction with the normal direction at the boundary, and 1 and 2 are the
. primittivities of the two dielectrics at the boundary as illustrated in Fig. (5.3). This
situation applies under AC stresses, where surface charges at the boundary are
Unlikely. However, if there is a surface charge density, s at the interface, the
following boundary condition is applicable for the normal component of the field;
1 n1 2 n 2 s
t1 t 2 ; 1 n1 2 n 2 and

In practical systems stressed with DC voltages, the accumulation of free charges at

the interface takes place. Such charges are caused by the differing conductivities of
the materials resulting in interfacial polarisation. Due to this khavior of the field, the
following situations arise in practical equipments which are asulated with mixed
dielectrics.
(i)

If the dielectrics are placed such that the electric field lines are
perpendicular to the interface, the field in the medium of lower dielectric
constant (e.g. a gas or vacuum with relative permittivity Er = 1) will be
considerably increased due to the presence of the other dielectric having
relative permittivity of more than 1. Consider a mixed dielectric system
placed between uniform field electrodes as shown in Fig. 5.4. Assuming
that no free changes are built up at the interface between the two
dielectrics, then the fields in the two dielectrics will be in the ratio of
1 / 2 1 / 2 , where 1 and 2 are dielectric constants of the two
media. Therefore, the total voltage, V between the plates is V = E1dl +
E2d2. Consequently, the values of fields, E1 and E2 are given by Eqs. (5.34)
and (5.35).

d1 1 d 2
2

1 1
2
2

1
d1 d 2

This discussion shows that the material with lower pennittivity (i.e. gas vacuum) is
stressed more than the material with higher pennittivity (i.e. solid or liquid) when
such a composite insulation system is used. Thus partial replacement of the gas with a
solid material does not generally improve the dielectric strength of a gas insulated
system, as the gas now will be even more stressed than in the original system.
(ii) In gas and liquid insulated systems, insulators or spacers are designed to keep the
electrodes in place. If in a gas insulated system, the spacer profile is not absolutely
parallel to the field lines, the field at the solid/gas interface is disturbed and as a
result, some parts of the gas gap may be overstressed. Therefore, gas/spacer interfaces
are usually weak links in such systems and need careful stress analysis and design.
Figure 5.5 shows the modification in the field which results from an introduction of a
dielectric spacer between uniform field parallel plane electrodes [2]. It is clear that
field at the spacer/gas interface becomes nonuniform even though uniform field
electrode gap is employed. The electrode-spacer interface region (point x) has the
highest stress. Thus, the profiles of such spacers are carefully designed in GIS and
other HV equipment employing composite insulation and spacers.

Fig. 5.5. Two different types of dielectric material between parallel plane electrodes.
The percentage potential values for the equipotentials are marked on the left.

(m) When a gas cavity is contained inside solid or liquid dielectrics, the field inside
the cavity is much higher than the field inside the solid or the liquid insulation as
discussed in the next section. This aspect has serious implications on the life
expectancy of high voltage components.
(iv) When solid insulating sheets are tested using parallel plate electrodes as in Fig.
5.6) in air, the air gaps between the solid dielectric and the electrodes have very high
stresses and partial discharges may appear in such gaps, at or adjacent to the edges of
the electrodes. These discharges will spread over the surface of the solid dielectric
and will cause its breakdown outside the uniform field region. To avoid this
phenomenon, either compressed gases or some insulated fluid with very high
dielectric strength as compared to the dielectric strength of the solid dielectric must
be used. Otherwise some insulation fluid whose permittivity 1 should be higher
than 2 of the solid dielectric should be used to avoid field enhancement, if the
breakdown strength of the fluid is not higher as compared to that of the solid
dielectric. When the fluid has a higher dielectric strength, then it is preferred to have
its permittivity 1 nearly similar to that of the solid under test to avoid field
distortions.

Field Inside Cavities

Cavities can be generated inside solid or liquid dielectrics during
manufacturing or operation. Such cavities are usually regions of lower density
material or gas pockets in a surrounding solid or liquid dielectric. Such gas spaces
experience higher electric stress than the bulk liquid or solid media as a result of
their lower dielectric permittivity. A large diameter cavity of small depth i.e. a
cavity whose diameter perpendicular to the electric field is appreciably larger than
its depth in the direction of the electric field, and when its depth is small compared
to the total insulation thickness will have an AC electric field, Ee which is given as:

e d d
c
where Ed, Ee are the relative permittivities of the dielectric and the cavity
respectively, and Ed is the electric stress inside the dielectric medium. On the other
hand, for a gas cavity whose diameter is quite small in proportion to its depth in the
electric field direction, the electric field in the cavity approaches nearly equal to that
in the surrounding mediwn, i.e. Ec = Ed For a spherical shaped gas cavity having
cavity depth equal to cavity diameter, Ec is given as:
Thus if a gas cavity with c = 1 exists inside XLPE insulation having d = 2.3,
the field inside cavity will be about 1.2 times or 2.3 times the field in the XLPE for
spherical and cylindrical shaped cavities, respectively.
Thus, cavities are subjected to higher levels of stress in the high voltage
equipment. When the. stress inside a cavity is above the dielectric strength of the
cavity material, a breakdown inside the cavity can occur causing a partial discharge in
the dielectric. Such partial discharges are dangerous for the life of high voltage
components. Therefore, every effort is made to minimize or eliminate cavities in high
voltage equipment.
Field at free Particles
In liquid, gaseous as well as vacuum insulation systems, free conducting or insulating
particles may be introduced during manufacturing, installation or operation. These
particles can acquire some charge as a result of various mechanisms and may drift in
the insulating medium. The electric stress at the ends of such particles can be
enhanced, and consequently these particles can trigger breakdown of the insulation
medium. The field enhancement factor for cylindrical

Metallic particles of radius, r and length, present in the electrodes having gap d is
given as:

f i 2 1
r
d

for a free spherical metallic particle of radius r, placed in a uniform field gap
of separation d, the field factor is 3 provided d >> r. In the presence of ionic or
electronic space charges and for particles of significant resistivity, the field factors are
significantly influenced by the experimental parameters. Thus, generally the
of such particles can result in increased stressing of the insulation and
consequently may cause breakdown of the insulation and every effort should be made
to eliminate the introduction of such particles. Reference [5] provides values of f for
other shapes of particles.
Significance of Field Factor
It has been shown that nonuniform field electrodes produce a field which has
the maximurn value at the surface of the smallest electrode. This maximum field
can be easily estimated from value of fi applied voltage, V and gap distance, d by the
foIlowing equation.
Emax = fi V / d
As discussed earlier, the value of fi depends upon the shape and size of
electrodes and the gap length used. The maximum field to which a dielectric is
subjected in the presence of metallic particles or cavities can also be estimated as
discussed earlier. In the design of equipment, it is essential that Emax is kept less
then the breakdown or dielectric strength (Ebd) of the insulation material used. Ebd is
generally a material property, but it also depends upon some other experimental
factors. It can be measured for the selected insulation material by using
recommended procedures. Thus, it may be assumed that Ebd is known. Since Emax
Ebd as a limiting case, the following condition must be satisfied for insulation design
of any component.
Emax = fi V / d = Ebd
Or
.d
V bd
fi
Thus, the voltage that can be applied safely across any insulation system depends
upon:

(i)
The gap spacing, d (which is related to equipment dimensions)
(ii)
Breakdown strength, Ebd (which is related to the choice of the dielectric
material).
(iii)
Field factor, fi (fi 1 and is related to the choice of geometry used and its
size).
Generally a higher value of Ebd and lower values of d and fi are required to have
compact equipment design. The choice of shape and size of electrode determines the
value of fi as discussed in section 5.8. Therefore, geometries which produce smaller
values of fi are preferred and various techniques are used to keep fi values as low as
possible (or i i = l/fi values as high as possible).
Field Optimization
Electric stress values have to be controlled in the design of high voltage
equipment, since a higher value of electric stress may trigger or accelerate the
degradation and failure of the insulation material. Thus, stresses in different parts
of the high voltage equipment are optimized in order to achieve the most
economical design. The principle of optimization involves selecting the proper
geometry for the equipment and then arriving at the optimum design. For
instance, assume that a coaxial cable is to be designed to have the maximum
withstand voltage, V when the radius of outer cylinder, b is specified along with Ebd
of the dielectric material selected. If inner cylinder has radius, a, then d = b - a. From
Eqs. (5.41) and (5.15), V can be written as:

Ebd b a

ba
a ln (b / a )

a Ebd ln (b / a )

dV
must be equal to zero, or
da
b / a2

ln (b / a ) a
b / a

To get maximum V,
dV
E bd
da

Which leads to the following condition for the optimum design of coaxcial cylinders.
Ln (b/a) = 1 or b/a = e = 2.72

Thus we must use a = 0.37b for optimum design of coaxial cylindrical system.
If concentric spheres are used instead of cylinders, it can be easily shown that for
optimum design, a = b/2. For coaxial cables with multiple dielectrics layers, the
conditions for optimum thickness of such layers can also be analytically derived.
However, for most practical equipment, field optimization requires numerical
computations and computer packages.
Methods of Field Estimation
In simple physical systems such as a single conductor above ground, two
parallel conductors above ground, two equal diameter spheres, two infinity long
parallel plates, coaxial cylinders, and concentric sphere, etc., it is possible to find an
analytical field solution for space charge free fields. However, for most high
voltage components, the physical systems are so complex that it is extremely
difficult to fmd an analytical field solution. In such cases, numerical methods are
employed for electric field calculations. The existing methods include the finite
difference method, the finite element method, the Monte Carlo method, the moment
the method of images, the charge simulation method, the surface charge
simulation method or combinations of some of these methods. Details of some of
these methods is provided in references [1-3, 6]. For complex field problems,
experimental modelling using electrolytic tank, semiconductor paper or resistive
mesh analog are also useful. Computer software packages are now available to carry
out most of the field calculations.
Basic concepts of field calculations for transmission line are presented in section 5.16
whereas section 5.17 discusses the charge simulation method for numerical field
computations.
DC and Mixed Fields
The discussion so far has been mainly for capacitance fields under AC voltages of
low frequencies. Under DC applied stresses the field E is related to DC conductivity
and current density J by the equation: .
J= E
Since of most dielectrics is a non-linear function of applied stress, temperature as
well as time of stress application in most cases, the field problem becomes more
complex in such situations. Moreover, the space charge formation in the dielectrics
adds another difficulty in the solution of DC fields. Similarly, under AC voltages of
different frequency components e.g. an impulse voltage, the problem becomes
complicated especially if field medium is of resistive capacitive type.

Therefore, such a field analysis of real dielectrics under various operating condition is
challenging and beyond the scope of the present discussion, and will not be treated
here.
Electric Field in Multi-conductor Transmission Lines
Bipolar or multiphase transmission lines are usually multiconductors. In such
cases, each conductor is represented by an infinite line charge. The effect of ground
is simulated by an image charge for each conductor. This ensures that potential at any
point on the ground plane is zero.
Consider a multiconductor transmission line of very long conductors with potentials
Vi and charges qi per unit length (i = 1, ... , n) placed parallel to the ground plane.
Then the potential at an arbitrary point M(x, y) due to conductor I and its image is
given by:

where a1M and b1M are the distances shown in Fig. 5.7. When the conductor
separations and heights above ground are much larger than their diameters, the line
charges are assumed to be located at the axis or center of each conductor:. Moreover,
the x and y components of the electric field at point M due to charge on conductor 1
and its image is given as:

Thus, the resultant potential at M due to all the transmission-line conductors is given
by:

i 1

qq

y M

y hi

2 o x x i 2 y hi 2

y hi

x x i 2 y hi 2

If the point M is placed on the first conductor, then < M = V1, blM = 2h1, a1m = r1 and
equation (5.49) takes the form
V1

qq
2 o

ln

2 h1
q2
b
q3
b
qn
b

ln 12
ln 13 . . .
ln 1n
r1
2 o
a12
2 o
a13
2 o
a1n

Similarly by placing point M on the second conductor, an equation for V2 is written.

Then all such equations can be expressed as
V1 P11

V n Pn1

P12

Pn 2

P1n q1

Pnn q n

where Pij = (l/ 2 o ) In(bij/aij) is the potential coefficient. It is evident that Pij = Pji
and that they are positive quantities, independent of the sign of charge and potential.
For the fIeld calculations of a transmission line, first the matrix P is evaluated then
equation (5.53) is solved to fmd the charges qi , i = 1, ... , n. Then at the desired point
M, (Ex)M and (Ey)M due to all the conductor and the image charges are calculated to
fmd the resultant fIeld EM as:
M

2
X

2y

Thus it is not possible to propose simple analytical expressions for such cases except
for the very simple case of a single conductor above ground as discussed next.
5.16.1 Transmission line with a single conductor
For a monopolar DC line with single conductor of radius r, height h above ground and
at potential V, equation (5.53) reduces to:
V q P

qq
2 o

ln

2h
r

2 o
2h
ln
r

Then the stress on the line joining the charge to its image has only vertical
component and the magnitude' of this component at a point xl> y can be easily
calculated from equation (5.48) by substituting q from equation (5.56). For this case,.
x = xl, y = y, hi = h, aiM = h - y and blM = h + y. Then from equation (5.48), the stress
magnitude is given as:
y

2V h

y 2 ln

2h
r

h is clear from the above equation that the maximum stress (Emax) is when y = - r)
i.e. at the conductor surface facing the earth and is given as:
max

min

2V h
r 2 h r ln

2h
r

V
r ln

2h
r

2V
2h
h ln
r

5.16.2 Lines with bundle conductors

Usually EHV and UHV lines employ bundle conductors. In such a case the
general method of solution discussed earlier can be applied. However, in such
designs, the line conductor radius, r, the separation, Db between the subconductors of
a bundle, the separation, Ds between phases, and their height, h above ground would
comply with the following relation:
R < Db << Ds and h
Therefore, the effects of the linage charges can safely be neglected when evaluating
the fields at the conductor surfaces which is needed for corona onset concerns. The
magnitude and direction of the maximum conductor surface field can be evaluated
using the line conductor charges and potential coefficients only. These can in turn, be
evaluated in terms of the line voltage and geometry. For example, in case of a
monopolar bundle of two subconductors for a DC line of voltage V, equation (5.53)
reduces to:

V = P11 ql + P12 q2 = P21ql + P22q2

The potential coefficients P11, P12, and P22 depend on the conductorr arrangement in
the bundle. For 2 bundles arranged horizontally, the potential coefficients at the
conductor surface are given as:
P11 P22
P12 P21

1
2 o
1
2 o

2h
r
2h
ln
r

ln

Using these charges, the maximum field at the conductor surface can easily evaluated
and is given as:
2 o V
2 o V
q1 q 2

2h
4 h2
2h

ln
ln
ln
r
Db
r Db
For three-phase AC or bipolar DC lines, the maximum surface field can be similarly
calculated for bundles of two, three, and four subconductors [1].
5.17 The charge simulation method
The charge simulation method, due to its favorable characteristics, is very commonly
used for ,the field analysis of HV insulation systems. Therefore, this section provides
a brief introduction to the charge simulation method. More details of this method are
available in literature [6].
5.17.1 Basic principle
The basic principle of the charge simulation method (CSM) is very simple.
If several discrete charges of any type (e.g. point, line, or ring, for instance) are
present in a region, the electrostatic potential at any point, C can be found by
summation of the potentials resulting from the individual charges as long as the point
C does not reside on anyone of the charges. Let Qj be a number of N individual
charges and i be the potential at any point C within the space. According to the
superposition principle:

1 Pij Q j
j 1

Pi are the potential coefficients which can be evaluated analytically for many
ofcharges by solving Laplaces or Poisson's equations. For example, in Fig. 5.8
displays three point charges, Q" Q2 and Q3 in free space, the potential $i at - C; is
given by
i

Q3
Q1
Q2

4 o 1 4 o 2 4 o 3

i1 Q1 i 2 Q2 i 3 Q3

Thus, once the types of charges and their locations are defmed, it is possible
to related i and Qj quantitatively at any boundary point. In the CSM, the
simulation charges are placed outside the space where the field solution is desired (or
inside any equipotential surface such as metal electrodes). If the boundary point Ci is
located on surface of a conductor, then i at this 'contour' point is equal to the
conductor potential . When this procedure is applied to m contour points, it leads
to the following system of m linear equations for N unknown charges.
P11
P
21

P
m1

P12
P22

Pm 2

Q1
1
Q

2
2

Q

n
n

P1n
P2 n

Pmn

Equation (5.65) is the basic foundation of the CSM as discussed next

5.17.2 Calculations in single dielectric

Assume that there are n conductors with known potentials in a single dielectric
medium. Then, for field calculations, the actual charges on the surfaces of these
conductors are replaced by Nc fictitious charges placed inside (or outside) the
conductors. The types and positions of these charges are assumed. In order to
determine their magnitudes, Nb contour points are selected on the surface of
conductors, and it is required that at anyone of these contour points the potential
resulting from superposition of all the simulation charges is equal to the known
conductor potential. In the conventional method, the number of contour points is
selected equal to the number of simulation charges i.e. Nb = Nc = N. Therefore, the
charges are determined from equation (5.65) where [P] is the potential coefficient.
matrix, [Q] is the column vector of values of unknown charges, and [ ] is the
potential of boundary points.
After solving Eq. (5.65) to determine the magnitudes of simulation charges, it
is necessary to check whether the set of calculated charges produces actual boundary
conditions everywhere on the electrode surface. It must be emphasized that only n
discrete contour points of the real electrode system have been used to solve Eq
(5.65), and thus the potential at any point other than the selected 'contour' points.
might be different from the actual conductor potential. Thus, Eq. (5.63) is solved at a.
number of 'check' points located on the electrodes where potentials are known to
determine the simulation accuracy. If simulation does not meet the accuracy
criterion, calculations are repeated by changing one or several of the following
parameters:
the number of simulation charges,
the locations of simulation charges,
the types of simulation charges,
the locations of contour points.
As soon as an adequate charge system has been developed, the potential and field at
any point outside the electrodes can be calculated. Whereas the potential is found by
Eq. (5.63), the field or stress is calculated by superposition of magnitude of various
directional components of the field. For example, for cartesian coordinate
system, the net field Ei at point Ci is given by:
'

where (fij)x, (fij)y and (fij)z are the 'field intensity' or field coefficients and ax, ay and
az unit vector in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.
In many cases, the electrostatic field between a system of conductors and infinite
plane with = 0 is of interest. This plane can be taken into account by the
introduction of 'image' charges. If 'floating' electrodes are present whose potentials
uniform but unknown, Eq. (5.65) is modified to include the supplementary
conditions that the sum of inner charges on each floating electrode is zero. If the
floating electrode has a net charge, the sum of its inner charges is equated to the
known net charge value.
5.17.3 Calculations in multidielectric media
The field computation for a system having more than one dielectric becomes
somewhat complicated. This is due to the fact that, under the influence of an applied
voltage, the dipoles are re-aligned in a dielectric. Such a re-alignment has the effect
of poducing a net surface charge on the dielectric surface. Thus, in addition to the
electrodes, each dielectric-dielectric interface needs to be simulated by the discrete .
charges In the simple example of Fig. 5.9, charges 1 to 3 are used to simulate the
Electrode while charges 4 to 7 are used to simulate the dielectric boundary. Contour
points 1 to 3 are selected on the electrode surface whereas only two contour points
(i.e. 4 and 5) are selected on the dielectric boundary. In order to determine the
simulation charges, a system of equations is formulated by imposing the following
boundary conditions:

Charges
)( Contour points

1. At each electrode boundary, the potential must be equal to the known conductor
potential.
2. At each dielectric boundary, the potential and the normal component of the flux
density must be same when viewed from either side of the boundary.
In formulating the equations at a given contour point, the charges which lie in
the same dielectric as the contour point are ignored. For example, the potential at
contour point 1 is calculated due to superposition of charges 1 to 5 only. Similarly, the
potential or field intensity at contour point 5 when viewed from dielectric A side will
be due to superposition of charges I to 3 and 6 to 7 only. Thus, when boundary
condition (1) is applied to contour points 1 to 3 (i.e. i = 1, 2, 3), the following
equations are obtained:
5

P
j 1

ij

Q j c (i=1)

j 1

j 6

Pij Q j Pij Q j c (i=2,3)

When boundary condition (2) is applied for potential and the flux density at i = 4 to 5,
it results into the following equations, respectively:
5

Pij Q j Pij Q j 0
j 4

j 6

j 4

j 6

j 6

A B f ij Q j A f ij Q j B f ij Q j

for i = 4,5, where fij are the field coefficients in a direction which is normal to the
dielectric boundary at the respective contour point. Eqs. (5.67) to (5.70) are solved to
determine the unknown charges. It is obvious from this discussion that simulation of
multidielectric boundaries is more involved. Moreover, the accuracy of such a
simulation deteriorates when the dielectric boundary has a complex profile.
5.17.4 Types of simulation charges and potential and field coefficients
Besides other factors, successful application of the CSM requires a proper choice of
the types of simulation charges. In the initial attempts using the CSM, point and line
charges of infmite and semi-infmite length [7] were used. Singer et al. [8] introduced
ring charges, periodically variable density ring charges and finite line charges. In
recent years, a variety of other charge configurations have been

introduced. These new types of simulation charges include elliptic cylinders,

axispheroidal charges, plane sheet charges, disk charges, ring-charges with sectorial
constant charge density, volume charges, shell and annular plate charges as well as
variable-density line charges [6].
In order to use any type of simulation charges, it is essential to determine the
potential and the field coefficients. Expressions for potential, P and field coefficients
(fx, fy, fz) are reported here for most basic charge configurations.
1. Point Charge
for the charge and the contour point shown in Fig. 5. l0a;
P 4 D

y b 4 D
z c4 D

f x a 4 D 3

f
f

3 1

3 1

2. Infinite Line Charges

For an infmite line charge perpendicular to the x-y plane and the contour point
in Fig. 5.1 Ob, the coefficients are:
P 4

1 ln D / D
1
f x a4 D 2
1
f y b 4 D 2

Where DO is the distance from the charge to the nearest point where = 0. In these equations, the effect of the image charge has not been considered.
3. Finite Line Charge
For the line charge of a finite length and the contour point shown in Fig. 5.10c.

h ln

z 2 z D z 2 z 1
z1 z D z 2 z 2

z 2 z z1 z z1 z z 2 z

r
D
r
d
r

1
2

f r h

1
1
1
1

D d 1 2

f h