AMPTIAC 8S Strength of us Metal Aircraft Elements DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A Approved for Public Release Distribution Unlimited MUNITIONS BOARD AIRCRAFT COMMITTEE cos, 20000907 178Page 15, Formula 1.6421 Page24, Table2.111(b) Poge 34, Figure 2.6111 Page 32, Table 2.6111 @ - Pages 36, 89, 90, 91, and 123, Tables 2.6116, 3.6113(b), (0), (@), 4.6113, Page 37, Table 2.6122 @) Page 39, Section 2.61261 Pago 46, Tablo 3.111 ) Poge48, Table3.111(8) Page 53, Table3.111(i) Pages67 end 58, Tables .112(a), (b), and (d) ‘Pages 86 and87, Tables 8.6112(a), b), (©) and (@) Page 92, Table 3.6116 Page 92, Table 3.0122 ® Page 4, Table 3.6122 © Pege06,Tabled.111(0) Pege07, Tabled.111(b) ANC-5 JUNE 1951 AMENDMENT-1 9 APRIL 1952 STRENGTH OF METAL AIRCRAFT ELEMENTS ‘The square root sign should not extend over the Dit. ‘The vertical line separating the specifications for Sheet, Plate, Tube, Bar, ‘and Rod—1130 should be removed. Delete the last sentenco of the note appearing in the upper right hand corner and substitute the following. “The curves are based on the results of combined load tests of bolts with nuts finger tight.” ‘The “AN-3” designation in the left hand column should be lowered one line. ‘Add the following qualifying note. “The strength values listed were based ‘on the results of laboratory tests conducted under optimum conditions and should be used with caution.” In lieu of “Fy, Figure 2.321 for Fu=80,000 p. si,” substitute the following. 0.9 of the values of F from Figure 2.321 for Fiy=90,000 p. . i.” In the second and third lines of the left hand column on page 39, delete the ‘figure references to Figures 2.6127(0), (8), and (¢) and substitute figures 2.61261(2), (), and (¢) in lieu thereof. Delete specification AN-A-13 and substitute “QQ-A-362.” Delete specification QQ-A-245 and substitute “QQ-A-255.” Delete specification QQ-A-325 and substitute “QQ-A-270.” Add the following qualifying note: “Values given are applicable to forged, rolled, and extruded products.” On the “Clad Sheet Material” lines edd 24S~T4 in addition to and wherever 245-73 is presently listed. In the first column change “Ys” to K”. In footnote one delete specification QQ-A-245 and substitute specification QQ-A-255. In the next to last horizontal and vertical columns delete specification QQ-A-245 and substitute specification QQ-A-255, In column 4, “Sheet, M-1, QQ-M-54, Hard Rolled,” the value for Fry (¢{D=1.5) should be 33 instead of 55. Delete the alloy designations “M1A” from the fifteenth column and “AZ61A” from the sixteenth end seventeenth columns and substitute “AZO1A” and AZ80A” respectively. rs — - —TaNC-5 BULLETIN Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements 5, DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE AIR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT COMMAND DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE CIVIL AERONAUTICS ADMINISTRATION 1 Goin eno 98) 4 | IssueD BY THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON AIR FORCE-NAVY-CIVIL AIRCRAFT DESIGN CRITERIA (OF THE MUNITIONS BOAR! ry “The contents of thie document shall not be reproduced in whole or in par ‘withoot spetife authorisation ofthe Munitions Board Aicaft Commicee4 NOTICE ‘The reader is hereby notified that this document is subject to revision and amendment ‘when and where such revision ar amendment is necessary to effect agreement with the Intest ‘approved information on aireraft design criteria, When using this document the reader should therefore make certain thet itis the latest revision and that all issued amendments If any, are included herein. When ordering this document from the Superintendent of United States Government Printing Office, a request for all revisions and ‘amendments thereto should be made to insure receipt of a complete document, Copies of this document and amendments thereto may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C Forse by the Superinsncent of Decuents, U8. Govaament Piling ce "Washinton 2 D-C. "Prion eente——$—— CONTENTS: REFERENCES . CHAPTER 1, GENERAL 44 un 42 Lis 12 13. 1st 132 1.33 134 135 1.38, 137 138 1a9 4 Tat ara 1473 1474 1475 Las 1481 1.482 14821 1.4522 1.4528 Purpote and Use of Document... sss iateodaeuone renner Scope of Document LLL t Use of Design Mechanical Properties Standard Stuctoral Symbols : Commonly Used Formulas General Simple Unit Stresses ao Combined Stresses |.) | | Deflections (Axial) Deflections (Bending) Deftestions (Torsion) ‘Transverse Deformations Basle Column Formulas : Basie Colurmn Formulas (Nondimensional) Boric Principles and Definitions Generals tee eee Stress. | General Normal and Shear Stresses | | Strain Axial Strain | Lateral Strain Shearing Strain | ‘Tensile Properties General . Figure 1.441. “Typical Tensile Stress-Sirain Diagrams Modulus of Elastiity (B) ‘Tensile Proportional Limit (F.,)- ‘Tensile Yield Stress (Fy) Ultimate Tensile Stress (Pic) Compressive Properties General Ultimate Compressive Stress (Pes) Shear Properties General ae Modulus of Rigidity (6) Proportional Limit in Shear (Fs) Yield and’ Ultimate Stresses in Shear Creep and Stress-Rupture Properties General . Figure i471. "Typical Creep Rupture Curve. << ‘Total Creep Minimum Creep Rate | | | ‘Transition Point Rupture Stress. | 5 Fatigue Properties. ©2222 2 General. Lilt ao Figure 1.481. “Typical Fatiguo Loadings Stross an Go Maximum Stress Minimum Stress Mean StreseCHAPTER 1 1.4824 14825, 1s 11 152 1521 1522 1523 1.655 4 a GENERAL—Continved Stress Range . . Stross Amplitude Types of Follaes General Material Failures General Direct Tension or Compression. Shear tect ee Bearing Bending «<< ailuro due to Streas Concentrations Failure due to Fatigue... « Failure from Combined Stresses Instability Failures... General ao ae nit Instability Failures Under Compressive Lena: « foo Bending Instability Failures aac Torsional Instability Failures Failure under Combined Loadings igure 1.585. ‘Typical Interaction Curves for Combined Loading Conditions Columns Boae Gusoocdd vilbeee General |: ee eee ee Primary Tnstability Failure General Long Columns Short Columna Column Yield Stress (Fs) Nondimensional Column Curves for Primary Failure General eee Typical Colwmn Curves DTT i ‘Figure 1.632. Various Column Curves in Nondimensional Form Local Instability Failure . General Crushing or Crippling Stross (P29 Columns of Unconventional Cross Section Gonerat. . goo [Nature of “Short Column” Curve Local Failure eduction of Test Results on Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys to Standard ~ Figure 1.654 (a). Nondimensional Material Correetion Chart for 248-T3 Sheet |. | Figure 1.654 (0). Nondimensionsl Material Correction Chart for 248-73 Clad Shect Figure 1.654 (@).Nondimensional Material Correction Chart for 248-T4 Extrusions loss ‘han ¥ ined thle Figure 1.654 (@).Nondlimensional Material Correetion Chart for 248-14 Extrusions 4 to 14 Inches thick : Figure 1.654 (€. Nondimensional Material Correction Chart for 248-73 Tubing - Figure 1.654 (f). Nondimensional Material Correction Chart for 148-3 (R301-T) Clad Sheet Figure 1.654 (@). Nondimensiona! Material Correction Chart for 758-76 Clad Shect Figure 1.654 (8). Nondimensional Material Correetion Chart for M or AM3S Open Figure 1.654 (). Nondimensional Material Correction Chart for PS. 528, AM C578 or AM C588 Open Extrusions... Figure 1.654 (). Nondimensional Material Correetion Chart for AM-C58S Open Extrusions igure 1.654 (2). Nondi Sheet Reduction of Test Results to Standard—Alternate Method Figure 1.655. Ilustrative Material Correetion Curves for Columns (Alternate Method) Thin- Walled and Stifened Thin-Wolled Se or Generat ‘ eocccceccecstCHAPTER 2, STEEL 24 2 2a 2a 21a 22 213 22 221 2.92 2.221 2.24 23 231 232 2301 2302 233 234 24 241 242 2s 251 252 2.53 26 261 2611 2111 2eu2 261121 2.01122 2.6113 General Properties = = Normal (Room) Temperature Properties Design Mechanical Properties ‘Table 2.111 (a). Design Mechanical Properties of Plain Carbon Steels. ‘Table 2.111 (8). Design Mechanical Properties of Alloy Steels ‘Table 2111 (¢). Design Mechanical Properties of Corrosion Resisting and Heat ‘Treated Corrosion Resisting Steels a Fatigue Properties. ot “Table 2.112 (a). Rotating Beam Fatigue Data for Ferrous Materials ‘Table 2.112 (). Reversed Bending Fatigue Data for Chromium 18 percent, Nickel 8 ‘percent Sheet Steel, Longitudinal Direction ‘Typleal Stress-Strain and Tangent Modulus Data ‘Figure 2.113 (a) through (2). Tangent Modulus Curves Derived from Stres-Strain Curves for Corrosion Resisting (Stainless) Steel Sheet and Plate ‘Temperature Eifects Criteria for Design Mechanical Material Properties Colors Primary Failure : Table 2.21. Column Formule for Round Steel Tubes Local Failure eee Eiects of Welding. 2.22! Column Stress Curves Lt Figure 2.28 (a). Allowable Column Stress for 1025 Stes! Round Tubing | 2). | | Figure 223 (). Allowable Column and Crushing Stresses for Chrome Molybdenum Streamline Tubing F,=75,000 p. = Figure 2.23 (¢). Allowable Column Stress for Heat Treated Alloy Stee! Round Tubing» Column Lowd Curvet vs eee es : Beams General ‘Simple Beams. Round Tubes gure 2421, Bending Modulus of uptre Chrome Molybdenum Steel Tubing Unconventional Cross Sections Built-up Beams Thin-Web Beams Torin. sv se General Allowable ‘Torsional Shear Stresses Figure 2.42 (@). Torsional Modulus of Rupture of 1025 Stee! Round Tubing Pure 2.42 0). Tonional Modulus Rupture of Round Alloy Ste! Tubing Combined Loadings. .« Peans Round Tubes in Bending and Compression ‘Tubes in Bending and Torsion ‘Tubes in Bending, Compression, and Torsion Joins, Pats, and Fitings Joints. Riveted and Bolted Joints Allowable Shear and Tensile Strengths for Bolts and Pins ‘Table 2.6111 (6). Shear and Tensile Strengths, Areas, and Moments of Tnertia of Stoo! Bolts ‘and Pine e ‘Table 2.6111 (@). Shear and Tension Strengths of Internal Wrenehing Bolts... . Figure 2.6111. Combined Shear and Tension on AN-Steet Bolts Allowable Bearing Stresses Joints Having no Motion ‘Table 2.61121. Unit Beating Strengths of Sheets on Bolts and Pine Joints Having Motion oe ‘Table 2.61122 (a). Bearing Factors for Plain Besring: Having no oF Infrequent Relative Rotation Under Design Loads Table 2.61122 (6). Ultimate Boaring Stress for Plain Lubrieated Bearings Having Frequent Relative Motion . 2 Hollow-End Rivets 2» 35, 35CHAPTER 2. STEEL—Continued CHAPTER 2614 26115 2.6116 2612 26121 26122 2.6128 26124 2.6125 2.6126 2.61261 2.618, 26131 2.6132 2614 2.62 2.621 2022 2.023 2.6231 2.6282 High Shear Rivets... . Table 2.6114. Allowable Single Shear Strengths 18-8 Corrosion Resistant Sieet Rivets » Blind Rivets ei ‘Table 2.6115. Ultimate and Yield Strengths for Blind Monel Cherry Rivets fn Corrosion Resistant Sheet d : Lockbolts Welded Joints Fusion Welds—Are and Gas Effect on Adjacent Parent Metal when Fusion (are of gas) Processes are Employed ‘Table 2.6122 (0). Allowable Ultimate Tensile Stresses Near Fusion Welds in 4190, 4140, "4240, oF 8630 Steels Table 2.6122 (0). Allowable Bending Modulus of Rupture 3 Near Fusion Welds in 400, ‘4140, 4340, oF 8630 Steels Allowable Strength-Weld Metal | |. Table 26128, Weld Mea Joint Stents Welded Cluster. . : Flash Welds 21 1 Table 2.6125 (a). Allowable Ultimate Tensile Stresses for Flash Welds in Steel Tubing. Table 2.6125 (). Allowable Bending Modulus of Rupture for Flash Welds in Steel Tubing Spot Welding arin wees bbe oa ‘Table 2.6126 (a). Spotweld Maximum Design Shear Strength Standards for Uncoated ‘Steels and Nickel Alloys - 5 ‘Table 2.6126 (8). Minimum Bulge Distances for Spotweided Joinis Reduction in Tensilo Strength of Parent Metal Due to Spotwelding Figure 2.61261 (a). Efficiency of the Parent Metal in ‘Tension for Spot wel ‘and 802% Corrosion Resisting Steels Figure 2.61261(6). Effcieney of the Parent Metal in Tension for Spotwelded 302}$H Gor rosion Resisting Stee! Figure 2.61261(¢).Efficieney of the Parent’ Metal in Tension for ‘Sotweted 302-H Cor- rosion Resisting Steel. . Brazod Joints of Steel and High Melt ns Ponty Non-Ferons Atos Copper Bra Silver Brazing Adhesive Bonded Joints Parts ‘Antifriction Bearings ‘Antifeition Beating Control Pulleys ‘Table 2.022. Static Yield Strongths for Control Pulleys Cable and Cable Connections a5 Cable Connections oe Strength and Load-Deformation Data for Aircraft Cable ‘Table 2.6232. Strength of Steol Cable... ‘i Figure 2.6282. Load-Deformation Data for Steel Cable . jed 30234, 847-14, 3. ALUMINUM ALLOYS: 34 an an General Properties Normal (Room) ‘Temperature Propertios Design Mechanical Properties Table 3.111 (a). Design Mechanical Properties of Bare 245 Shect and Plate - ‘Table 3.111 @). Design Mechanical Properties of Clad 248 Sheet and Plate Tablo 3.111 (©, Design Mechanical Properties of Clad 248 Sheet, : Table 3.111 (@. Design Mechanical Properties of Clad 148 and R301 Shect and Plate ‘Table 3.111 (6). Design Mechanical Properties of 758 Sheet and Plate 5 Table 3.111 (P). Design Mechanical Properties of 628 and 618 Sheet . | | | ‘Table 3.111 (@). Design Mechanieal Propertios of Aluminum Alloy Rolled Bar and’ Rod, ‘Tubing, and Shapes ‘Table 3.111 (h). Design Mechanical Properties of 148 and 758 Extruded Bar, Rod, and Shapes. . 5 ‘Table 3.111 ()," Design Mechanical Properties of 248 and 618 Extruded Shapes | Table 3.111). Design Mechaniesl Properties of 145 and 758 Hand Forged Stock ‘Table 3.111 (k). Design Mechanical Propertios of Aluminumn Alloy Die Forgings.» . Table 3.111 (). Design Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloy Castings Table $11). Dasien Mechanial Properties of Heat Treated Cold Wore! and Aged 248 Alloy Extrusions and Tubing 35 35 35 36 36 36 a7 31 82 58 54 55 orCHAPTER 3. ALUMINUM ALLOYS~-Continued 3.112 a3 312 aia 3.1211 3.1212 3.122 3.192 3.1292 3.1228 3.128 3.13 3131 3.132 8.133 Patigue Properties... ae boven eee ‘Table 8.112 (@). Average Fatigue Strengths of Smooth Machined “Round Specimens Under Completely Reversed Flexure ‘Table 3.112 (0). Average Fatigue Strengths of Sharply Notched Round Specimens Under Completely Reversed Flexure ‘Table 3.112 (@). Average Fatigue Strengths of Flat Sheet Specimens Under Completely Reversed Plexure ‘Table 3.112 (@). Average Fatigue Strengths of Smooth Machined “Round Specimens ‘Under Repeated Axial Load a0 oe tees ‘Typical Stres-Strain and ‘Tangent Modulus Data Figure 3.113 (a). Typieal Stress-Strain and Tangent Modulus Curves for Various Ali- ‘minum Alloy Sheet Materials . Figure 8.118 (0), Typleal Strese-Strain and Tangent Compression Modulus Curves for 148 ‘Aluminum Alloy Sheet Figure 3.118 (©). Typiesl Strese-Strain and Aluminum Alloy Extrusions Figure 3.113 (@). Typical Stress-Strain and Tangent Modulus Curves for 618 and 758 Aluminum Alloy Extrusions. Figure 2.113 (. ‘Typleal Strese-Strain and Tangent Modulus Curves for 148-76, 248-4, ‘nd 758-76 Aluminum Alloy Rolle Bar, Rd and Shapes ‘Temperature Effects Boece Low Temperature... 1) ee ee Static Properties ‘Table 3.1211 (a), Acceptabie Approximations of Hifects of Low Temperatures on the Static Design Properties of Aluminum Alloys... « Table 3.1211 (6). Bifect of Various Temperatures on the Modulus of Elasticity of Ah ‘minum Alloys ou oe oo Fatigue Properties... . « ‘Table 2.1212. Flexure Type Paigue Data Elevated Temperature a pile Gena. ow ellie Figure 8.1231 (a), "Aluminum Alloy Tensile Properties at Flevated Temperatures Figure 3.1221 (6). Aluminum Alloy Tensile Properties st Elevated Temperatures Figure 8.1221 (0), Aluminum Alloy Tensile Properties at Elevated Temperatures Figure 3.1221 (@). Elevated Temperature Properties of Wrought 248-73 Aluminum Alloy ‘tail F Figure 3.1221 («). "Elevated Temperature Propertos of Wrought 248-T3 Alumni at 300° F - ere Lee Es Figure 3.1221 (f).” Blevated Temperature Properties of Wrought 248-3 Aluminum Alloy at 375° F Figure 3.1221 (9). "Elevated Temperature Properties of Wrought 768-6 Aluininum Alloy aOR. : Figure 8.1291 (0). "Elevated Temperature Properties of Wrought 758-T6 Alu ak... 7 Figure 3.1221 (9). "Elevated Temperature Properties of Wrought 758-6 Aluminum Alloy at 300°... on Bee 7 Figure 3.1221 (). Elevated Temperature Properties of Wrought 75S-T6 Aluminum Alloy at 375° F aa ee oe Figure 3.1221 (1). Elevated Temperature Properties of Clad 248-86 Aluninum Alloy (Hest/Trested, Cold Worked, and Aged) at 211° F Figure 8.1221 (). Elevated Temperature Properties of Clad 248-186 ‘Alumiaum Alloy (Heat Treated, Cold Worked, and Aged) at 300° F Figure 8.1221 (wv). Elevated Temperature Propertice of Clad 248-786 Aluminum Alloy (Heat Treated, Cold Worked and Aged) at 375° F oe Statie Properties. ° Groop and Stress Rupture Propertios <6... Fatigue Propertict. vo see et "Table 3.1224, Cantilever-Beam Fatigue Strengths of Wrought Aluminum Alloys at Hle- vated Temperate ve vv see eee eee oe oe Criteria for Design Mechanical Propertios. - Shear Strengths ee oe ftir Stengiie ee tee ee Bearing Strengths ee rangent: Modulus Curves for 248 and 148 m Alloy Alloy 56 87 6 nm n 2 En % 76 ” 8 8 8 2 n 7CHAPTER 3. ALUMINUM ALLOYS— Continued Bad a2 a2 322 3.23 33 an 332 3.321 3.322 334 a4 3a 342 35. 331 352 353 36 ao. 3611 36m 3.0112 3.6113 seus 3.0118 2.6116 3612 36121 3.6122 e122) 3.0123 3.613 Rate of Stressing Effects Columns ees Primary Failure Table 8.21. Column Forinulas for Aluminum Ailoy Tubing aidior Shapes Local Failure eee : Column Stress Curves Figure 8.23. Allowable Column and Crushing Stresses 248 and 618 Akiminim Alloy Tub ing. = : cee er : G Beams: | | General Simple beams Round Tubes. Figure 8.921. Bending Modulus of Rupture Aluminum Alloy Round ‘Tuning Restrained ‘Against Local Buckling at Loading Points Unconventional Cross-Bections oe ‘i Bee ae Built-Up Beams: ae fee anos ‘Thin Web Beams boocoducedadegsnadsadaes Torin. s+ + pheogaas Boa Eee General, Bee eee oe Allowable Torsional Shear Stresses | | Figure 842, Torsional Modulus of Rupture-Abvii Combined Losdings ‘i oe Round Tubes in Bending and Compression Seg ‘Tubes in Bending and Torsion. Tubes in Bending, Compression, and ‘Torsion Joins, Fitings, ond Pants oints Riveted and Bolted Joints |) Protrading Head Rivets and Bolte 2) | ‘Table 3.0111 (a). Shear Strength of Protruding and Flish Head Aluminum Alloy Rivets - Table 8.6111 (). Aluminum Alloy Shoot and Plate—Bearing Factors Table 3.6111 (©). Design Mechanical Properties for Aluminum Alloy Rivets Table 8.6111 (a). Unit Bearing Strength of Sheet on Rivets Fy, 100,000 p. si Flush Rivets... at ane Table 8.6112 (a). Ultimate Strength of Solid 100° Machine Countersunk Rivets Table 3.6112 (0). Yield Strength of Solid 100° Machine Countersunk Rivets Table 8.6112 (©). Uitimate Strength of Solid 100" Dimpled Rivets 5 Table 3.6112 (@). Yield Strength of Solid 100° Dimpled Rivets... 2. Lt Biind Rivets ee tee oe ‘Table 3.0118 (a). Rivet Shear Strengths for Blind Rivets (Protruding and Flash Heads) Table 8.6113 (). Ultimate and Yield Strengths for Protruding Head Blind Rivets « ‘Table 3.6113 (¢). Ultimate and Yield Strengths for 100° Double Dimpled Blind Rivets Table 2.6113 (4). Ultimate and Yield Strengths for 100° Machine Countersunk Blind Rivets... Hollow-End Rivets High Shear Rivets Lockbolt and Lockbolt Stumps ‘Table 8.6116. Ultimate Single Shear and Tensile Strengths of Protra Tockbolts, ‘i Welded Joints Fusion Welds Spot Welding 5 fees 1 ‘Table 3.6122 (a). “Spotweld Maximum Design Shear Strength Standards for Bare and Clad Aluminum Al ee 5 ‘Table 3.6122 (6). Minimum Rage Distances for Spotwrelded Joints ‘Table 3.6122 (c). Acceptable Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Combinations for Spot- ‘welding. : Reduction in Tensile Strengih of Parent Metal Due to Spotwelding Figure 8.61221. Efficleney of the Parent Metal in Tension for Spotwelded Aluminum Alloys tee é ea ee Aluminum Brazing. 1. ‘Adhesive Bonded Joints wf and Flush Head » n nm 0 2 2 2 2 92 934a au ann 4412 418 aa2 v 421 22 41221 4.3202 41223 413 aia 4132 4a 42 421 4.22 423 CHAPTER 4. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS General Properties Normal (Room) ‘Temperature Properties Design Mechanical Propertien. . ‘Table 4111 (@), Design Mechanieal Properties of Magnesiim Alloy’ Sheet, Tubes, and Shapes... ‘Table 4.111 @.” Design Mechanieal rope fof Magnesium Alloy Bars and ods sind Castings, and Forgings : ‘atigue Properties fit ‘Table 4.112 (a). Rotating-Bearn Ratigue Strength : ‘Table 4.112 (2). Repeated-Flexure Fatigue Strength |= 2... Table 4.112 (©). Direot Tension-Compression Fatigue Strength. ‘Typical Strest-Strain and Tangent Modulus Data... 2... ‘igure 4.113 (0)." Typical Stress—Strain and ‘Tangent Modulus Curves for Magnesium Alloy Sheet and Extruded Shapes Figure 4.113 (8). Typical Strese-Strain and Tasgeni Moduhis Curves for Magnesium ‘Alloy Sand Castings. oes + ‘Temperature Effeots Low Temperature. 2. Ls oe ooo Elevated Temperature |.) | eee Btatic Properties fill! Lt sees Figure 4.1221 (@). Elevated Temperature Properties of Forged M (annealed 1 hour at 700° F.) Magnesium Alloy at 200° F, (Tensile) (R. T. P14=83,500 p. 6.) . - Figure 4.1221 @). Elevated ‘Temperature Properties of Forged M (annealed 1 hour st 700° F_) Magnesium Alloy at 300° F. (Tensile) (R. T. Pi.=83,500 p.s. 1). Figure 4.1221 (©). Elevated Temperature Properties of Forged M (annealed 1 hour st 100° F.) Magnesium Alloy at 400° F. (Tonsil) (R. T. Fi4=83,500 p. 8 i). - Figure 4.1221 (@). Elevated Temperature Properties of Forged O-THTA and AMC ‘588-751 Magnesium Alloy at 200° F. (Tensile) (R. T. Fq=49,000 ps. 1) Figure 4.1221 (0). Elevated Temperature Properties of Forged O-THTA and AMC 588- "T61 Magnesium Alloy at 300° F. (Tensile) (R. T. P= 49,000 p. s. i) Figure 4.1221 (f). Elevated Temperature Properties of Forged O-LHTA and AMC 588 ‘Tol Magnesium Alloy at 400° F. (Tensile) (R. T. F.=49,000 p. 5. 5.) Figure 4.1221 @). Elevated Temperature Properties of Forged EMSI-H1TA’ Magn ‘Alloy at 300° F, (Tensile) (R. TP y.=87,000 p. 8. 1) Figure 4.1221 (i). Elevated Tempersture Properties of Forged EMS1-HTA’ Magnesium ‘Alloy at 400° F, (Tensile (R, '. Pi,=87,000 p.s. i). Figure 4.1221 (). Elevated Temperature Properties of Forged EMS1-i1TA’ Magnesium ‘Alloy at 600° F. (Tensile) (R. T. Fi4=87,000 p. 5.1) - igure 4.1221 (j). Elevated Temperature Properties of EMSI-HTA Magnesia “alloy ‘8 600° F. (Tensile) (R. T. Fy=87,000 ps. i). « Figure 4.1221 (i). Elevated Temperature Properties of Sand Cast Dowmeial H or Mazio ‘AM265 Magnesium Alloy (Heat Treated and Stabilized) at 200° F, (Tensile and Fa- tigue) go a ‘i - ae Figure 4.1291 (), "Elevated Temperature Properties of Sand Cast Dowmetal Hor Mazlo ‘AM205 Magnesium ‘Alloy (Heat Treated and Stabilized) at 800° F. (Tensile and Fa- eo eee - Fi Figure 4.1221 (mn), “Elevated Temperature Properties of Sand Cast Dowmetsl Hor Marlo AM205 Magnesiim Alloy Heat Treated and Stabilized) at 400° F. (Tense atigue Properties Croop and Stress Rupture Properties Criteria for Design Mechanieal Properties Shear Strengths pb0 . ‘Tonalle Strengths ft ae fit aoe Bearing Strengths : Piltiht eee Columns : Primary Failure Lilt : ae ‘Table 4.21 (@). Column Formulas for Magnesium Alloy Bxtruded Open Shapes. ‘able 421 @). Column Formula for FS-th Magnesium Alley Shot Local Failure oct Pec Column Stress Curves 222.2 ‘Figure 4.28 (a). Allowable Column Stresses for Magnesium Alloy Coluinns + Figure 4.23 (0). Allowable Column Stresses for FS-th Magnesium Alloy Sheet Pate 95 95 97 95 98 9 100 101 101 102 103 103 103 103 0% 108 107 108, 109 110 um na ua as 15 116 nT nz nT 7 nv nz nT nT uy 120 120 18 19CHAPTER 4. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS—Continued CHAPTER ii 43. Beams : 5 ducosag agi Omen te g600adn0enadad 432° Simple Beams 4321 Round Tubes ; Be Figure 4.821. "Bending Moguius of Rupture of Magnesinm Alloy Round ‘Tubing 44 Torsion 441 General 442 Allowable Torsion Shesr Stresses Figure 4.42. Torsional Modulus of Rupture for Magnesium Alloy Round Tubing 435° Combined Loading: . : Bea o oe 46 Joints, Fitings, ond Ports 401 “Joints . ss 4611 Riveted and Bolted Joints 46111 Protruding Head Rivets 4.6112 Flush Rivets. 4.0118 Blind Rivets - | Table 4.6118." Ultimate and Yield Siregt for Blind 568 Atumiium Chery Rivets in ‘Magnesium Sheet. 4.612 Welded Joints 4.6121 Fusion Welds 416122 Spot Welding ee Fi aoe : ‘Table 4.6122 (@). Spotweld Maxim Design Shear Strength Standards for Magnesium ‘Alloys - aoe oor oer ‘Table 4.6122 (. “Minimum Edge Distances for Spotweld Joint 4.618 Adhesive Bonded Joints ae ; . 5, MISCELLANEOUS METALS 54 Generel Propeties «= 5.1 Norinal (Room) Temperature Properties SLL Design Mechanical Properties Table 5.111. Design Mechanical Properties —Castings 125 125, 125, 135,a? REFERENCES 141 Las 1451 Lan (@ an ® Lan (6 Lan @ 1a @ Lats 1.526 1.527 (@) 1.527 1.584 L624 1.64 (@) 1.64 (6) am 224 242 25 2.58 2014 262 aa 311 @) a1 ® ae) an @ 3 @ 3.111 @) 3.1110) ane ‘Timoshenko, Theory of Hlastc Stability. MeGraw-Hill, 1986. Federal Specifention No. QQ-M-15la, Metale: General Specification for Inepection of. Amendment—8, March 28, 10945 NACA Technical Report No. 649, The Pack Method for Compressive Teste of Thin Specimens of Materials Used in Thin-Wall Structures. Aitchison and Tuckerman, 1989, ‘Study of the Porming Properties of Aluminum Alloy Sheet ot Elevated Temperatures. OPRD Project. (1) Part X, Tensile Properties at Elevated Temperatures after Prolonged Times at Temperature. OPRD W148. 1945. (2) Part XI, Bearing Properties of 248-7 Sheet and Shear Strength of 248-7 Rivets at Klesated Temperatures after Prolonged Heating. OPRD-W-165. 194. (8) Part XII, Stree Rupture and Creep Tests in Tension at Blevated Temperatures. OPRD-W-216. 1945. Compreasise Propertios at Elesated Temperature after Prolonged Heating (Flanigan, Tedsen and Dorn). Proc. ASTM 1946, Vol. 46, pp. 951-070. High Temperature Properties of Light Alloys (NA~187): Part I~-Aluminum (Wym 1944 High Temperature Properticn of Light Alloys (NA-187): Part II—Magnestum (Wyman). OSRD Report ‘M202, 1944, ‘Tensile and Creep Strengths of Some Magnesium Base Alloys at Bleeated Temperetures (Moore and MeDonal). Proc. ASTM 1946, Vol. £6, pp. 970-090. Compressive Properties at Erated Temperatures efter Prolonged Heating (Planigan, Tedsen and Dora). Proc. ASTM 1046, Vol. 46, pp. 051-970. Corrugated Panels Under Combined Compression and Shear Load (Sanderson and Fischel). Journal of Aero- nitieal Sciences, February 1940, Jackson, L. R., Grover, H. J., MeMaster, R. C., Sureey af Avaitable Information on the Behavior of Aireraft ‘Materials and Structures Under Repeated Load. War Metallurgy Committee Survey Project SPX27. 31 December 1045 (Battelle Memorial Institute). Jackson, L. R., Grover, H. J., and MeMaster, R. C., Battelle Memorial Insitute, Advisory Report of Fatigue Propertice of Aireraft Moterials and Structures. O8RD No. 6600, Serial No. M-658. ‘The Stability of Thin-Walled Tubes Under Torsion. NACA TN No. 70 Aluminum Research Laboratories Technical Peper No. 1, Column Strength of Various Aluminum Alloys. Local Instability of Centrally Loaded Columns of Channel Section and Z-Section (Lundquist). NACA TN 722. Locat Instability of I, Z, Channel, and Rectangular Tube Sections (Stowell and Lundquist). NACA TN 743. NACA Index No. 7529, Inder of Aiterat Structures Reecarch Reports, June 1847. Aircraft Tabing Data, Summerill Tubing Co., Bridgeport, Monta County, Penasylvania, ‘National Bureau of Standards Report, Revision of Fig. 4-22, ANC-6, Torsional Modulus of Rupture of Round “Alloy Steal Tubing. NBS N Navy Dept. Bureau of Aeronautics Structures Memo No. 12, Strength of Heat~Treated Cl ‘enum—Stel Tubing Under Combined Loading. Strength of Tubing Under Combined Azial and Transverse Loading (Tuckerman, Petrenko, and Johnson) NACA TN 307. ANO-23.. “Sandwich Construction for Atreraft" Parte I and II ‘Strength of Welded Airerat Jointe (Bruggeman). NACA Report No. 884. ‘The Elastic Constants for Wrought Alwninum Alloy. NACA TN 968, Factors Influencing the Fatigue Strength of Materiais. NACA TN No. 887. Mosely, D. Le, Notch Effcte in High Strength Aluminum Allay Spar Caps. J. Aero, Sct, Vol. 18, 1946, p. 397 Behapiro, L., and North, H. E,, Notch Sensitivity of High Strength Aluminum Alloye, Theoretical Aspects. J ‘Aero. Sei, Val. 13, 1946, p, 201. Schapiro, I., and Filing, RH., Sires Notch Sensitivity With Receniric Holes, ‘Trans. A.8. M. E., Vol.70, 1948, . 135) Stevenson, C. H., The Rffects of Open Holes on the Tensile Strength of Some Aluminum Alloys. J. Aero. Se, Vol. 13, 1946, p. 895, Mosely, D. L., Notch Effects in High Strength Aluminum Alloy Spor Cops. J. Aero. Sci, Vol. 18, 1946, p. 397 Schapiro, L., and North, H. E., Notch Seneitivity of High Strength Aluminum Alloys, Theoretical Aspect. J ‘Acro., Sel, Vol. 18, 1946, p. 891. Schapiro, I., and Ksling, R. H.y Stree Notch Sensitivity With Becentrie Holes. ‘Trans, A. 8, ME. Vol 70,1948, . 135. ). OSRD Report M-251, sromium—Molyb-311 @ 3.112 (@) 3112 0) 312 3.112 (@) aaa 3.1022 (@) 3.1922 0) 3.120 3.1224 3.188 (a) 3.138 0) 3.183 (0) 3.133 @ 3.188 (©) 3611 3.6112 4.111 @ 4111 6) 411 ag 412 @) 412 @ 4.122 4.1922 4,321 Stevenson, C. H., The Effects of Open Holes on the Tensile Strength of Some Aluminum Alloys. J. Aero. Se, Vol. 18, 1946, p. 395. Effect of Grain Direction on Fatigue Properties of Aluminum Alloys. Project Engineering, July 1960. How to Use High-Strength Aluminum Alloy, Aviation Wees, October 10, 1949, Static and Fatigue Strength of High-Strength Aluminum-Alloy Bolted Joints. NACA TN No. 2276, 1951 Results of Shear Potigue Teste of Joints with Sieinch Diameter 248-781 Rivets in 0.004 inch Thick Aletad Sheet NACA TN No. 2012. NACA TN No. 848, A Summary of Results of Various Investigations of the Mechanical Properties of Alumunem Alloys At Low Temperatures. By B. C, Hartman and W. H. Sharp. Compressive Propertica of Aluminum Alloy Sheet at Elevated Temperatures (Flanigan, Tedsen and Dorn). Proc. ASTM, 1946, Vol. 46, pp. 951-970 Part XI: Bearing Propertice of 218-7 Sheet ond Shear Stength of 248-T Rivets af Elevated Temperatures after Prolonged Heating. OPRD-W-165. 1944. Part XII: Stress Rupture and Creep Teste in Tension al Elevated Temperatures. OPRD-W-216, 1945, High Temperature Properties of Light Alloys (NA-137): Part I, Aluminum (Wyman). OSRD Report M-261. 1944. NACA TN No, 901, dated August 1943, Bearing Strengths of Some Wrought-Aluminum Alloys NACA TN No. $20, dated December 1948, Bearing Strengths of Bare and Alclad XA 768-7’ ond 248-81 ‘Aluminum Alloy Shee. NACA TN No. 974, dated February 1945, Beoring Strengths of 758-1 Aluminum Short and Betruded Angle, NACA TN No. 981, dated June 1945, Bearing Strengths of 248-T Aluminum Alloy Plate NACA TN No, 1172, dated March 1047, Comparative Teste on Extruded 148-T and Extruded 248-T Hat- ‘Shape Stifener Sections NACA TN No. 042 (Restricted), dated July 1944, The Shear Sicength of Aluminum Alloy Driven Rivets as “Affected by Increasing Dt Ratios. Report on Flush Riveted Joint Strength. ARC Rivet and Serew Allowables Sub-committee (Airworthiness Project 12), Revised May 25, 1948 Meriatn, J. Te, and Dorn, John E., Properties and Heat Treatment af Magnesium Alloys: Pat 11, Notch Sensi- tivity of Magnesium Allays. OSRD No. 1819. Dorn, John E,, and others, Properties and Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys: Part V, Section I, The Sensi- tivity of Magnesium Alloy Sheet to Drilled, Reamed, and Punched Holes; Patt V, Section II, The Notch Sensi- tivity of Magnesium Alloy Extrusions and the Influence of Various Factors. O8RD No. 3043, Final Report, December 1943 (NRC Research Project NRC-21). Doan, J. P., and MeDenald, J. C., The Notch Sensitivity in Static and Impact Loading of Some Magnesium Base Alloys. Proceedings, A.8.'T. M., Vol. 46, 1946, Found, George H., The Notch Sensitivity in Fatigue Loading of Some Magnesium-Base end Aluminum-Base Alloys. Proceedings ASTM, 1946, Tensile and Creep Strengths of Some Magnesiuen-Base Alloys at Elevated Temperatures (Moore and Me Donald). Proc. ASTM, 1946, Vol. 45, pp. 970-900. MeDonatd, John C., Tensile, Creep and Fatigue Properties of some Magnesium-Base Alloy. Proceedings A. 8.7. M,, 1948, High Temperature Properticeof Light Alloys (NA-187): Part II, Magnesium (Wyman), OSRD Report M-202, 1048. High Temperature Properties of Light Alloys (NA-I97): Part 1, Magnesium (Wyman). OSRD Report ‘M-202, 1044. Bening Sirength of Rownd Magnesium Tubing. Dow Chemical Company Report.CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 1.1. Purpose and Use of Document 1.11 Ivropvertox. Since many aircraft manufacturers supply airplanes for both com- mercial and military use, standardization of the requirements of the various Governmental pro- curing or certifieating agencies is of direct benefit to the manufacturer. Although the types and Purposes of military aircraft often differ greatly from those of commercial aircraft, necessitating certain differences in the structural requirements, the requirements for strength of materials. and elements have for some time been nearly identical ‘This publication has therefore been prepared to eliminate the necessity for referring to different handbooks and bulletins in ealculating the allow- fable stresses_or minimum. strength of typical structures. With a few exceptions (which are noted in the appropriate places) the material contained herein is acceptable to the Air Forces, Bureau of Aeronauties of the Navy, and the Civil ‘Aeronauties Administration, 112 Score or Docuarsr. Only the most, commonly used materials and elements are included in this publication, Until « structural material or element has been used for some time and in considerable quantities, the strength properties will probably vary considerably as manufacturing processes are improved and modi- fied. In such cases special rulings should be obtained by the manufacturer from the procuring or certificating agency. ‘These rulings will be based upon specimen tests and will eventually form a basis for standard accepted strength properties. In addition to the strength of the materials and elements themselves, there are contained herein some of the more commonly-used methods and formulas by which the strength of various structural components are calculated. In some eases the methods presented are empirical and subject to further refinement. Likewise, it is expected that additional material can be added from time to time as the methods of handling new problems become more uniform and reliable. Engineers making use of the material contained herein are invited to submit comments and sugges- tions as to the expansion and improvement of the document, Such comments should be submitted directly to the Munitions Board, Washington 25, D.C. Attention ANC-5, Panel of the Subcom- mittee on Aircraft Design Criteria, 1.13 Use or Drstex Mrcuanicay Proper muss. It is customary to assign minimum values to certain mechanical properties of materials for procurement specification purposes. In general. but not necessarily in all cases, the design mechan- ical properties given herein are based on these minimum values. The manner in which these design mechanical properties are to be used will depend on the type of structure being investigated and will be definitely specified in the detailed structural requirements of the procuring or licensing agencies. ‘The use of the different design mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, etc., the factors of safety associated with them, and the arbitrary reductions in allowable stresses which may be considered necessary in particular cases, will not be taken up in detail herein, information of this sort being in the nature of specific requirements which do not affect the material properties as such. 1.2 Standard Structural Symbols A—Area of cross section, square inches. @—Subseript “allowable.” B—Slendorness ratio factor. (See equation 1:392,) . }—Width of sections; subscript “bending.” r—Subseript “bearing.” (O—Circumference. ixity coefficient for columns; distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber; sub- script “compression.” er—Subseript “eritieal.” D—Diameter. d—Depth or height; mathematical operator denoting differential.E—Modulus of last ratio of stress to strain for stress below proportional limit. ¢—Blongation, this factor being a measure of the ductility of the material and being based on a tension test; unit deformation ‘or strain; eccentricity; subscript for Euler's formula; subscript “endurance.” —The minimum distance from s hole centerline to the edge of the sheet E’—Bffective modulus of clasticity. E,—Modulus of elasticity in compression; average ratio of stress to strain below proportional limit. B,—Secant modulus, E-—Tangent modulus F—Allowable stress, f-Internal (or ealeulated) stress, Fi—Allowable bending stress, modulus of rup- ture in bending. fe—Intornal (or ealeulated) primary bendis stress, fi—Internal (or calculated) precise bending stress, Fye—Endurance limit in bending. for—Internal (or ealeulated) bearing stress, Fin—Ultimate bearing stress, Fiy—Yield bearing stress. F.—Allowable compressive stress, Internal (or ealculated) compressive stress Fe—Allowable crushing or crippling str (upper limit of column stress for local failure), Fee—Column yield stress (upper limit of col- ‘umn siress for primary failure). Fey—Proportional limit in compression. Fac—Ultimate compressive stress, Fay—Compressive yield stress. F,—Allowable normal stress, fc—Internal (or calculated) normal stress. F,—Allowable shearing stress. fr—Internal (or calculated) shearing stress. F,,,—Critical shear stress for buckling of rectangular panels. Fa—Endurance limit in torsion. F,y—Proportional limit in shear. Far—Modulus of rupture in torsion. Fr-Ultimate stress in pure shear. ‘This value represents the average shearing stress over the ross section. Fr—Allowable tensile stress. Je—Internal (or calculated) tensile stress, Fiy~Proportional limit in tension sts of Ultimate tensile stress (from standard specimens) Fiy—Tensile yield stress at which permanent strain equals 0,002 (from tests of stand- ard specimens), G—Modulus of rigidity. = H— Height or depth; especially the distance between centroids of chords of beams and trusses, J-Moment of inertia 4 Slope (due to bending) of neutral plane of a beam, in radians (1 radian=57.3°). J,—Polar moment of inerti F—Torsion constant (=I, for round tubes). j—Stiffness factor= yET/P. K—A constant, generally empirieal ksi—Kips (1,000 pounds) per square inch. I—Length; subscript “lateral.” Lot used, to avoid confusion with nu- meral 1.) M—Applied moment or couple, usually a bending moment. os M,—Allowable bending moment. ibscript “normal.” P—Applied load (total, not unit loed). Subscript “polar”; subscript. “proportional Timit.” P.—Allowable load. Pounds per square inch. Q—Static moment of a cross section, eae R--Stress ratio Radius. S—Shear force. s—Subscript “shear.” —Applied torsional moment torque. tThickness. T.—Allowable torsional moment. U—Factor of utilization. w—Subseript “ultimate.” vy Ww to—Specifie weight, Ib/eu. in. x s—Distance along clastic eurve of » beam. y—Deflection (due to bending) of elastic curve ‘of a beam; distance from neutral axis to given fiber; subscript “yield.” Z—Section modulus, Z]y. Z,—Polar section modulus=J,ly (lor round tubes) 4 (delta) Deflection, 4 (phi)—Angular deflection. p (ho)—Radius of gyration. # (mu)—Poisson’s ratio, * (prime)—In general denotes an “effective” or “precise” value. 1.3 Commonly Used Formulas 1.31 GuxenaL. ‘The formulas of the following sections are listed for reference purposes. ‘The sign conventions generally accepted in their use are that quantities associated with tensile action (lond, stress, strain, etc.) are considered as posi- tive, and quantities associated with compressive action are considered as negative. When compres- sive notion is of primary interest, however, it is sometimes convenient to consider the associated quantities to be positive. 1.82 Simpun Unrr Sraesses PIA (tension). A (compression). MylI=MIZ. 11324 f,=S/A (average direct. shear stress) 11325 f,=SQ/Zb (longitudinal or transverse shear stress) 15. fa= Typ (Shear stress in round tubes due to torsion) 1.327 fi=T/2At (Shear stress due to torsion in ‘thin-walled structures of elosed sec tion. Note that A is the area enclosed by the median line of the section). 1.33 Counnvep Srresses (see sec. 1.535) 1.331 fasfetfe (compression and bending) 1.382 f= VF Gel2) (compression bend- ing, and torsion). 1.333 fe, —Sal2+h, 1.34 Durmeetions (Axial) 1341 ¢=4/L (unit deformation or strain) 1.342 E=fle (this equation applies when E is to be found from tests in which f and ¢ are measured). 1343 §=eL=(//E)L "LAE (this equation applies when the deflection is to be calculated using a known value of E) Se 1,35 Deruzertons (Bending) 1.351 difdz=M/EI (change of slope per unit length of beam, radians per unit length) it f° (N/E nae=siopeatpoint2 (The integral denotes the area under the curve of M/EI plotted against 2, between the limits x, and 23) 1.353 nenbila—a)+ [QUE a2) de deflection at point 2. (The it tegral denotes the area under a curve having ordinates equal to M/EI multi- plied by the corresponding distances to point 2, plotted against z, between the Timits 2, and 2) 1358 peyt {idee (The integral denotes the area under the curve of (j) plotted against x, between the limits 2 and 2.) 1.36 Derunctios (Torsion) 1.361 dglds=T/GI (change of angular deflee- tion or twist per unit length of member, radians per unit length), nat o-[(ri@iemtaa oi ovr # length from 2; to 2. (The integral de~ notes the area under the curve of T/QT plotted against x, between the limits 2 and 7.) 1,362: ¢=TL/@J (used when torque T is constant over length L). 1.37 Transversh Duronwartons unit Interal deformation ‘axial deformation 1.352 nat point 2. 1371 p=ele= (Poisson's ratio) 1372 Ee=f.—wh 1373 Be=f,—nle 1.38 Baste Cowan Fomcuuas 1.381 F,,=er#/(Ljp)* Euler formula for long columns). =sE(L! |p)? where L’=L| Ve. 13812 F.—erE’/(Lip)? (modified Euler for- ‘mula for short columns). 1382 F.=F..{1 —K{(L'{p) in B)Fe eral parabolic formula). 1883 FF oy (1 —Fu(L'/o)*/4°E] (2.0 pa- rabola—Johnson formula) = 1.384 F.= Fe. {1—0.3027 ((L’ |)! yE]Feal* (1.5 parabola). } (gon‘eo [1 —0.385(L' Jp)" VETFe.] (1.0 parabola—straight line formula) 1.39 Baste Couumn Formvutas (Non-dimen- sional) [Fes (allowable stress ratio). 1.392 B=(L'/p)/nE]Fe. (slonderness ratio factor). 1/B)! (Buler formula). KB" (general parabolic for- =0.25B" (2.0 parabola—John- son formula). —0.3027B" (1.5 parabola) 5B (1.0 parabola—straight line formula). 1.4 Basic Principles and Definitions 141 Gexenat, It is assumed that engineers using this document are thoroughly familiar the basic principles of strength of materials, such as can be found in any standard text book on this subject. A brief summary of such material is presented here for the sake of uniformity and to emphasize certain principles of special importance. ‘The design mechanical properties of various metals and elements are given in the tables in each chapter. 142 Stes 1421 General. ‘The term stress as used herein always implies a force per unit area and is a measure of the intensity of the foree.acting on definite plane passing through a given point. (Gee equations 1.321 and 1.822.) The stress dis- tribution may or may not be uniform, depending fon the nature of the loading condition. For example, tensile stresses as found from equation 1.321 are considered to be uniform, while the bending stress determined from equation 1.323 refers to the stress at a point located at a distance y from the neutral axis. Obviously the stress over the cross section of a member subjected to bending is not uniform. Likewise the shear stresses caused by a shearing lond are not uniform. (Equation 1.324 gives the average stress.) 1422 Normal and shear stresses. ‘The stresses acting at a point in any stressed member ean be resolved into components acting on planes through the point. ‘The normal and shear stresses acting on any particular plane are the stress components per- pendicular and parallel, respectively, to the plane. A simple conception of these stresses is that normal stresses tend to pull apart (or press 4 together) adjacent particles of the material, while shear stresses tend to cause such particles to slide on each other. 143. Stearn 1.431 Azial strain. This term refers to. the elongation, per unit length, of a member or portion of amember in astressed condition. (See equation 1.341.) The term “strain” should not be used in place of the terms “elongation” and “deflection.” 1.432 Lateral strain. ‘The axial strain of member is always accompanied by a lateral strain of opposite sign. ‘The ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain is called Poisson's ratio and is designated as x. ‘Tho value of y, is usnally between 0.25 and 0.33 for stecl and the aluminum alloys. 1.433 Shearing strain. If a square element of uniform thickness is subjected to pure shear there will be a displacement of each side of the clement relative to the opposite side. The shearing strain is obtained by dividing this dis- placement by the distance between the sides of the clement. It should be noted that shearing strain is obtained by dividing a displacement by a dis- tance at right angles to the displacement whereas axial strain is obtained by dividing the deforma tion by a length measured in the same direction as the deformation. 144. Texstur Propeetes 1.441. General. When a specimen of a certain material is tested in tension using the standard testing procedures of reference 1.441, it is cus- tomary to plot the results of such atest as a “stress-strain diagram.” ‘This diagram forms the basis for most strength specifications and should be thoroughly undorstood and frequently applied by all engineers. Typical tensile dingrams, not to scale, are shown in figure 1.441. ‘Typical stress- strain diagrams drawn to scale appear in appro- priate chapters for the general information of the users of this document. Tt should he noted that the strain seale is nondimensional, while the stress scale isin pounds per square inch. ‘The important physical properties which ean be shown on the stress-strain diagram are discussed in the following sections. 1442 Modulus of elasticity (E). Referring to figure 1.441, it will be noted that the first part of the diagram is substantially a straight line. ‘This indicates @ constant ratio between stress and strain over that range. ‘The numerical value of the ratio is called the Modulus of Elasticity, denoted by E. It will be noted that His the slopePst STRESS, YIELD STRESS ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (a) MATERIAL HAVING A DEFINITE YIELD POINT (SUCH AS SOME STEELS) STRESS — PSI STRAIN — INCHES PER INGH ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS Teun srness PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (b) MATERIALS NOT HAVING A DEFINITE YIELD POINT (SUCH AS ALUMINUM ALLOYS, MAGNESIUM, AND SOME STEE 0k STRESS —PSI STRAIN — INCHES PER INCH PRIMARY MODULUS LINE SECONDARY MODULUS LINE. ~ ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS (6) CLAD ALUMINUM ALLOYS 008 STRAIN — INCHES PER INCH Figure £461. Typical tensile streasatrain diagrams.of the straight portion of the stress-strain diagram and is determined by dividing the stress (in pounds per square inch) by the strain (which is nondimensional). (See equation '.342.)There- fore, HE has the same dimensions as a stress; in this ‘ease pounds per square inch. A useful conception of His “the stress at which the member would have elongated a distance equal to its original length (assuming no departure from the straight portion of the stress-strain dingram).” This can be easily understood from equation 1.342 by con- sidering that &=Z in equation 1.341, making the strain ¢ equal to 1.0, Other moduli that are often of interest are the tangent modulus E,, and the secant modulus E;, ‘The tangent modulus is the slope of the stress- strain diagram at. point corresponding to a given stress while the secant modulus is the slope of a line drawn through the same point and the origin. Clad aluminum alloys have two separate modulus values, as indicated in the typical curve presented in figure 1.441. The initial modulus is the same as for the other aluminum alloys, and holds only up to the proportional limit of the relatively soft covering. Immediately above this point there is a short. transition range and the material then exhibits » secondary modulus up to {he proportional limit of the stronger core material ‘This secondary modulus is the slope of the second straight line portion of the diagram. Both values of the modulus are based on the gross area of the piece, core plus covering. 1.443 Tensile proportional limit (Fy). Since itis practically impossible to determine the stress ‘at which the stress-strain diagram begins to depart from a straight line, it is customary to assign a small value of permanent strain for this purposi In this document the limit of proportionality will be taken as the stress at which the stress-strain diagram departs from a straight line by a strain of 0.0001. ‘This property or characteristic of a material gives an indication of the type of stress- strain diagram which applies in the working range. It also indicates tho stress beyond which the standard value of E cannot be accurately applied ‘This is of special interest in the analysis of re- dundant structures, 1444 Tensile yield stress (Fy). ‘The stress- strain diagrams for somo steels show a sharp break ata stress considerably below the ultimate tensile stress, At this critical stress the material elon- Bates considerably with little or no increase in stress. (See fig. 1441.) The stress at which this 6 takes place is referred to as the yield point. Non- ferrous metals, and some steels do not show th sharp break but yield more gradually so that there is no definite yield point. ‘This condition is illus~ trated in figure 1.441. Since permanent deforma- tions of any appreciable amount are undesirable in most structures, it is customary to adopt an arbitrary amount of permanent strain that is con- sidered admissible for general purposes. The value of this strain has been established by material testing engineers as 0.002, and the cor responding stress is called the yield stress. For practical purposes this may be determined from the stress-strain dingram by drawing a line parallel to the straight or elastic portion of the curve through a point representing zero stress and 0.002 strain. (See fig. 1.441.) The yield stress is taken_as the stress at the intersection of this straight fine with the stress-strain curve. 1445. Ultimate tensile stress (Fy). Figure 1.441 shows how the ultimate tonsile stress is determined from the stress-strain diagram. It is simply the stress at the maximum load reached in the test. Tt should be noted that all stresses are based on the original cross-sectional area of the test specimen, without regard to the Iateral con- traction of the specimen which actually occurs during the test. ‘The ultimate tensile stress is commonly used as criterion of the strength of the ‘material, but it should be borne in mind that most. modern aircraft structures have relatively few members which are critical in. tension; conse- ‘quently, other strength properties may often be more important. 145 Compressive Prorensis 1.451 General. ‘The results of compression tests can be plotted as stress-strain diagrams similar to those shown in figure 1.441 for tension. ‘The preceding remarks (with the exception of those Pertaining to ultimatestress) concerning the pocifie tensile properties of the material apply in a similar manner to the compressive properties. It should be noted that the moduli of elasticity in tension and compression are approximately equal for most of the commonly used structural materials, Special considerations concerning the ultimate compres- sive stress are taken up in the following section ‘An example of a method of obtaining compressive strength properties of thin shect material is out~ Tined in referrence 1.451. 1452 Ultimate compressive stress (Fay). Tt is diffieult to discuss this property without reference vto column action. Almost any piece of material, unless very short, tends to buckle laterally as a column under compressive loadings, and the load at failure usually depends on the relation of the Tength of the piece to its cross-sectional dimen- sions. Column failure eannot occur, however, when & piece is very short in comparison with its cross-sectional dimensions, or when it is restrained laterally by external means. Under these condi- tions some materials such as stone, wood, and fa few metals will fail by fracture, thus giving a definite value for the ultimate compressive stress. Most metals, however, are so ductile that no frac- ture is encountered in compression Instead of fracturing, the material yields and swells out, 80 that the increasing area continues to support the increasing load. It is almost impossible to select fa value for the ultimate compressive stress of such materials without having some arbitrary criterion. For wrought metals it is common practice to as- sume that the ultimate compressive stress is equal to the ultimate tensile stress. For some cast metals which ‘are relatively weak in tension, an ultimate compressive stress higher than the ulti- mate tensile stress may be obtained from tests on short compact specimens. When tests are made on, such specimens having an Z/p approximately equal to 12, the ultimate stress so obtained is called the block compressive stress. 1.46 Suzan Pnorseres 1.461 General, ‘The results of torsion tests on round tubes or round solid sections are sometimes plotted as torsion stress-strain diagrams. ‘The ‘modulus of elasticity in shear as determined from such a diagram is a basic shear property. Other properties, such as the proportional limit and ultimate shearing stress, cannot be treated as basic properties because of the “form factor” effects. 1.462 Modulus of rigidity (@). This property is the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing strain at low loads, or simply the initial slope of the stress-strain diagram for shear. It is also called the modulus of elasticity in shear. ‘The relation between this property, Poisson’s ratio, and the modulus of elasticity in tension, ‘s ex- pressed for homogeneous materials by the follow- ing equation: --- (1.4621) ‘This corresponds to the value E and will apply in calculating the shear deftection of webs, pro- vided that no wrinkling occurs. 1.463 Proportional limit in shear (F,,). This property is of particular interest in. conneetion with formulas which are based on considera of perfect elasticity, as it represents the limiting value of shearing stress to which these formulas can be accurately applied. As previously noted, this property eannot be determined direetly from torsion tests. The results of research at the National Bureau of Standards show that the ratio of the proportional limit in shear to the propor- tional limit in tension can be assumed to be sp- proximately 0.55 for the commonly used materials. 1.464 Yield and ultimate stresses in shear. ‘These properties, as usually obtained from torsion tests, are not strictly basic properties as they will depend on the shape of the test specimen. In such cases they should be treated as moduli and should be used only with specimens which are geometrically similar to those from which the test results were obtained. 147 Cxnne ann Sreess-Ruprune Properties: LA71 General. ‘The results of tests of mate- rials under a constant load at elevated tempera- tures are ususlly initially plotted as strain versus time (creep) up to the time of rupture. However, many combinations of the data obtained in these tests are possible and have resulted in many differ ent types of plots. Data included in this publiea- tion are as described in the sections below. A typical plot of creep-rupture data is shown in sure L471. ‘The strain indicated in this curve includes the initial instantaneous deformation due to loading. From this curve are obtained the stress-rupture curve, the minimum creep curve, the total deformation curve, and the other param eters shown in figures 3.1221 (a) to 3.1221 @ Figwe 1471, Typical evep-ruplure curve1.472 Total creep. This value is defined as the total strain at any given time including initial strain. It is given in percent and may be used to estimate the deformation or deflection of strue- tural parts for given loads and temperatures. 1473 Minimum creep rate. After an initial lange strain due to loading, the rate of strain in a creep specimen usually gradually decreases to a constant value (except for high stress), for a time dependent on the test conditions. ‘This strain rate is the minimum encountered in the test and is defined as the creep rate. 1474 Transition point. Subsequent to the constant. creep rate described in the previous section an increase in creep rate occurs, in genoral, which continues up to the rupture point of the material. The inflection point. between the con- stant creep and increasing creep rate is defined as the transition point. Failure generally occurs fa relatively short time after the transition point. Transition points may not occur at very low stresses or may not be definable at very high stresses. 1.475 Rupture stress. ‘The stress at which rupture will occur under constant load conditions is defined as the rupture stress. ‘This stress varies inversely with time for constant temperature con- ditions. Rupture stress data are generally used in design if the amount of deformation allowable is not the eritieal factor. 1.48 Farious Propertins 1.481 General. The results of fatigue tests are usually plotted as stress versus the number of cycles needed to cause failure. This stress is usually the maximum stress in a single eycle, Many variations of the common completely 1 versed stressing are used, however, in such cases the stress deseription is not complete if the ma ‘mum stress only is recorded. Figure 1.481 indi- cates the type of stressing which might occur and indicates some of the parameters which affect the fatigue life of a material under fluctuating stresses 1.482. Stress, ‘The stress eycle through which a material is subjected may be,of several types even in the commonly accepted sinusoidal varin~ tions shown in figure 1.481. ‘To completely de- seribe the stress history the following definitions of stress conditions are used, all of which may affect the fatigue life, either independently or in con- junction with one or more of the other conditions 1.4821 Maximum stress is the highest algebraic stress reached in a single cycle. TENSILE LOADING — MINIMUM STRESS GREATER THAN ZERO le] glEle Zag AB 8 ae g aes = eR Ee a [_ — Lat] TENSILE LOADING-MINIMUM STRESS LESS THAN ZERO Vi | ‘COMPLETELY REVERSED LOADING INIMON. STRESS AMPLITUDE CYCLES Figure 1.481. Typical fatigue loadings. 1.4822 Minimum stress is the lowest algebraic stress reached in a single eyele. 1.4823 Mean stress is the stress midway be- «tween the maximum and minimum stress. In the completely reversed test this stress is zero. 1.4824" Stress range is the stress variation be- tween maximum and minimum. 1.4825 Sires amplitude is the stress variation between mean and maximum or between mean and ‘minimum and is one-half the stress range. 1.5. Types of failures 1.51 Gexzran. In the following discussion the term “failure” will usually denote actual rup- ture of the member, or the condition of the mem- ber when it has just attained its maximum load 1.52) Marmniat Parwures 1.521 General. Fracture of a material may occur by either a separation of adjacent particles across a section perpendicular to the direction of loading, or by a sliding of adjacent particles along In some cases the mechanism of failure includes both of these actions. For instance, in a simple tension test sliding action along inclined sections may oceur first with a consequent redue- tion in the cross-sectional area of ‘e specimen. This may result in strain hardening of the ma~ terial so that the resistance to sliding is increased, and the final failure may occur by separation of the ‘material across a section perpendicular to. the direction of the loading. 1,522 Direct tension or compression. ‘This type of failure is associated with the ultimate tensile or ‘compressive stress of the material. For compres- sion it ean apply only to members having large cross-sectional dimensions as compared to the length in the direction of the load. (See also sec. 1.452.) 1,523 Shear. Pure shear failures are usually obtained only when the shear lond is transmitted ‘over a very short length of the member. This eom- dition is approached in the ease of rivets and bolts. In cases where the ultimate shear stress is rela- tively low a pure shear failure may result, but in general a member subjected to a shear load fails ‘under the action of the resulting normal stresses (equation 1.333), usually the compressive stresses. ‘The failure of a Lube in torsion, for instance, is not usually caused by exceeding the allowable shear stress, but by exceeding a certain allowable normal compressive stress which causes the tube to buckle. It is customary, for convenience, to determine the allowable stresses for members subjected to shear in the form of shear stresses. Such allowable shear stresses are therefore an indirect measure of the stresses actually causing failure, 1.624 Bearing. The failure of a material in bearing may consist of crushing, splitting, or pro- gressive rapid yielding in the region where the load is applied. Failure of this type will depend, to large extent, on the relative size and shape of the two connecting parts. The allowable bearing stress will not always be applicable to eases in which one of the contacting members is relatively thin, It is also necessary, for practical reasons, to limit the working bearing stress to low yalues in such cases as joints subjected to reversals of load or in bearings between movable surfaces. These special eases are covered by specific rulings of the procuring or licensing agencies, involving the use of higher factors of safety in most cases. 1.525 Bending. For compact. sections not subject to instability, a bending failure can be classed as a tensile oF compressive failure caused by exceeding a certain allowable stress in some portion of the specimen. It is customary to determine, experimentally, the “modulus of rup- ture in bending,” which is a stress derived from test results through the use of equation 1.323 in which case M is the value of bending moment which caused failure. If not determined experi- mentally, the value of the modulus of rupture in bending may be assumed equal to the ultimate tensile stress when instability is not critical. Since equation 1.823 is based on assumptions which are not always fulfilled at failure, the modulus at failure cannot be considered as the actual stress at the point of rupture. This should be borne in mind in deeling with combined stresses, such as bending and compression, or bending and torsion. 1.526 Failure due to stress concentrations. ‘The static strength properties listed for various ma- terials were determined on machined specimens containing no notches, holes, or other avoidable stress raisers. In the design of aircraft structures such simplicity is unattainable, and stress distri- butions are not of the uniform quality obtained in the specimen tests. Consideration must be given to this condition since maximum stresses in a material, and not average stresses, are the critical factor in design. ‘The effects of stress raisers vary, and references to available specific data aro given in the sections pertaining to each material. 1.527 Failure due to fatigue. Although the component parts of airplane structures are usually designed for statie load conditions, they are sub- jected in service to repeated loads. It is well Known that the strength of @ material under 9repeated loads is Jess than that which would be obtained under static londing. ‘This phenomenon of the decreased strength of a material under repeated loading is commonly called fatigue. Stress raisers, such as abrupt changes im cross section, holes, notches and re-entrant, comers, cause a much greater effect on the fatigue strength than they do on static strength. ‘The local high stress concentrations caused by such stress raisers are often greatly in excess of the nominal caleu- lated stress on the part and consequently it is at such locations that fatigue fractures usually begin. Other factors of major importance in fatigue are the range of a repeated stress cycle, from maximum to minimum stress, and the mean stress in the stress cycle. In the following chap- ters of this document, fatigue data are presented for various materials. These data were obtained in various types of repeated-load tests and are included for general information. ‘They are not to be used as allowable stress values unless their applicability to the ease at. hand has been estab- lished. 1.528 Failure from combined stresses. In com- bined stress conditions where failure is not due to buckling or instability it is necessary to refer to some theory of failure. ‘The “maximum shear” theory has received wide acceptance as a simple working basis in the case of ductile materials. It should be noted that this theory interprets failure as the first yielding of the material, so that any extension of the theory to cover conditions of final rupture must be based on the experience of the designer. ‘The failure of brittle materials under combined stresses ean generally be treated by the “maximum stress” theory. 1.53 Ivsrapmury Fanares 1.531 General. Practically all structu bers such as beams and columns, par ly those made from thin material, are subject to failure through instability. In general, instability can be classed as: (1) Primary, or (2) local. For ex- ample, the failure of a tube under compression may oceur either through lateral deffection of the tube as a column (primary instability), or by collapse of the tube wall at « stress lower than that required to produce a general column fail- ure. Similarly, an F-beam may fail by a genoral sidewise deftection of the compression flange, or by local wrinkling of thin outstanding flanges. | Tt is obviously necessary to consider both types of failures unless it is apparent that the critical lond 10 for one type is definitely less than that for the other type. Instability failures may occur in either the elastic range (below the proportional limit) or in the plastie range (above the proportional limit). To distinguish between these two types of action it is not uncommon to refer to them as clastic instability failures and plastic instability failures, respectively. It is important to note that instability failures are not usually associ- ated with the ultimate stresses of the material This should be borne in mind when correcting test results for material variations. It also has a bearing on the choice of a material for a given type of construction as the “strength-weight ratio” will be determined from different physical characteristics when this type of failure can be expected. For materials which have a very small spread between the proportional limit and the yield stress, the plastic instability type of failure occurs in such a narrow range that it is not of much importance, but in materials which have @ considerable spread between these two properties, the plastic instability type of failure may be equally as important as the elastic type In studying any structural member it is im- portant to avoid confusion between the different types of failure, particularly where instability is expected to be important. In general, most members should be investigated first. from the standpoint of failures of material. ‘They should then be checked separately for their resistance to primary instability failure. Members which are suspected of being weak in resisting local instability should also be checked for this third possible type of failure. Whichever type of failure gives the lowest strength should be used as the criterion in design. 1.582 Instability failures under compres loadings. Failures of this type are discussed in section 1.6 (columns). 1.533 Bending instability failures. Failures of round tubes of usual sizes when subjected to bending are usually of the plastic instability type. In stich cases the criterion of strength is the modu- Jus of rupture as derived from test results through the use of equation 1.323. Elastic instability failures of thin-walled tubes having high Die ratios are treated in later sections. 1.534 Torsional instability failures marks of the preceding section apply in a si manner to round tubes under torsional loading. The re- ilarIn such cases the modulus of rupture in tor is derived through the use of equation 1.326. 1.535 Failure under combined loadings. For combined loading conditions in which failure is caused by buckling or instability, no general theory exists which will apply in all cases. Tt is convenient, however, to represent such conditions by the use of ‘stress ratios,” which can be eon- sidered as nondimensional coefficients denot- ing the fraction of the allowable stress or strength which is utilized or which can be developed under special conditions. For simple stresses the stress ratio can be expressed as— (1.5351) where Note that the “margin of safety” as usually ex pressed is given by the equation: M. S.=1/R—1.0__.-___--(1.5352) Considering the ease of combined loadings, the general conditions for failure ean be expressed by equations of the following type: . 10. RePRe+ Ret (1.5358) In this equation R,, R,, and Ry may denote, for instance, the stress ratios for compression, bend- ing, and shear, and the exponents z, y, and = define the general relationship of the quantities. ‘This equation may be interpreted as indicating that failure will occur only when the sum of the stress ratios is equal to or greater than one. An advantage of this method is that the formula yields correct results when only one loading condi- tion is present. Consequently it tends to give good results when any one loading condition pre~ dominates. It also permits test data to be plotted in nondimensional form, which is a de- cided advantage. Tn many cases it is convenient to deal directly with “load ratios” rather than stress ratios. ‘The load ratio is simply the ratio of the applied load to the allowable load and is equal to the eorrespond- ing stress ratio, Considering only two loading conditions, such as bending and torsion, equation 1.5353 can be plotted as a single interaction curve of Ry against R,, Likewise, in the ease of combined bending and compression, R, ean be plotted against Ry. When all three conditions exist, the equation represents ‘an interaction surface, which can be plotted as a family of curves. ‘Typical curves corresponding to various exponents are shown in figure 1.535. ‘The goneral significance of equation 1.5858 and figure 1.535 is that the addition of a second loading con- dition will lower the percentage of the allowable stress which may be utilized in the original loading condition. If the exponents approach infinity, the ‘curve of figure 1.585 will approach the lines R=1.0 and R,=10, indicating that the two loading eon- ditions have no effect on each other. When only two stress-ratios are involved and when the two different applied stresses remain in constant proportion, the margin of safety of the member may be determined from figure 1.535 by the following method: (1) Locate the point on the chart representing tho applied values of R, and R; computed from the applied stresses (illustrated as point (1) on fig. 1.588). 2) Draw a straight line through this point ‘and the origin (hown as a diagonal dotted line on fig. 1.535). (8) Extend this line to intersect the proper stress-ratio curve (corresponding to the condition under consideration) at point @). (A) Read the allowable values Bis and Ree a8 the ordinate and abscissa, respectively, of point (2) (5) The factor of utilization or strength ratio is obtained as the ratio of the applied to the allowable value of either stress ratio as follows: U=R,Ri=Pa[Raw (1.5354) (6) The true margin of safety then can be ‘computed from the following equation: a 7 M. SF (1.5355) Note that when the following stress ratio expres- sions are used, the margins of safety ean be com- puted as indicated For R,+R, M.S. For R2+Rf=1 1Other M.S. formulas can, of course, be determined for the more complicated stress ratio expressions, ‘The general formula for the margin of safety stated analytically for interaction equations where any or all of z, y, and 2 are 1 or 2 but no other figure (exeept one term may be missing) is as follows: M.S.= 2 + VRPT Here the R’ designates the sum of all first power ratios; (R’}? is the square of the same sum; and (R} the sum of the squares of all second-power ratios. ‘The table gives all combinations: Interation forms Maran of sty Rt RE=10 ZeaE RbRe Rao | pA) ReRtRI10 | EE Rt RA+RE=1.0 EE RIS RAE RI=10 z zoe VRE RT Re ‘The practical application of equation 1.5353 will be taken up in the following chapters, LO ae R, REFER TO SECTION 1.535 FOR ANALYTICAL MARGIN OF SAFETY Te 1.6 Columns 1.61 Gexpnat. A theoretical treatment of columns ean be found in standard textbooks on the strength of materials. The problems con- fronting the designer include, however, many points which are not well defined by theory and which frequently cause some confusion, ‘Those will be taken up in this section. Actual strengths of columns of various types are given in subse- ‘quent chapters, 1.62 Priwany Insrannary Fanuarne 1.621 General—A column may fail through primary instability by bending laterally (stable sections) or by twisting about some axis parallel to its own axis. This latter typo of primary failure is particularly common to columns having unsymmetrical open sections. ‘The twisting fal ure of a closed section column is precluded by its inherently high torsional rigidity, Since the avail- able information on twisting instability is some- what limited it may be advisable to conduct tests on all columns subject to this type of failure 1.622 Long columns. (Stable Sections). ‘The Euler formula for long columns which fail by lateral bending is given by equation 1.381. No explanation of this classical formula need be offered, as its derivation can be found in many standard textbooks on the strength of materials. The value to be used for the restraint coefficient, ¢, Hietil 5 & 7 8 9 10 Figure 1.585. Typical interaction eurves for combined loading conditions 12depends on the degree of ond fixation. The true significance of the restraint coefficient is best understood by considering the end restr ‘modifying the effective column length, as indicated in equation 1.381. For « pin-ended column hav- ing zero end restraint e=1.0 and L’=Z. A fixity coefficient of 2 corresponds to a reduction of the effective length to 1/2 or 0.707 times the total length. 1.623 Short columna (Stable Sections). If the length of a column is reduced below a certain critical value, failure in lateral bending will occur at loads below those predicted by the Buler formula, This sin a great part due to a reduction in the effective value of E caused primarily by changes in the slope of the stress-strain diagram ‘and secondarily by unavoidable eccentricities. In this region the test results show moro scatter than in the Buler range and empirical or semi-empirical formulas for predictifig the allowable column stress are often adopted. When a definite eccen- tricity exists, the eritical column loads are reduced due to the combined effects of axial load and bend- ing. Special formulas for such cases can be found in standard textbooks and handbooks Although many types of formulas have been devised to cover the short-column range, it has been customary, in aircraft work, to use the Johnson formula for round steel tubes and the strajght line formula for round aluminum alloy tubes; these formulas are used in this document. Te will be noted that the above column formulas are of the general form given by equation 1.382. For example, the straight line formula is a special case of equation 1.382 in which the exponent rn is equal to 1.0. Ina similar manner the Johnson formula can be obtained from equation 1.382 by setting n equal to 2.0. The above equations strictly apply only to round tube sections as they wore derived from tests on such sections. In many eases, however, they will be found to be satisfactory for sections of other shapes when local instability is not critical. Short column failure can also be expressed by the modified Euler formula in which the elastic modulus is replaced by an effective modulus, 2’, as in the following equation: F=8E'[(L' |p)... .---(1.6231) ‘This equation has come to have much prac tical importance in recent years in determining the short column curve; it is of particular interest to note that an effective modulus equal to the tangent modulus ean usually be used to compute failing stresses. ‘The value of the effective modulus at any given compressive stress, F., can be determined from stress-strain curves for the material. 1.624 Column yield stress (Fes). The upper limit of the allowable column stress for primary failure is called the column yield stress and will be designated Fa. It ean be determined by extend- ing the “‘short-column” curve to & point corre sponding to zero length, ignoring any tendeney of the curve to rise rapidly or “pick-up” for very short lengths. ‘The short-column curve used in determining F., should be obtained from tests on specimens having geometrical proportions stich that local failure is precluded except for very ow values of Z'Jp. When the column yield stress is reached, the walls of the column will tend to buckle unless restrained by extreme shortness, or by the appli- cation of Interal restraining forees. In some cases, however, if the specimen has not been allowed to buckle,the stress may be increased considerably above this value, Due to the danger of buckling when the column yield stress is approached, the Intter should be considered as the limiting stress for all columns, ‘The column yield stress is mainly determined by the nature of the compressive stress-strain dia- gram of the material. When the material has a definite yield point in compression, this value may be assumed for the column yield stress. Fow aircraft materials, however, bave a sharply defined yield point. In such cases it is usually possible to determine the column yield stress as a function of either the tensile or compressive yield stress, For example F,, for round steel ‘ubes is approximately equal to 1.06 times the tensile yield stress; whereas, by reference 1.624, F, for some aluminum alloys, see table 3.21, is approximately equal to Fay (1-+Fe/200,000). Column yield stresses for the various materials are given in the appropriate sections, 1.63 Nowpienstona Conumn Curves 70x Primary FAILURE 1.631 General. On account of the many fac~ tors involved it is often difficult to predict: the effects of possible material variations on the strength of columns as obtained by tests. When the column failure is definitely of the primary bending type it is advisable to plot the test results with nondimensional coefficients, such as are 13employed in reference 2.58. ‘The following coeffi- cients will be adopted for this purpose: R,=allowable stress ratio= F,/F....--.. (1.6311) shore F, =allowable column stress F..=column yield stress Lh —slenderness ratio factor= (0.081: Baslenderess ratio factor=— Gree (1.6812) where L/=L {ye (see equation 1.381) ‘Tho slendemness ratio factor ean be considered as the ratio between the effective slenderness ratio (L'/p) and the (Z'/p) at which the Euler stress for a pin-ended column would equal Fy 1.0; versely as the square of Z’/p). 1.632 Typical column eurces. Typical column curves plotted in terms of these nondimensional coefficients are illustrated in figure 1.632. It will be noted that the Johnson parabolic curve is tan- gent to the Buler curve at a value of R,=0.5; that is, the Buler formula will not apply when it gives stresses higher than half the column yield stress It is also convenient to know that the stresses given by the 1.5 parabolic formula and the straight line formula are equal to those given by the Euler formula at values of R equal to 0.4286 and 0.333, respectively. 1.64 Locan Ivsramnary Faruure, 1.641 General. Columns may fail by a local collapse of the wall at a stress below the primary failure stress. ‘The general equation for the local failure of round tubes is given in the following dO! INSON 1:5 |PARABOL Hae STRAIGHT L1 3.0 Figure 1.882. Various column curves in nondimensional form. 4section. ‘The local failure of columns having cross sections other than those of round tubes is dis- cussed in section 1.65. 1.642 Crushing or crippling stress (Fa). ‘The upper limit of the allowable column stress for local failure is called the erushing or erippling stress and is designated F,.. The crushing stresses of round tubes subject to plastic failure generally can be expressed by a modified form of the equation for the buckling of a thin-walled eylinder in eompres- sion as given below: F.=K yEETDh......-(1.6421) ‘The effective modulus H’ can be determined from the basic column curve for primary failure by the method given in section 1.623, As the value of the effective modulus corresponds to a given value of stress it usually is convenient to: (1) Assume a value of Fa; (2) compute the corresponding value of £’; (3) substitute these values into equation 1.6421 and solve for Dit ‘This latter value is the Dit at which crushing will occur at the assumed stress. Values of the constant K must be determined empirically. As noted above, equation 1.6421 applies to plastic failure; i. e., for stresses above the proportional limit. "In the case of thin-walled tubes which fail locally at stresses below the proportional limit, the initial eccentricities are likely to be larger rela- tively and the constant should be suitably reduced. 1.65 Couvans or Unconventionat Cross Snerion 1.651 General. In the case of columns having unconventional cross sections which are partic- ularly subject to local instability, it is necessary to establish the curve of transition from local to primary failure. In determining the strength curves for such columns, sufficient tests should bbe made to cover the following points: 1.652 Nature of “short column’ curve, ‘The test specimens sold eoser a ange of whi will extend to the Euler range, or at least well beyond the values to be used in construction. When columns are to be attached eccentrically in the structure, some tests should be made to determine the effects of eccentricity. ‘This is important particularly in the case of open sections, as the allowable loads may be affected considerably by the location of the point of application of the column toad 1,653 Local failure. When local failure occurs, the orushing or crippling stress Fa, can be deter- mined by extending the “short column” curve for the specific cross section under consideration to a point corresponding to zero L’/p. When a family of columns of the same general cross section is used, it is often possible to determine a relation- ship between F. and some factor depending on the wall thickness, width, diameter, or some combination of these dimensions. Extrapolations ‘of such data should be avoided by covering an adequate range in the tests 1,654 Reduction of test results on aluminum and magnesium alloys to standard. ‘The use of correction factors given in figures 1.654 is con- sidered satisfactory and is acceptable to the Air Force, Navy, and the Civil Aeronautic Admin- istration for’ use in connection with tests on aluminum and magnesium alloys. (Note that an alternate method is given in par. 1.655.) In using figures 1.654, the correction of the test result to standard is made by multiplying the stress developed in a test of a column specimen by the factor K. This factor may be considered applicable regardless of the type of failure involved (i. e., column crushing or twisting). In figures 1.654, F. is the ultimate compressive stress of the test specimen, F,, is the compressive yield stress of the test specimen, and Fy, (std.) is the standard compressive yield stress as given in Tables 3.111 ‘Acceptable methods for obtaining compressive yield strengths for use in determining values of K from figures 1.654 are as follows: (@) Direct. compressive stress-strain measure- ments of the material of which the test column is made in the direction of loading of the test column. (8) If method (a) is not feasible, the com- pressive stress desired may be obtained from the tensile yield stress as follows: Determine the tensile yield stress of the column test speci- men material by direct tensile stress-strain measurements in a direction parallel to the test column length. Compute the compressive yield stress along the length of the test column by multiplying the tensile yield strength by the proper ratio of the design allowable compressive yield strength to the design allowable tensile yield strength; the ratio chosen should account for the grain direction of the test column. In ease the compression test. column is manufse- ‘ured indiscriminately with respect to material grain, the tensile test specimen should be made with ‘the grain parallel to its length and the 5TOMPRETSNE Tet 2 = ge 7 iD ° 0194s NoUaBEHO0 =» woxovs nousauvon = Figure 1.854 (a). Nondimensional material correction chart Figure 1.854 (0). Nendimensional material correction chart for 248-3 sherk . for 958-73 clad shot Ai eL18t lof flefadf aff! toy Ie sel {e}- ft 2}f 9/8 iB le a e. € & = s woLovs woUoauuos = wo1ow — NtsaHveD =» Figure 1.864 (). Nonilimensional material correction chart Figure 1.854 (®)._ Nondimensianal material correction chart $4227 48-7 extrusions tae ta Ye nck tick ‘for 248-1 extrusions ¥t» 16 ches thick,Sy “Souonesane ve = = * 8 Ww ‘YOLOYS NOILDBNBOD => Figur 1.854 (@). Nondimensional material correction chart for 248-78 tubing18 FS ~ “Naueliesei OLS oraees 8 ¢ 8 & & wo1vs Nolu9a4N09 = Figure 1.854 (f). Nondlimensional moterial correction chart {for 148-13 (R301-T3) clad sheet.Ww g 8 @ #8 & votes nausnivo Figure 1865 (9). Nondinnsionl mater eretion art JoT6ST dad thet aw wl Figure 1.854 (h). Nondimensional material correction chart for M or AM 8S open eztrucions -2 a § z 5 Figure 1.654 (i). Nondimensional material chart for FS-1, J-t, O-1, AM C588, AMC 57S or AMC 688 ‘open extrusions, Figure 1.854 (). Nondimensional material correction chart for AM CB8S-T5 or O-THTA open extrusions,~ Figure 1.854 () Nondimensional material correction chart for PS-th or AM CB2S-H sheet with-the-grain ratio of the design allowable compressive yield to design allowable tensile yield strength for the material should be used. (©) In case neither methods (a) nor (b) are feasible or applicable, it should be assumed that. the compressive yield of the column test specimen parallel to its length is 15 pereent greater than the minimum established design allowable yield strength for the material in the column test specimen. 1.655 Reduction of test results to standard- alternate method. ‘The use of the method of reducing test results to standard illustrated in figure 1.655 is considered satisfactory and acceptable to the Air Force, Navy, and the Civil Aeronautics Administration. This method is con servative for aluminum alloys and is considered an acceptable method for correcting test results for other materials. ‘The following procedure should be used to obtain the corrected test results: (a) Determine the compressive yield strength of the material in the column test specimen by one of the methods outlined in paragraphs 1.654 (a), (6), or (6); for materials other than aluminum alloy use ® method similar to one of those de- seribed in these paragraphs. (6) Construct an Euler curve (see fig. 1.655) for the material in the column test specimen. (©) Plot two straight lines tangent, to the Euler curve with intercepts on the compressive stress ordinate at values determined from the appro- priate formula: Aluminum alloys—F, Magnesium alloys—F. Stedl—F.= Fey One intercept is determined by substituting the compressive yield strength of the material in the appropriate formula and the other by substituting the design allowable compressive yield strength for the material in the test specimen in the formula. @ When the test specimen has been tested, the test value is marked on the compressive stress ordinate, » horizontal line is drawn to intersect the straight lime based on the test material eompressive yield stress. A vertical line is erected at this point of intersection to intersect the other straight line based on the standard compressive yield stress, and « horizontal line extended from this point of intersection back to the compressive stress ordi- nate thus establishing the corrected test stress value. 1.7. Thin-walled and stiffened thin-walled sections ey + Feq/'200,000) 118 Fey 171. Guwwnan. A bibliography of informa- tion compiled by the National Advisory Com- mittee for Aeronautics on thin-walled and stiffened thin-walled sections is contained in reference 1.71 anULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRESS THOUSANDS PSI SLENDERNESS RATIO Figure 1.656, Mustrative material correction curses for columns (alternate method)e CHAPTER 2 STEEL 21 General properties 2.11 Norman (Room) Taurznature Pnor- ERTIES 2.111 Design mechanical properties. ‘The gen- eral strength properties and the related charac- teristics of various steels at normal (room) temper- ature are listed in tables 2.111, Particular attention should be paid to the detailed notes at the bottom of each table. ‘Table 2.111 (a). Design Mechanioal Propertion* of Plain Carbon Steels (Kipe Per Square Inch) Sorta : ‘conten co a : ‘Take han : AN 1 Wee ot with tapered weld at eee 0" es he earn, cx ath wes formed yea of res ares, hr wate Sloss teeth weld ea be seamed to be t00 Sundar racial eyes are xen ine. L2 0. 11 Stoel paral to dst fling, T=teasvers,rerendi rt aretio of lia “=e dametr ema stance eared tom the notes ia tne deton efstresing ewe of D0 fr all Ire va oft (dstancesoras tween Sand 20, the bar tet ae shuld be o> {Sit by nar interptons reso oC} 8 mst be ubtantted ‘Segots et riot approval by te procari oretitatog een. 23Table 2.111 0). ‘het lt, tae, ba aod Ay nee “a MUL Ta kha and . x Design Mechanical Properties of Alloy Stele» (1 Pte an | Pate uss - Ansel Per Square Inch) ae a ‘Shect plt,abe, Bar, an od ‘Ally ste entnng as than Vs eet etn eat tated quench and dawn) ana | wens | weno Pia (]D=20) Fay (1D 1.8). Pa 01D: W Iba jin. Commercial designation 4130 “Except noted he vale ini hi tale app nay af rae tural ly ted cetalaing es han 3 pent ero Any of Dee tee hrs, rds, tute, set eins, fring ee Ine ef extn the tote ves arerpond to the btn om et bars Reece sou Imad othe specie requverents ofthe proce ar extn rey separa to he ne ofthe ove vaste design atin ‘This value ie eppiable when theater fished In eanton [ofthe apie BIL spectestion bat the eld steagh fap ‘cet when oral "Thee ofr heat eaten thas hat crponing Fe IS0 ‘ig shal be bas alge fhe preening ares aad acter ae red ne 2 *Ttonltdinl part to eto 2 rling, Potanses, pepe corto diction ing "Datu dametr eee tos meas fom he Dl eter ine lm ne ete of sing te alo D=2. fo are ae of pe stance fr rts tween 18nd 2, the barn ts shade beled ‘by ner inept yo fr eB sb saben by Ae {eet pret approval by Ue preci we ttn grey. 24 * Apples oly wen ston, sand Rede pert he fom ties minim of 0 prent Marra inte eee ff Seton Sarmehing For alloy ates Rel treated tots tna sth Solan lows eal sens of 7 fa my ed proved the ‘tmnt state the entero he mea ona nat hs Ca 80 ferent Martens and the mabe dre temperature eres No” For inorstion the mcr wet ss that pte maton a the reed Maes he eet ot mata an fer whe dso [tense ghd sense 15 Pat 0 Ete tense sent ee sant art am inate sens are preset eed eo Sut Ati a moToble 2.111 (0. Design Mechanical Properties of Corrosion Resisting and Healtreated, Corroion Resisting Stele (Kips Per Squese Inch) Scent. iebard ws) 125] 150 so} 75] 110 as} 65) 85 35; 100) 120 4o| ozs] 8 75/190 | 180 29, 000 | 27, 000 29, 000 | 28, 00 28, 000 | 26, 00 28, 000 | 27, 00 12,500 | 12, 000 0.286 26, 000 28, 000 26, 000 27, 000 11, 500 Commercial designation. ‘leat reatment conta a tg tm 10 to 8 ors (ont-bee F ado ae "ecandard srr syel re explnned ns. 12 raat, part to arom ori: P=tansve, perpen ‘rhe 03 perce fitiinam yd stress were etrined on te ‘wih ni od fey aston bythe rsa a 2.112 Fatigue properties. Rotating beam fa- tigue strength data for ferrous materials and re- versed bending fatigue strength data for chromium =18 percent, nickel —8 porcent, sheet material are given in tables 2.112 (a) and 2.112 (), respectively. Tn using these data it should be remembered that they have been obtained from specimens in which stress concentrations are purposely minimized, and that suitable allowance should be made for re- entrant conditions which may produce localized high stresses. These localized high stresses are of great importance in studying the effect of repeated stress, het and ‘Mt las Cand Tt ‘Cad old and et rtd = étard | petara | Puttar | snare | Sebort | scam | Puttar 175} 185} 125] 50] 175 | a8. 13s} 1} 75] 120] 40| 100 | 105| 120) 140 105) 125 160) 185, +67.5| a0] +95 +100 ‘Town date arety bed on te“ eo old mat and abou be ‘igher or he skal and beatae” waters ‘phe diasrte, ee sano seared om teh enter ain tne diction of srg pla fe! ~20 fra ror va oft Atsances ratios betwee 1.4 and 20, te bearing tess value sould Ye ‘ese by lines fterpttion, aoe for «D1 mst be suetantated by equate tnt lot pve! the posing or cartestng rey. ‘The values given in table 2.112 (a) were deter- mined by testing 0.30 inch diameter machined specimens in R. R. Moore rotating beam fatigue machines and represont extreme fiber stresses which such specimens will withstand in completely reversed flexure. ‘The values given in table 2.112 (8) were determined by testing cantilever sheet specimens in Krouse constant deflection type fa- tigue testing machines and represent extreme fiber stresses which such specimens will withstand in completely reversed flexure.Table 2.118 (a). Rotating Beam Fatigue Data for Ferrous Materials (Alt at of rer np. 1) [Vato sven were determined by testing 03 neh dlsmeer machined sptnens fn R. R, Moore rating beam ftgve machine and rerent extreme ‘her tse whieh sh pein wl ithe i omy revered eur) a Than fea Mabe Matera contin eee | _ rom erse| 1ggee | gman | axe 8. A. E, 4340 steo! bar____. a Heat treated..| 188,000 | 100, 000 82, 000 ‘82, 000 82, 000 8 AE a800 te forged bar “aon --/ 0,000 | "an 000 | socom | S000 | Segoe BALE 200 ste bat ZI] tte000 | S200 | 22:00 | decom | gecee Den I] 188000} tR.000 | as 000 | oeseno | gsreem 8. ATE dis a bar <] 1am o00 | ae 000 | 7s,o00 | 0m | $000 “ ] 182,000 | 7,000 | e000 | 00 | 000 Sonn SORT) eon f2,000 | 9,000 ee + Yale ven fr 8,08 eyles av commonly Kaw acne nits - Table 2.118 (6). Reversed Bending Fatigue Data for Chromium 18 Percent Nickel, 8 Percent Sheet Steet Longitudinal Direction (a ater fer in.) atu even were determined by tetingcntoer set specter Kraut cnsant defen tft testing chines ond epee ese Ar hess whieh ue seems il withstand In cmp weed fee] onan aw seare | Pgay reatsrmmne | gage | oa soumersr| gaee | aggae | mae 01025 | aerated... 191,700] 8,000 | 75,000) 2,000 | 23,000 vas | Ac sso", Bi hosts] 2021700] O0.000| sooo | fea | fon 7] zoo.000 | osr000 | stom | ae 000 | se 000 Oso | At 480° Fy 4 hows] 308 000 |" 2° Sa'op0 | Sooo | Sooo ta | As roteas tes.o00 | 73/00] goo | e200 | exam (as| At sie Situ —n-| ianooo| reo | taemo| econ | ene | " Ta Fa ag 2.113 Typical stress-strain and tangent modulus tubes, The local failure stresses for columns data. ‘Typical tangent modulus versus. tensile stress curves for corrosion-resisting and heat- treated corrosion resisting steel sheet and strip are given in figure 2.113 for general information. 212 Temperature Ervecrs 2.13 Cnrrenia ror Destex Mucnawicat, Ma- TERIAL PROPERTIES 2.2 Columns 2.21 Primary Farwone. The general formulas for primary instability are given in section 1.38. For convenience, these formulas are repeated in table 2.21 in simplified form applicable to round steel tubes. ‘These formulas also can be used for columns having cross sections other than those of round tubes when local instability is not critical. 2.22 Loca Favre. Teble2.21also contains notes concerning the local instability of round 26 having cross sections of other shapes are given in the allowable stress curves of this chapter. 2.221 Effects of welding. The primary failure stress of @ column having welded ends can be determined from the formulas of table 2.21 with- out regard for the effects of welding. These stresses, however, should not exceed a “cut-off” stress which accounts for the effects of welding on the local failure of the column. See section 2.612 for the effects of welding. : 2.23 Cowan Stress Curves. Curves of the allowable column stresses for various types of stecl tubing are given in figures 2.23. ‘The allow- able stress is plotted against the effective slender- ness ratio which is defined by the formula: ULL Pegi (2.231)CHAPTER 2—STEEL T | act i t ‘STRESS, {000 LA. PER 80.1N, s STRESS, 1,000 L. PER $a.ti, TANGENT MODULUS, 1,000,000 8. PER 84.1. ove, ‘Tension AS COLD-ROLLED CbtorTION LOMGTTUDMAL IRECTON ie “awoen” moos, T z — a "Ted i i Pet g a“) —— 5 gens 35 : SY ret SNS ONE E TSE lemon [FOR EXPLAMATION OF TANOENT MODULUS. o ones, 1 "were er ala an ree To R00" MO HR COOLED, TRANSVERSE DEON fiven me TABLES, THE TABLE WALUES SMALL BE USED TES (AND F813 (A, APPLE TO TS FAURE rooms No. 2.119 (9) PFroonn No. 2.418 6) oe | i - Sa ft : I 3 ae | 3 P| : SSeS 2“ SSS E “owe =. ED — ° ance ntnash gonna tensa * _rueen aSouwe' gogbee aa Fen sok. cont AAEEN NEOUS ETERS mcm gout EEA RAS ET To ictsk | ES eh a gilt 7 2h peeps | i SS i SS ge \ i 5 ones I feelers i ony Cat amen woDuLUS, 1,000,000 LB, PER $0 IN ‘cone a CLD ROLES GoNMIONTRAENSE OECTION fi 28 a To 18 rE SPLURGE ate ates Hansrere once ome ae 2 7 [NOTES (1) AND (2), FI6.2.113(A), APPLY TO THIS FIGURE. Fioune No. 2.118 () pastes Figure 8.118, Tangent modulus curves derived from slrese-strain curves for corrosion-ressting (slaintess) steel sheet and plate. 7Table 2.21. Column Formulas for Round Steel Tuber Mote uae sums — | eet i lamcom tite 36] 36 | 36000-1172 yoy | 1:38 124 | aroxi0yininr | 475 | 70.5 | 79,500—51.0 (1/0) 91.8 | asoxiovrri® | 0 +100] 100 | 100,000—8.73 (2'/p | 13883 | 75.6 | aa6xIONUIe | OO ‘ 135 | 135 | 185,000—18.92 (Lin)t | 1:388 | 65.0 | aaron | © es | 165 | 165,000—23.78 (Zio 88.9 | asoxioverier | *Lip= Bia Lp sha ot exec 180 wibaot specie authority om 4 This vale I apie when the mtn etnies AY ‘th roa or erent aees (atn-2r9n but the yt strensth Yee hen aera * Sra Lp shat shove which colmns ae "None" an ek whkh sequent to elding Coen. ¥ they re hor" "Not neesry to neste for lea issbiity when D5 See Meraes roe ao 230, i f e+ ALLOWABLE COLUMN STRESS IW P.5.1 B | | 885 ae ae 8 wee Go ae oS TW + % we Figure 8.28 (a). Allowable’ column stress for 1085 steel Pigure 2.98 (b). Allowable column and crushing stresses ound tubing. for chrome molybdennm streamline tubing Fyy=75,000 Psdaso | Distr rasnren arten-weonc | Vo PRET TREAT coro] ner. i [Satyp00 fine anarercaa aso Berero —|tusteey ¥] 2233000, | s5ce0q wedkattaeo eojan0 "” | 16,60 vo0o | brisoe i ” f e dia TTY a WeTs AETER WELDING] 2 S220 7 eisejo00 rsh | g ma | 22 47280,000 #51 3 no 8 3 | g F 100 — z 8 B v0 @ £ 5 ze z 3 3 Bw uy 4 g 00 = 3 s 3 | 2 0 : | i w “ —|- | aL | : I vores ose oasnen cunved oun a ‘ |_| Figure 2.88 (¢) wo 6080 ws Allowable column sirens for heat-treated alloy steel round tubing 912380360 2.24 Conuan Loap Curves. The allowable column londs on round tubes versus length as given in reference 2.24 are satisfactory for general use and replace those curves formerly appearing in this document. 2.3 Beams 2.81 Gbnsrat. Seo equation 1.323; section 1.825; and reference 1.71 for general information on stress analysis of beams 2.32 Snupve Braus, Beams of solid, tubular, ‘or similar cross sections ean be assumed to fail through exceeding an allowable modulus of rup- ture in bending (Fy). For solid sections, it usually can be assumed that Fy equals the ultimate tensile stress, ‘This assumption is conservative and higher values may be used if substantiated by test data. 2.321 Round tubes. For round tubes, the value of F; will depend on the Dj ratio, as well as the ultimate tensile stress. Figure 2.321 gives the bending modulus of rupture for chrome molyb- denum steel tubing. 2.322 Unconrentional cross sections. Sections other than solid or tubular should be tested to determine the allowable bending stress. 283 BuurUr Beans. Built-up beams usu- ally will fail due to local failures of the component parts, In welded steel tube beams, the allowable tensile stresses should be reduced properly for the effects of welding. 2.34 Tunv- Wen Beams, ‘The allowable stresses for thin-web beams will depend on the nature of the failure and are determined from the allowable stresses of the web in tension and of the flanges and stiffeners in compression. 2.4 Torsion 241 Gxxerat. The torsion failure of steel tubes may be due to plastic failure of the metal, elastic instability of the walls, or to an intermediate condition, Puro shear failure usually will not occur within the range of wall thieknesses com- monly used for aircraft tubing. 242 AuLOWApLE TonstowaL Smxan Srnzssxs, Im the range of low value of 2+ no theoretical formula is applicable directly. The results of tests have beon used to determine the empirical curves of figure 2.42. 9S 16 Ls Lo) = 2 a SS3YIS_JTSN31_ 31VWILIN — Y Bunidny 30 SsnIndoW ONIGN3e ~ "y ort, Bending modulus of rupturechrome molyhdennn see tubing. Figure 2.3213 TORSIONAL MODULUS OF RUPTURE-THOUSAND PSI ‘Torsional modulus of rupture of 1085 steel round tubing. 2 @ ° 2 TORSIONAL MODULUS OF RUPTURE He OCTIMATE TENSILE STRESS ‘Torsional modulus of rupture of round alloy stet tubing, 60 42.5 Combined loadings In no ease shall the axial compressive stress, f., exceed the allowable, F, for a simple column, 2.52 Tupes in Bexpixo anv Tonstox. Equa tion 1.5353, can be used in the following forms for safe values: 2.61 Roux Tunks w Brxoie ann Com- pression. ‘The general theory of failure under combined loadings is given in section 1.585. In the case of combined bending and compression it : : necessary to consider the effects of secondary (B+ Gty-10-. bending; that is, bending produced by the axial ty load acting in conjunction with the Interal deflec- Round tubes: By+R!=1.0 tion of the column. In general, equation 1.5353 can be used in the following form for safe values (2.521) (2.5210) -(2.521b) ---(2.611) ---(2.511a) Maximum bending stress including =Forsional modulus of rupture. effects of secondary bending. Higher values can be used if substantiated by adequate test date, 2.53 Tunes In Benpinc Compression, AND Compressive yield stress. Torstox. The bending stresses should include Bending modulus of rupture. Axial compressive stress Table 2.111 (0). Shear and Tensile Strengths, Areas, and Moments of Inertia of Steel Bolts and Pins “Tena steneh, ip i ae inch Shear strenet, kp per sar inch . AN standard ttt desman |Siegahott] Mert’? | MaxSen™™ | email” | anowabiesigt-tearstength counasy | nit ir rote | ste) | gtteetnem | " “ rads He |. 0. 003068 | 0, 00000075 107 He 006902 |. oo000a70 | 242 ou 4| 00852 | 00000772 345 Hef) Lo12972 | | oooon19s 430 0.138 6| } inch. Hioat treatable alloy stools. .| 3 inch oF less. re : 2,000 51,000 LILI) None treatable (MIL-10-6888, eis | 32,000 51,000, ‘A or Bor MIL-R-5682, grade 16), no - 43,000 | 72, 000 Heat treatable (MIL-E-6848, clase © | 48,000) 72, 000 Heat treatable alloy steels. --| > ineh <}4ineh * ‘or D, or MIL-R-5682, grade 26). “When elk exo eh stb vale ball be dtarmine rom rereenativ toe, and dat abit for approval by he procuring 37Table 2.6126 (a). Allowable Ultimate Tensile Stresses for Flash Welds in Stee! Tubing ‘ete het ed ger oe wel tne ie | egies aman | Abrgicogengomac ri aston 10 Fe eset on Fie of norma | 1.0 Fi, Cased on Fix of mormal | <100000 | 0.9 Fra fend tig. fee sain), 100,000 9190000 | 0:8 er +20,000 S190 | os Fe Toble 2.0125 (b) Allowable Bending Modus ef Rupture for Flash Weld in Sel Tubing ‘Rexmale eunngnot hea tented ‘Besergted tubing weed er ‘Tuhine Det testo including normalising fer welding from ig 2981 ng valis of Fi Tate below 10 Pa for normalized tubing... 1.0 Fe for normalized ting... Fr of unweked mate: | Ultimate tensile ses | in heat treated | for use in fig, 2.321 for : tendon Fr of weld aren so 2 50| - z 40 E 30 20) 755-16 ROLLED BAR, ROD wo ‘AND SHAPES THlcnNess 23-1 oo 2 4 6 8 10 ex 103 INJIN EX 10°F PSI Figure 8.113 (@). Typical stress-strain and tangent modulus curves for 148-75, 24S-T', and 768-T6 aluminum alloy ‘rolled bar, rod, and shapes. 63Table 3.1211 (a). Acreptable Approximations of Fete of Low Temperatures on the Static Design Properties of Aluminum Alleys Percent ot room Pacey of og temperature al, |aopete a | cxsan 100 | 100 x01} 102 102] 103 103 | 106 107 | 110 10/116 5) 133 us| 130 120] 135 ‘Tonsile strength: Group TA—28-0, 88-0, 635-0, 618-0 (all prod- wets) Group TB—2S-H14, 8S-H14 (all products) Group TC—28-H18, 38-HI8, 538-71, 538-16, 18-14, 615-76, 758-0 (all products) Group TD—148-4, 48-76, 24-73, 248-74, 75S-T6 (all products). Yield strength: Group YE~28-0, 28-H14, 28-H18, 3S-1114, SUIS, 148-76... 588-T6, 6IS-To, 758-0, 75S-Te (all products). Group YF—38-0, 148-Ts, 248-13, 245-74, ‘588-0, 888—T4, 618-0, 618-74 (all produets), Factors apply to clad as well as nonelad material alot In group YE ae somewhat Nigh for al 45-70 pres except strung: asa. 12 prensa thd na far operates oto F value ahaa be comeopndin ecto. Table 8.1811 (0). Egeet of Various Temperatures on the Modulus of Elasticity of Awminum Alloye Tempertar 7) Table 8.1212, Flerure Type Fatigue Data {Watues given were obtained by testing 0.5 inch diameter polished specimens in flexure in Krowse type plate fatigue machines and represent the extrease ‘fiber stresses which such specimens will withstand in come pletely reversed stressing] TAIL values in kips per sa inch) rena mg, |! TSR Pe a Room temperature seoam | ipo0 28H. aesjarsfaa fan 2ST es [ar fas | 20 G1s-76. sa fa far | a0 158-6. wm [or fos [at = 108° F. 2H. 2 Jans |ans STs nm [si | 39 618-7. sr fap | 758-70. 7 | 56 | 40 920° F. 2s-H14 35.5 248-74 86 G1S-T6. 6s 758-76. 96 3.122 Elevated temperature 3.1221 General. ‘The data shown in figures 3.1221 (a) and (6) for short-time tests are based ‘on continuous heating but are considered applic« able to intermittent heating when the total time at temperature is the same. ‘The data shown in figures 3.1221 (c) through (J) aro also based on continuous heating and loading but must be used with discretion for intermittent heating and lond- ing as deformations may be larger and failure times shorter for the latter conditions. ‘The data included in the tables are based on_ specimens heated in ait with no added corrosive agents, Consideration must be given to the fact that materials in service may be exposed to more cor rosive atmospheres over longer periods of time under temperature variations.—— > fie Taste Prooubts |__]iss-16 proouers, Heo aot. T SHEET Beo| J R3OI-T SHEET. 5 ae : | ve ‘wm _| LJ Whe im) Bad Ze i NXE 00 ak \ | Soe i ‘A \ 'a000HR cs 10000 HR, ® é | & ak - By { I BO act od - I us-r6] | as-76 OK ExT ROBINS i TTHIGK EXTRUSIONS] ! 7 : Nxt java HR 5 aw \ 7H EH ARI in 00 HR Boo oo HR 1000 HR 2 \ F000 Hn 0000 HR 4 = to000 HR & - i 00 roo °, oo 300 4 300 Tenarune- bone F Teast orem Tt Pree : Teis-te products : sis-Te PRODUCTS! Beal ve HR 5 | eve ae f 10 aR, : Ze un i [to HR & F=100 HR B eco te i (000. HR 3 10000 FR. 3 000 HR. | e a & 4 ee} + i 2 a i ale t | = % 380 —s0—1o9 — too : ho ‘veuenatuneeanees F ‘TeRPENATUnE-beaREES| Figure 8.1221 (o). Aluminum alloy tensile propertan at elevated temperatures.245-14 PRODUCTS rencent Fry 67 0 rewnaTon, : 2is-T4 pRopueTS | (EXCEPT EXTRUSIONS) (EXCEPT EXTAUSIONS) | v2 HR, ad ‘ jove aR —| no unl § } ‘0 WR _ choo aR] fe 100 HR -) 1000 HR e 1000 HR. (oso wn] = 10000 HR io | | 2° 7 I . t eele 1 i , é ier WP rewbBaremebuanees FOO v2 HR J 10 ¥R loo HR tooo HR — 10000 HR SJ re re ri eff 245- Ta EXTRUSIONS] ve HR to AR foo HR 1000 HR. 10000 HR tk 8 | 758-76 PRODUCTS| —— exert EXTRUSIONS) V2 UR. 10 HR. ===100 HR NSE Eee, rn in L Fe rh 758-16 PRODUCTS] (EXCEPT EXTRUSIONS) =| Figure 8.1921 (6) Teanterone lances PO Aluminum alloy tensile properties at elevated temperatures75S-T6 EXTRUSIONS geo : g —V2 HR 5 oo lo HR. e 100 HR. . 1000 HR. pao} 10000 HR. : I a z 20 ~ 2 _ . | | os 200.300.400.500. 600.700 TEMPERATURE” DEGREES. 100 ps 75S-T6 EXTRUSIONS _ — . 2 ai | ve HRI £ oll \ -10 HR. : 100 HR. 3 7 1000 HR. B a0 S 10000 HR. % | Rg q 7 | & 20}+4 - é 2 i | ° 18 200 00700 300400 500 TEMPERATURE-DEGREES F Figure 8.1281 (c). Aluminum alloy tensile properties at elevated temperatures, or1. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 2. CREEP, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) ‘3. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 5.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION A. CREEP RATE, MINIMUM 5. STRESS RUPTURE, TIME To FAILURE 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED ZraricueevcLes or STRESS FoR RUPTURE | ( FWKED CANTILEVER BEAM-3500 RPM] PERCENT OF ROOK TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 0E000 40 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 ® c.ccor oe INAINJHR. 0.001 aor or ® 10° 10" CYCLES 0" a 10" 24089-P Figure 8.1821 (d). Blesated temperature properties of wrought 248-73 aluminum alloy at 211° F.I's, stAeSS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE joo. 1. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME ExPoseo| 12. CREEP, START OF THIRD STACE (TRANSITION) 2 ‘8. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 1.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION 4 CREEP RATE, MINIMUM 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 7. ravioue (CYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE TH +t () FIXED CANTILEVER BEAM=3500 ALP z PERCENT OF OO14 TEPIPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STEENETA 00000 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 @ ooo 2.0001 INJINJHR. 0.001 oor ou ® 10 10 CYCLES 10° 10° 10° 24090-P Figure 8.1821 (6). Blevated temperature properties of wrought 248-78 alumiu alloy at 300° oo5. STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 2. CREEP, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) 8. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 10% TOTAL DEFORMATION 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED |. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSEO 20 by “4. CREEP RATE, MINIMUM 8. CREER, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION 7 FATIGUE, CYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE (FIXED CANTILEVER BEAM-3500 REM. QO ARCCENT OF 0017 TEMPERATURE ULTIIIATE TENSILE STICENETH @0009 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 ® 20000! 20001 IM /i,/HROOO! ao! ar ® 10 10° CYCLES 10” 10° 1° 24091-P Figure 8.1221 (f). Blevated temperature properives«) wrought 248-78 aluminum alloy at 375° F. \12. CREEP, START OF THIRD STAGE ( TRANSITION |3. CREEP, TIME REGO FOR 5.0% TOTAL DEFORM. 4, CREEP RATE, MINIMUM '5, STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 109 loo 1 loo 1. SHORT TIME ULT, TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED © SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 7. FATIGUE, CYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE =) FIKED CANTILEVER BEAM~3500 R.P.M. leo © PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH @OO®@ 10 vo HO 400 1000 10000 @ 0.0000/ o.oo 0.001 0.0/ or @ Ye 108 CYC 10” Jo* 108, 10 CYCLES paoee ee Figure 8.1220 (9). leunted temperature properties of wrought 75S-T6 alwninum alloy at n5. STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 3. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 5.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION 1. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 2 CREF, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) . SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELO STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED CREEP RATE, MINIMUM . CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR |,0% TOTAL DEFORMATION, FaTIGUE,7CYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE $ () FIXED CANTILEVER BEAM-3500 R.P.M, PERCENT OF LOO/4 FEVIPERATUCE ULTITATE TENSILE STENETAY 0@OO0O 40 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 ® 2.00001 2.0001 INJINJHR. 2001 oor or y ®@ 10° 10° CYCLES 10” 10° 10° 24093-P Figure 8.1221 (h). Elevated temperature properties of wrought 758-78 aluminvem alloy 211° P.2 |. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED ‘5. STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 3. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 8.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION 2.CREER, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) 6. SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TME EXPOSED TURATE TENSILE STENGTH & 7 wu 7. FATIGUEYCYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE 4 CREEP RATE, MINIMUM ®, CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION 18. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR LO% TOTAL DEFORMATION () FIXED CANTILEVER BEAM-3500 ALAM Q CLRCENT OF 00K FEYIRERATUCE Ut: @O@OOO 10 10 HOURS 100 1000-10000 @ 2.0000! — 0.000) IN.|IN/JHR. 0.001 aor al ® 10° 10° GYCLES 10° 10° 10° 24094-P Figure 3.1891 (0, Elevated temperature properties of wrought 76S-T0 aluminum alloy at 300° F,8 CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR LOM TOTAL DEFORMATION 2. CREER, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) | SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 5. STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 3. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 5.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION: 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 9. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION = t 7 FATIGUE! CYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE 10. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 02% TOTAL DEFORMATION f 4 CREEP RATE, MINIMUM fF (FIXED CANTILEVER BEAM=3500 RPL Q ASECENT OF BOUT TEVIPERATUCE ULTWIATE TENSILE STRENGTH 0©OOO0O® 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 @ 0.0000! 0.000) INJIN/HR.O.OO! oor Ol @ 10° 10° CYCLES 10” 10° 10° 24095-P. Figure 3.1821 (j). Elevated temperature properties of wrought 76S-T8 aluminum alloy at 878° B. 41. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED: td 5, STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE /00 loo S.CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 50% TOTAL DEFORMATION, ! 4. CREEP RATE, MINIMUM ©. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 10% TOTAL DEFORMATION 2.CREEP, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) 70 leo 50 40 30 20 PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 10 QOOOOO /0 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 @ 00001 -0001 INN JH .00! ol ar igure 8.1221 (k), Elevated tomperture propertsn of clad 248-786 aluminum ally (heat treated, cold worked, and oped) veri" P. 6‘00] 80} 20] PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 1 SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 6. SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED S.STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE ‘3. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 5.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION, 30 lao 70 60 cane T B.CREEP, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) go 18. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 1.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION 8. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION “4. CREEP RATE, MINIMUM 40 30 20 Q9200008 10 /0 HOURS 100 1000 (0000 @ Figure 3.1281 (). 16 a00c0! 0000! INIIN/HROOO! = 0.01 al Elected temperature properties of clad 248~T86 aluminum alloy (heal treated, eld worked, and aged) at 300° F,loo T T 1. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED [90 6. SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 5. STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 3. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR $.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION] 5 Iso Iso Iso a2 5 LAHh 80 19. CREEP, TIME REGUIRED FOR 0% TOTAL DEFORMATION CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 1.0% TOTAL DEFORMATION 2.CREER, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) ie |A.CREEP RATE, MINIMUM { PERGENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH ©000609 = 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 ® 0.00001 0000! INJINJHR. 0.001 oo! o 2a098-P Figure 8.1221 (9). Bletaed temperature properties of ead £18-T56 aluminum alloy (heat treated, cold worked, and aged) at o75° F 73.1222 Static properties, Curves for com- puting the approximate reduction in tensile ulti- mate and tensile yield properties for various heat- treated and heat-treated and aged aluminum alloys, held unstressed at elevated temperatures up to 700° F. for various time intervals and then tested statically at temperature, are presented in figures 3.1221 (a) and (6). ‘These data are re- ported in another form in figures 3.1221 (¢) to (m) inclusive, for comparison with other high temperature properties. ‘This information is based on tests which did not include any clad material, Dut the percentages for nonclad material are con. sidered representative of what would be expected for the corresponding clad material. Available data on shear, bearing, and compressive properties at clovated temperatures indicates that the data in figures 3.1221 (a) and (8) may also be used to determine approximate shear, bearing, and com- pressive properties of aluminum alloys at elevated temperatures as follows: (a) The percentages for tensile ultimate strength may also be applied to shear and bearing ultimate strengths. ©) The percentages for tensile yield strength may be applied to compressive and bearing yield strengths. ‘The data are based on continuous heating but are considered applicable to intermittent heating when the total time at temperature is the same. ‘The effect of high temperature on the modulus of elasticity of aluminum alloys is given in table 81211 3.1223 Creep and stress-rupture properties. Curves for computing the approximate reduction in ultimate tensile strength under long time loads, and for predicting corresponding deforma- tions, for 245 (heat-treated), 248 (heat-treated, cold-worked, and aged), and 758 (heat-treated and aged) aluminum alloys ere given in figures 3.1221 (© to (m) inclusive, for temperatures up to 375° F._ This information is based on clad sheet ma- terial only, but the percentages are considered applicable to nonclad shect and other wrought materials of 248 heat-treated and 75S. heat treated and aged. Although no actual data are available on shear, bearing, and compression creep and stress-rupture properties at elevated temperatures, general reasoning, and known room temperature relations indicate that the data shown in figures 8.1221 (¢) to (m) inclusive may be used to determine approximate, shear, bearing, 8 and compressive properties at elevated tempera- tures as follows: (a) The percentages of the ultimate tensile strengths for rupture and transition times ean be applied direetly to shear and bearing ultimate strengths, ®) The various percentages of total deforma- tion or minimum eveep rates are not directly applicable to shear and bearing but may serve as guides. ‘The tensile values may be used for compression where deformations are not excessive. (©) The percentages of ultimate tensile strength for determining transition times in tension may be used as guides for estimating transition times in shear and bearing. Table 9.1224. Cantilever beam fotigue strength of wrought aluminum alloye ar elevated temperatures [Walues were determined by testing O.t-ineh diameter machined specimens in Aluminum Research Tabo- ratories fixed cantilever beam fatigue machines and represent extrome fiber stresses that such specimens will withstand in completely reversed extre. All specimens had been stabilized by prolonged. heating ft testing temperature before testing, Values at 75° F are from rotating-beam tests] 3.1224 Fatigue properties. Curves for _com- puting approximate reductions in tensile ultimate strengths for 245 heat-treated and 758 heat-treat- ed and aged aluminum alloy materials subjected to reversed londing at elevated temperatures are shown in figures 8.1221 (e) to (m) for temperaSEE tures up to 375° F. This information is based on tests on cantilever beam machines in which one end of the specimen is deflected in the path of a circle subjecting the specimen to completely versed loading. ‘These tests include only nonclad materials but are considered applicable to clad materials. For situations involving fatigue stress- cs in which the mean stresses are other than zero, consideration must be given to creep and creep- rupture properties in addition to fatigue proper- ties. Values of cantilever beam fatigue strengths of wrought aluminum alloys at clevated tempera~ tures are given in table 3.1224. These values were determined by testing 04-inch diameter machined specimens in ARL fixed cantilever beam fatigue machines and represent extreme + fiber stresses that such specimens will with- stand in completely reversed flexure. All speci- mens had been stabilized by prolonged heating at testing temperature before testing. Values at 75° F. are from rotating beam tests. 3.13 Crirerta ror Desion MecHantcat Propenties, The test methods used to establish the design mechanical properties appearing in this chapter are discussed below, unless diseussed in a note accompanying the table in which the allow- ables appear. 3.131 Shear strengths, The values of ‘shear strengths of aluminum alloy sheet) were deter- mined by measuring the load required to punch from the sheet » 2%inch diameter disk, using a special punch and die, ‘The values for other alumi- ‘num products were determined from double shear tests of cylindrical specimens in which a 1-inch Jength is sheared from the canter of a specimen 3 inches long. Tn both eases, the shearing was done with hardened steel tools which have sharp = smoothly finished cutting edges that are main- tained in that condition, 3.132 Tensile strengths. The values of tensile strength of aluminum alloy materials wore deter- mined by the methods outlined in reference 1.441. 3.183 Bearing strengths. The values of bear~ ing strength of aluminum alloy materials were de- termined by loading a steel pin inserted in a close fitting hole in material test. specimens having widths at least four times the pin diameter and thicknesses not less than one-fourth the pin dia- meter. Tests were made for edge distances, the distance from the edge of the specimen to the center of the hole in the direction of loading, of 1.5 and two times the pin diameter. "The bearing yield-strength values were obtained from bearing stress versus hole elongation curves using an offset from the initial straight line portion of the curves of 2 percent of the pin diameter. See references 3.133. 3.14. Rane or Stressine Errecrs. A knowl edge of the effect of the rate of loading on the load deformation characteristics of aluminum alloys is important since the aircraft structure in which the material is used is subjected to various loading rates depending on aircraft speed, gust sizes and velocities, maneuver conditions and alighting conditions. Sufficient information is available for the higher strength aluminum alloys to estab- lish that the effect of rate of loading on their load- deformation characteristics at room temperature is insignificant. However, no data are available from this investigation for the lower strength ma~ terial such as 2S and 3S for any of the alloys at low and elevated temperatures. However, there is some evidence from impact tests as described in NACA TN 2082 and from other sources that at Jow temperatures rate of stressing is no more criti- cal than at room temperature 3.2 Columns 3.21 Primary Fanure. The general formu- las for primary instability are given in section 1.38. For convenience, these formulas are repeated in table 3.21 in simplified form applicable to round Table 3.81. Column formulas for Aluminum Alloy Tubing andlor Shapes 248-7 and T4, 148-74, and | Pal Li gse Equation 1.385..| 1.732-VE7F7,---| Fauation 1.381] 15-76, ee 88 LOTS Fay. Equation 1.883..| 1414ryE]F,-—-| Equation 1.381.) \ % ipl et eed 19 wiboat mete abuts bum the ‘Boutin #51 (may ban the bert elm ane i ropaco 9(A)ROUND 248 AND 61S. TUBING Fe°ALLOWABLE COLUMN STRESS IN THOUSANDS OF PS! g (@) STREAMLINE 245-73 TUBING Figure 8.28. Allowable column and crushing stremes 248 aud B18 aluminnvm ally tubing. aluminum alloy tubes. ‘These formulas ean also be used for columns having cross sections other than those of round tubes when local instability is not eritical. 3.22 Locat Fanunn, Table 3.21 also con tains notes and references concering the local instability of round tubes. 3.23 Conn Srress Curves. Curves of the allowable column stresses for round and streamline The allowable tubing are given in figure 3.23. stress is plotted against the effe« ratio defined by the formula 3.3 Beams 3.31 GeNenan. See equation 1,323; section 1.525; and reference 1.71 for general information on stress analysis of beams, 3.32 Simpce Beams. Beams of solid, tubular, or similar cross sections can be assumed to fail “pagers ® Cea 2 ; eo alg ale 519 woh o|4 1 Z\o | 351. | aie = is olf on z\= aan i A ao als tl wl? i SNE a ae Hee 0 0 1 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 . * inne 8821. Bending wotulas of rupture atuminim alley round tubing restrained against loral buckling ot loading points through exceeding an allowable modulus of rupture in bending (F;). For solid sections it can usually be safely assumed Fy equals the ultimate tensile str 3.321 Round tubes. For round tubes the value of F, will depend on the Dit ratio as well as the ultimate tensile stress. ‘The bending modulas of rupture of 248 and 618 round tubes is given in figure 3.821. It should be noted that these values apply only when the tubes aro restrained against Tocal bucking at the loading points.3.322 Unconventional cross sections, Sections other than solid or tubular should be tested to de- termine the allowable bending stress. 3.33 Buws-Ur Beams, Built-up beams will usually fail due to local failures of the component parts. In aluminum alloy construction the strength of fittings and joints is an important feature. 3.34 Tain-Wen Beans, The allowable stresses for thin-web beams will depend on the nature of the failure and are determined from the allowable” stresses of the web in tension and of the flanges or stiffeners in compression. 3.4 Torsion 341 Gevenat. The torsional failure of ali- minum-alloy tubes may be due to plastic failure of the metal, elastic instability of the walls, or to an intermediate condition. Pure shear failure will not usually occur within the range of wall thick- nesses commonly used for aircraft tubing. 342 Antowancs Torstona Suzan Srnsses. In the range of low values of Dit no theoretical formula is directly applicable. ‘The results of tests have been used to determine the empirical curves of figure 3.42. r ae a ae Als tee g\2 Sree aH arene tae =F ce en nn ale eee eet Z/e Pee Pac T Ra a2 fue ee * ale dt sls AE ih ao ° 10 Figure 3.42. 3.5 Combined loadings 3.51 Rouxp Tonps 1 Bexpine xn Con- pression. The general theory of feilure under combined loadings is given in’section 1.535. In the case of combined bending and compression it is nocessary to consider the effects of secondary bending, that is, bending produced by the axial Toad acting in conjunetion with the lateral deftec- tion of the column. In general, equation 1.5353, can be used in the following forms for safe values: GIF)+ dF 10. (3.511) M.S.=; ERS (8.5118) where -maximum bending stress including effects of secondary bending. Bending modulus of rupture Axial compressive stress. Compressive yield stress. In no case shall the axial compressive stress, fe exceed the allowable stress, F., for a simple column, SFyy 742,000 PSI el }24SFy* 64,000 Psi | fe HSL Va 40 Torsional modulus of rupture—aluminwsn alloy round tubing. at3.52 Tongs 1x Bexinc ano Torston. Equa- tion 1.5353, can be used in the following forms for safe values: dF +S. Round tubes: Re+Re= = VRB) --(8.521a) 1... .(8.521b) Streamline tubes: R+R, M.S.=7—y fe=Shear stress, Fr=Torsional modulus of rup- ture. Higher values can be used if substantiated by adequate test data 3.53 Tunes in Benprwc, Comrression axb Torsion. The bending stresses should include the effects of secondary bending due to compres- sion. ‘The following empirical equation will sorve ‘as a working basis, pending a more thorough in- vestigation of the subject {fel + [fal Pul =U —flFol?----(3.531) a RAV RYH RY M.S. (3.5310) In no ease shall the axial compressive stress, f., exceed the allowable stress, J, for a simple column, 3.6 Joints, 3.61 Jonxrs 3.611 Riveted and bolted joints. In order to determine the strength of such joints itis necossary to know the strength of the individual rivets or ings, and parts 82 bolts. In most eases, such joint failures occur by shearing the connecting element, or by bearing and/or tearing the sheet or plate 3.6111 Protruding head rivets and bolts. "Tho load per rivet or bolt at which the shear or beating type of failure occurs is separately calculated and tie lower of the two governs the design. ‘The basic shear strengths for protruding head alumi- num alloy rivets are given in table 3.6111 (a) Basie shear strengths for protruding head stec! Dolts, and pins are given in tables 2.6111, In com- puting aluminum rivet design shear strengths, the correction factors given in table 3.6111 (a) should be used to compensate for the reductions in rivet shear strength resulting from high bearing stresses on the rivet at Dit ratios in exeess of 3.0 for single shear joints, and 1.5 for double shear joints (refer- ence No. 3.6111). The design bearing stresses for aluminum alloys given in tables 3.111 are appli- cable to riveted or bolted joints wherein eylindri- cal holes are used and where Dit<5.5; where Djt>5.5, tests to substantiate yield and ultimate bearing strengths must be made. Yield strengths of rivets or bolts may be computed in a manner similar to ultimate strengths except that the factors of table 3.6111 (a) need not be applied. The bearing yicld stresses correspond to a perma- nent set in the hole (in a single sheet) equal to two pereent of the hole diameter, ‘These beating stresses are applicable only for the design of rigid joints where there isno possibility of relative move- ment of the parts joined without deformation of stich parts, For other types of joints the a bearing stresses are to be reduced by dividing by the factors of safety specified in table 2.61122 (a), For convenience, “unit” sheet bearing strengths on rivets based on a stress of 100 ksi and nominal hole diameters are given in table 8.6111 (@). Factors representing the ratio of actual sheet bearing strengths to 100 ksi are given in table 3.6111 (6). Table 2.61121 contains “unit” sheet bearing strengths on bolts.SEE Table 3.6111 (@). Shear Strengths of Protruding and Flush Heod Aluminum Alloy Ritets (Pounds) Diameter trot a mw |e | 95] 195) 350) 536] 774] 1,400] 2210] 3,160 ‘) 106] 217 | 388) 506] 862) 1,550] 2480] 3510 178-31 Po ‘| 120] a7] 4ez] 75] zz] 1,760] 2700] 3.970 178-T3—F sym 88 bai ‘135 | 275} s04] 755] 3,000] 1,970) 3110) 4,450 248-T31— Fal keh “| 145} 206] sai] 815] 1,180) 2120] 3,300] 4,800 ‘Sheet thickness: 0.014. 0.016. o.018. DOUBLE SHEAR RIVET STRENGTH FACTORS Nore ‘luo hear stengh shel be mpd by the tare ven ern Sen tens tale 361) coesonding o 9 pect probity weer te Dia sae ensue to reqs sch core, at ar osa wneevr sve ‘Shar ylosaretased on ararcorespending tothe nin al ametrs Shut they ta of th thine et nse aber os of he speed abe 3.88) note smile she double star ts, osm o- ste 83‘Table 8.6111 0 Ween = 2AS-T96. 24814 (coiled). -- iad 248-14 (heat-trea Dy ser). Clad 248-74 (heat-treated Dy user) Chad 248-72. (Clad 248-74. 14 (ected). Chad 248-70... Chad 248-781 Cad 248-788 Cla 248-786. 58-16 (axes. (Glad 758-76 (aged). Mardelad 2901-73 an ‘lead 4873.00 Hanilnd “T3017 and ‘dad 4870 | sab-itae Gat) 528-194 (i) 28-116 Cat) 5298-11380). na Tienes 18-70 <0. 250 0. 250-0, 500) 501-1. 000, 5. 001-2. 000, 2001-8, 000 < 250 250-500 501-1 000, 1001-2. 000 500 << 250 <.061 00s 240) 2350-499 500-1, 000) 010-063, Gs | 245), 250-400 500-1. 000, 5001-2. 090, 1 063, 064 | 500 012-063, “os <004 5.00 <004 5.004 <6 5.008 <6 5.004 10-039, Aluminum Alloy Sheet and Plate—Bearing Bactors ratio of setusl hearing ste nats | aba 8 oF 9% 50 5 50 ‘2 48 07 lo a 38 246 53 C6 56 th to 100 ksi “A vali (ini aro oer) 0.56 53 53 55 53 9 ot 12 0 a 56 | ak | Raine 20 | aia 1a | 1.02 nat] nor nan | 1.02 re] la vat] ox 126] Ly nis} sna 8 so] tio rao | tg Bi} Lan an} cto mat] ona nal aan naa} aa lst, hole tint ra] le naif las rai] las nas} las nas} loo | kar} Lor nis} 192 nao] los ochaity vas? nero | anes os] “oT 1 oo 7 a7 ts oo 100 55 oo] 87 6 a7 ® wo 8 6 4 o | ta} 93 a 6 8 alls a 58Tobie 84111 (c. Design Mechanical Proprio for Aluminum Alloy Rites (Kips Per Square Inch Type 7 : rating bot ste sets. on conn - = ase me 1 be driven Mead areal be a at 13 tne the nora shane sige tte ort ‘te 875 almaion strive tht Rape en Bet tate an thon mintane nthe a este een unl ang ‘ret sno rt 28 et REN a ly a ate. temperate fret at age ater questing, and he ven Ce in aot prpotea tbe 6-78 es meron the ca-nckng. ct obi wh fhe te ar ems the en ena ‘Send rit oe ras a am | »| 3| “4 ee mshi opr ek bed upon he minum ara teed nae properties: Bethe macanin oper elunn Bed upon Probability data (Se ar 300) Shr sid ashe sent vas for den vet aye Boston areas cores tthe nial be meer pore tthe ma a ‘darter nat hg tha tho yale iste ow. the smi! Bale ‘arte arp thn he sted rales he sted aie shal be ws | Me z He al ete eat 0.007 | 0.006 ae ial ele |e Ma % ao} 2) Fl OP w 0.150 | o191| 0.257 | 0.923) 0.380 0,185 | i 102 240 207 346 384 432 se ou 6a 718 st 970 1,230 1, 500 5,800 2,400 ‘raring vray Ped on aes orepondig to he nomial ble lometers spe nt A 3.0112 Flush rivets, ‘Tables 3.6112 contain ultimate and yield allowable single-shear strength values for both machine countersunk and dimpled flush riveted joints employing solid rivets with a head angle of 100°. ‘These strength vahies are applicable when the edge distance is equal to or Table 8.6111 (a). Unit Bearing Strength of Sheet on Rivels Fs 100,000 pi (Pounds) «| 321 | ant | 500 40a | 572 sis] 636 sm] 716 855 | sl s22 | 1,020 05 | 1,140 1,040 ) 1,290 1,170 | 1,430 1,310 | 1,620, 640 | 2,080 2.010 | 2,480 2,410 | 2,980 aaa | 3,970 | | greater than two times the nominal rivet diameter, Other strength values and edge distances may be used! if substantiated by tests. ‘The allowable ultimate loads were established from test data using the average failing load divided by a factor of 1.15. ‘The yield loads were 85,established from test data wherein the yield load (6) 2.6 percent of the rivet diameter for rivet was defined as the average test lond at which the sizes larger than %e inch diameter, following permanent set across the joint is devel- Test data from which the y oped. ‘eld and ultimate strengths listed were derived are to be found (a) 0.005 inch up to and including H+ inch reference 8.6112, diameter rivets. Table 8.6119 (0). ‘Rivet mat Ultimate Strength of Solid 100° Machine Cowntersunk Rivets (Pouncs) ee eae Ree eee 266-1, 1TH 08TH, 2 TH and FTE * Bot age ata ie upper abe lon om his wil pode sanity reer vals In cams wher he owe she thinner than the upper the seating "Ye! eraf the abet ve ecmbinaton mare h ar ha tka forthe loner ester cmbiaton shoul eam sate nt ntliee "The vl tho ble re ose on nd” anlar practi, ab Table 9.6118 (0). lve mater (Chad het materi. Yield Strength of Solid 100° Machine Countersunk Rivets (Pounds) ane 8-7 sot ETS HET, 2 Fe, eT aN TE % Set sages tht o the upper set sil 02 1, 058 anus 1,357 1 604 1, 925 ‘The values inthis ti are based on "ened" man fataring praetine, ad In cata wher he over set hiner han the upper the shar earg any deviston ham thie il pr neal eden aes “awa forthe erste eamblton eld hemp$$ ‘Table 3.8112 (c). Ultimate Strength of Solid 100° Dimpled Rivets (Pounds) Rivet materi am8-T9 aral| 368) 722 35, 820) 608) 940) 7301, 012) 755)1, 045) 1,074) 2] 005 +The above allowables apply to double dimpled sheets and tothe upper ost dpe iens machine eure owe Ett Shot fe at ‘ee thine sheet for Soule ple fis and of the ups me ‘het tr dmpedmashine cunts ts The hehe othe machoe ‘oantnni ete mast heat ot abated ge heker tha tbe up ‘a toe shorn ‘ho vals nti ble ar bd on “got” manfastaring peat and ny deviation fom this il rogue sneanty raced vas Table 3.6118 (a). Yield Strength of Solid 100° Dimpled Rivets (Pounds) ‘Rivet aerial rer s-13 8-73 ha geet ma ra on meter, | usremans-rs| 26-7 ‘The above alowsbas apply to aoabisaimpie ects and wo the upper sect dined into mine cotton ower tet Sele tat ‘aD thant set foe double Snel flts and ofthe wpe ‘eet ur dimple moins santero inte The het Be a Sorters thon mut be te tabulate Ege tlhe Un fhe HPP ‘ese 40. | ssi| "705 675, 867] 979) 60) 0] 816] o62) 982) 78 ' 7381, 08) 9611, 8081, 1521, 548 ‘816|1, 111[1, 803) 925|1, 564/1, 068)), 8641, 2771, 958 ‘sa2|r 156|1, 090.1, 045|1, 7114, 115|1, 71, 33212, 140, 1 196)2, o3s)1, 152|1, 92811, 177]1, 9281, 380°, 260, 1, 246,2, 1231, 323)2, 1231, 42412, 365 ‘ner hlaowabe bi tated by extrpolatn for kin gues ter "Ph vein he bs are tate an p08” manatasturing poetics sd sy deviation um ta wl rogue signleanty reduced ahs, 873.6113 Blind rivets. ‘Tables 3.6113 contain ultimate and yield allowable single shear strengths for protruding head and flush head lind rivets i aluminum alloy sheet, ‘These strengths are applic able only when the grip lengths and rivet hole toleran’ > ave as recommended! by the respective rivet manufacturers. These strengths maybe substantially reduced if oversize holes or im proper grip Tengths are used, ‘The strength values were established from test data obtained from tests of specimens having edge distances ¢/D equal to or greater than 2.0 Where e{D) values less than 2.0 are used tests to substantiate yield and ultimate bearing strengths must be made. Ultimate strength values of pro- tnuding and flush blind rivets were obtained from the average failing lond of test specimens divided by 1.15. Yield strength valies. were obtained from average yield load test data wherein the yield Iond is defined as the lond at which the fol- lowing permanent set across the joint is de veloped. (a) 0.008 inches up to and including Xeinch- diameter rivets. (8) 2.5 percent of th sizes larger than %einch rivet diameter for rivet diameter Blind rivets should not be useel in applications where appreviable tensile Toads on the rivets will exist. Reference should be made to the r ments of the applicable procuring or certifieating agency relative to the use of blind Table 8.8113 (a). Rivet Shear Strengths for Blind Rivets (Protrwding and Flush Heads) (Pours) Rivet type + Cemry corse, cnn} 395 | eas | | 980 Cheney CRI, CRIS) | NB | a | BIT | 1,660 Nee th 1000). | aan | at | ans ey cs, orm»... aa | 8 [yo | DuPont (DR, DR-100)----| 485 | 725 [1,015 | sean pity sat« Table 8.6113 (0). Ultimate and Yield Strengths for Protruding Head Blind ULTIMATE STRENGTH Standart semitone] a [MELT ak) Om) TAG Ee | a) aod. |. ] 2] aia) s2e 2a) anu 435) 282] 420] 520) 813}1,290) 422) 605) 44] 450] 402) 305) 420, 403, 837) 490, 504) 604) 390) 508) 647] 355) 5 001,092] 402 604] 856) 430) 605| Rivets (Pounds) avs (DR) ners 285) 210) 415] 275) 350] 825) 335,360 430) 510 705) 355) 510) 680 835, 860) 850) 750, Bet rf that fe ht eeTable 6.6118 (©). Ultimate and Yield Strengths for 100° Double Dimpled Blind Rivets (Pounds) ULTIMATE STRENGTHS a 7 ae nce Oven iets ‘chery (C17) @ | DuPont (DR Cheey CR pe) | Hoe awe) _ Pe | abe ale ee [om [om | [oe 68 --| 22) 9 368, 490)-_-_| 266 305| 528) +832] 40] 440] 57811, 005, 428 482) 6361, 125| ==] 655)1, 190). ‘Shot ge hat of Ue thinnest abet, tnd Huck vot Co, rst for diplomas euntrsnk nations Set aeeeecea te ea a ee iste eee ah orc era sly to dinpetsmacine coonesonk ttn his eae the anaes ny ex \nGetermind by the mar eto wpper dimpled she. Tha mneottbelower "Yi anes fi sts comblentons martd has (ava tan ‘michine countersunk eet mst be at ist 15 mee the Mle tthe y fn aurea cect ot co roermed rivet hed fer standard ie iets a tie the bt of he ‘Oder areriveteomations may be uso sect taps apg rome set bea for overs rveta. Allowable forthe DuFant Ca, ofthe acing or cringe= _—_—— ‘Table 8.6113 (@). Ultimate and Yield Strengths for 100° Machine Countersunk Blind Rivete (Pounds) ULTIMATE STRENGTHS Standard aie vets Oversees Rivet ove | corey (eR 18) (Corey (CR ose am) | chery ccm | DuPont (DR) Semen) MS a | Ma ar on leu] en «| oe | ne |e a7 227. . 258) *350).-.--| 255) *418)._ 305, 360] a3] 415, 2615) 338) 390) 305} 480, °o13| 374) 449] 415, 560 615) *066) eS ‘0s 25, 727) +005 585) 635| 917] 965). a 20] 9171, 600). YIELD STRENGTHS 85 ial So a 205, 210) gm) 270...) 27 250) 290) 897, 483, 368 344] 823, 185 270] 340 234) 430) | 450] 372) 470) 340 233), 305, 4322, 463] 010, 530) 38% 515) 400, coe] 489 far|__-..| 680) 600) 386, 612] 518 :} sai era) | a5) Bao] 435) 012) 752 2) on sa] 5. 084 ee ai a te pr hw it as of esse combats ark as) ae ha 1m canes whee the lower sheet ie thinner than the upper the shen-bearing 4 the Indleted aioe voto soya orth oversee combine ha compa cg tit combats ay te tan a1 ite epeoe ”3.6114 Hollow-end rivets, If hollow-end rivets with solid cross-sections for a portion of the length (AN450) are used, the strength of these rivets may be taken equal to the strength of solid rivets of the same material, provided that the bottom of the cavity is at least 25 percent of the rivet. diameter from the plane of shear, as measured toward the hollow end, and further provided that they are used in locations where they will not be subjected to-appreciable tensile stresses, 3.6115 High-shear rivets. Allowable londs for high-shear steel rivets arc given in section 2.6114 These rivets may be used in aluminum alloy materials 3.6116 Lockbolts and lockbolt stumps. Lock= bolts and lockbolt: stumps shall be installed in conformance with the lockbolt- manufacturer's recommended practices, and shall be inspected in accordance with procedures recommended by the manufacturer or by an equivalent method. ‘The ultimate allowable shear and tensile strengths for protruding and flush head Huck lockbolts and lockbolt stumps are contained in table 3.0116. ‘Theso strength values were established from test data and are minimum values guaranteed by the mannfacturer. Yield shear and tensile stre and ultimate and yield bearing strengths wi added when available. Table 8.6118. Ultimate Single Shear and Tensile Strengths of Protruding ond Flush Head Huck Lackbolis® and LoeRbolt Stumps (Ponds) “Leather mtn wa =e 7 — 2,620 | 2,210| 1,330] 1,375 4,650 | 4,080 | 2 280 | 2,535, 7,300 | 6, 500 | 3,620) 4,025 10,500 | 10,100 | 5,270 6,275, "Hat tete aly sel Huck pl typo ett ae ava ny evandJeines damotre Met ested oy el Huck lek ume ‘ovation ey 3, Sand inh ameter 12 Welded joints 3.6121 Fusion welds. Since fusion welding is not generally used in the joining of major strue- tural parts made of aluminum alloy, no values for allowable stresses for such joints will be given. ” Fusion welding, however, is used on certain parts; €.. fuel and oil tanks. "The design of these parts is substantiated in part by special tests specified or deemed suitable by the procuring or certifienting agency, 3.6122 Spot welding. The permissibility of the use of spot welding on structural parts is governed by. the requirements of the procuring or certificating agency. Design shear strength allow- ables for spotwelds in various aluminum alloys are given in table 3.6122 (a), Table 3.6122 (8) gives the minimum allowable edge distance for the spot- welds in aluminum alloys; these values may be reduced for nonstructural applications, or for applications not depended upon to develop the full tabulated weld strength. Combinations of alloys suitable for spot welding are given in table 3.6122 (c). ‘The thickness ratio of the thickest shect to the thinnest outer sheet in the combina- tion should not exceed 3.1 3.61221 Reduction én tensile strength of parent metal due to apotwelding. In applications of spot~ welding where ribs, intercostals, or doublers are attached to shect, either at splices or at other Table 3.0122 (a). Spotweld Maximum Design Shear ‘Strength Standards for Bare and Clad Aluminum Atoys © sata | Marcia | Maat | Saha Nominat thickness o | “ts Mente’ | “tence: | “teat ‘Minne set Cin | erat | secgty | atten | leat 60 | be 0016. 86] 78 106 140 188 248 354 500 580 ear 810 960 4,085, AN-A-I2, and QQ-A-D45 may be aceompished providing spree approval Patatete an aged HS, Beta HB anit 2, Het treat and if, 8-14 S18 ames, 18-1, 888 snl 125 anne, 20:04, 38 anne—— ‘Table 8.6122 (0) Minimum Bdge Distances for Spotweld ‘ointe Tbe feb Ee —— a he Me He is Me Truce eae wil conform to te eqiraeet forthe net thinner Fee sans es han te sel abe, appropriate egont n't spat sowie nde sll be ade. ‘Thes redaesins eal olet te approval by tr proce eibeatine ADE. 100 90 80 BASIG SHEET EFFICIENCY IN TENSION (%) 16 SPOT SPAGING (CENTER TO CENTER) IN INCHES Figure 8.61281. points on the sheet panels, the allowable ultimate tensile strength of spotwelded sheet shall be de- termined by multiplying the “A” value for ulti- mate tensile shect strength obtained from tables 3.111 by the appropriate efficiency factor shown on figure 3.61221. Allowable ultimate tensile strengths for spot- welded shoot gages of less than 0.020 inch shall be established on the basis of tests acceptable to the procuring or certificating agency. 3.6123 Aluminum brazing. No values for allowable stresses in shear are given for joints made with this process. Allowables used in the design of parts made by this process are subject to substantiation by special tests in accordance with the requirements of the procuring or eet- tificating agence 3.613 Adhesive bonded joints. Joints may in some instances be made to advantage by the use of an adhesive suitable for the structural bonding of metals. This subject is discussed in reference 2.614, 2 2.5 3 Eficioncy ofthe parent metal in tension for spotcelded aluminum alloys 93Table 8.6122 (c). Acreptable Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Combinations} for Spotwelding [ig Ra Re: oo oo QQ-A-245. 7 (R01, Clad 148) QQ-A-261 and QQ-A-206-| (Baro 148) * Atuminum alps ‘Pe vine shiminom and slminim ally mate- _*Tawahow tale appli te consrrton oat a eal eat ‘ia trd toin tis tbe may Be spotweed I any combination exept only. "The welding of ar hitsrnyt alley ens of aes {he combinnins ded by thr ans () tne ele The combiawe _kamphivans eprom sell strict by for fovea tons ntiented ny theaters (may De spsweldea only wih Wespeeie—eectietng sen. ‘ppoval ofthe procuring or eraeatig ae "Cla batted and age 758 mater i ieee se tha 0.28 Inch sat nt br welt witb sete appro the rear eCHAPTER 4 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS 4.1 General properties 4.11 Nonatat (Roow) Temperature Pnor- ERTIES 4.111 Design mechanical properties. The de- sign mechanical properties at normal (room) tem- perature for various magnesium alloys are listed in tables 4.111. The values in tables 4.111 have been derived from test data and are the minimum values expected but are not necessarily covered by procurement specifications. ‘The effects of notches, holes, and stress raisers on the static properties of magnesium alloys (see sec. 1.526) are given in references 4.111 (a) through (6) 4.112. Fatigue properties. Rotating beam, re- peated flexure, and direct tension and compression, sirength data, for several magnesium alloy mi terials are given in tables 4.112. In using these data it should be remembered that they have been ‘obtained from specimens in which stress concen- trations are purposely minimized, and that suitable allowance should be made for reentrant corners, notches, holes, joints, and all other conditions which may produce localized high stresses. ‘These localized high stresses, which have almost no effect, ‘on the static strength of the members, are of great importance in studying the effect. of repeated stresses. ‘The values given in table 4.112 (a) were deter- mined by testing 0.3-inch diameter machined and polished specimens (die east were east to shape) in R. R. Moore rotating beam fatigue machines and represent extreme fiber stresses which such specimens will withstand. ‘Tho values given in table 4.112 (8) were deter- mined by testing 0.25-inch thick cast and forged sheet specimens in Krouse plate bending fatigue machines and represent the completely reversed stresses that such specimens will withstand, Sand-cast speci- ‘mens were machined; all other specimens received ro specinl surface treatment. “The values given in table 4.112 (0) were determined by testing 0.064inch by 1-inch sheet specimens and 0.3-inch diameter machined and polished specimens in Krouse direct tension-compression fatigue ma- chines, and represent uniformly distributed stresses which’ such specimens will withstand under re- peated axial loads. ‘The data presented in this table show @ mean stress with a superimposed alternating stress, instead of maximum and mini- ‘mum values. It‘also indicates the magnitude of the alternating stress that is expected to cause failure in conjunction with various mean stresses, for various numbers of cycles. 95| ws, lime ome | on a i - awry | serexy HCN YeaeNY [peas seurnat | sours | DD mee-bd (sooiral MoN) sods ~ sngm puDey waRs (your s20nds 12g #437) eaoys poe “gn, “ays oY eamsoubogy Jo « onaadang >UGERL ubjed “TIFF PML 2‘ivogesoumy tng ay ues se NT . “eovenns paper tay mpd fd 8 ae sw A + = veamey | Pa| | pjey jing 0 pp p soeting — — | (our osonby wg vdiy) ebusdiog pun sbusen puog “poy pun sing Kony wnssouboyy fo veenaadon porumwoyy wise “(Q) TEET MMOLTable 4.112 (a). Rotating-Ream Fatigue Strength * Walues given were determined by testing 03-inch diameter machined and polished specimens (die east to shape) in R. R. Moore rotating-beam fatigue machines and represent extteme fiber stresses which sich speeimetis will with- stand in completely reversed flexure.) aor trench (everg rs Aa net namber ws] 165) 45 130 zo} igo] 165 16.0 m5] zs] 150 18.0 05} 175) 160 0, wo] io] os. 10.5 .0| i920] 1K0 120 a5] 190] 165 16.5, aof 185] 180 100} wo] 70! 160 0 Die east: R (6), AM2086_ 75} 160] 15.0 160 Extruded: 5] 120] ns, 10.5 ao} 240) a0 00 m5| a25| ans 20.0 wo m5] a5. 20.5, m0) as] as. 20.5. 275] m5] ans 19.5 20} an0| 220 19.5 ao} a25| 20.0 18.0 2.0] 2.0] 160 16.0 * Data so on send by the Dow Chemie Ca and Amorsan Mapai Co, 98Table 4.112 () [Waiues given were determined by using east and forged 0.25-ineh thick specimens, sud 0.064- ‘and represent the approximate reversed (alternating) stresses, ksi, that in Krouse plate bending fatigue machine ‘ean be superimposed on the mean stresses for various mimbers of cycles. compression] Repeated-Plezure Fatigue Strength ch thick sheet specimens Plus (+) me tension, minus (—) means eosin |_Paezestenth reer aa) at deel wba 7 one eae ano eyes 00 eyes Sand cast and machined H-AC, H-HTS, WHT, H-HTA, C-AC, C-HT, and cua! - o| 213.0t0 219.5] 21.00 4180] 41.0 t0 4135 45| £100to £163] 480to +155| 485 to +130 410] 280t0 2135| £60t0 2125! 260t0 4110 HIS} 46.0t0 2110) 4 5.0 to 285 Die east R. Lesceceree| ° #105 290 Extruded: M. oe ° 414.0 41.0 cares ° 420.0 415.0 OURTA, o 419.5 416.0 ° 4125 £120 0 £155 4120 +5 £185 £10 +10 #110 49.0 +15 40.5 #70) 420 #80 £50 oe ° £185 | #140 45 2180 418.0 +10 £160 412.5 +15 4145 £110 +20 #180 410.0 PS-1a, shes, 0 £185 £15.0 45 415.0 £185 | +10 4145 4125 415, #120 rare +20 410.5 “40.5 FS-1h, sheet. - 0 £18 16 +5 ais | 415 +10 18 rary +15 16 413 +20 | 418.5 #11.5 ° 418.0 49.0 £60 o 418.0 4145 #140 0 £165 4125 £120 "ste sate ands for and oat and machined lysate applicable neosrly a rod the bands ted tela ange ted, but th range o water fray barter ey ot" Data ban on ea by te Dow Chest Co. seosmn 0-818 ”‘Table 4.112 (@). Direct Tension-Compression Fatigue Strength [Values given were determined by using 0.064- by I-inch sheet specimens and 0.2-inch diameter machined and polished specimens in Krouse direct tension-compression fatigue machives and represent uniformly distributed stresses whieh such specimens will withstand under repeated axial loads. Stresses considered algebraically: plus (+) means tension minus (=) means eompressfon.] eer ata sy tat td wae een ‘Ayan tone Men eg] —_—_ mney Sand east and machined H-AG, H-HTS, HHT, H-HTA, C-AC, and CHT of 212500 421.5] 21.0% 4190] 412000 4175 45] £1600 £175] 41200 417.0] $100 t0 4100 410] £1.50 2150] 295t0 2145] “480 t0 4140 415 | “49.010 2130] 275102100 260% +120 Ma, shoot. ° ° 260 £60 45 5 26.0 £60 +10 ° £55 250 +15 250 #50 420 B45 45 Mh, sheet. ° +170 £140 #140 +5 2180 £120 #120 +10 210 $100 4100 +15 ams 280 280 $20 £95 £60 260 FSA, shoot. ° £105 85 280 +5 £05 480 205 +10 sos. 208 ano +15 80 az0 =n0 $20 370 305 265 FSth, sheet. ° 245 £140 £180 45 2125 2120 m0 +10 a) 2100 210.0 415 “29.0 280 +80 +20 an0 60 260 0-1 HTA, extrusions ° 4380 2315 £355 +5 238.0 320.5 22.5 10 an0| 2355 10.5 $15 2700 2200 2105 420 218.0 2160 2105 A, extrusions. ° 2108 2135 2135 +8 2150 zins. 1s +10 tino “£90 “£9.0 415 £110 aro 470 $20 200 25.0 $50 “Nore Be nate on abe 43120). ‘Database on tts by the Dow Chem Co 1004.118 Typical stress-strain and tangent modulue modulus values at various stresses are given in data, ‘Typical stress-strain diagrams and tangent figure 4.113 for several magnesium alloy products. oe ofwode ahr . Bes) — | : : f E cr | exit wm | exiaes exo! wm exit ae T + er | | * u 20 a i Zi s 2 i Q = fe 2 E i = a 5 Efe o r . : ° exe? mw exosrat ere! wm | exons reese aes [Cetra cece cee + cMPRESVESTESS-STRAM | oe COMPRESS AMEN MOD Figure 4.118 (a). Typiral strew-strain and tangent modulus curves for magnesium alloy sheet and extruded shapes. 101‘cacao aM 2606 Fano ohstines fastinds: motos oxi mm — exio¥esr exiotmrm — exiotpsr oo ao eased ens veo afd cafes iy : z 2, Ge = a i, "ps I exiotmrn ex 104951 exiotmm —exi0es | eafamofuasolre sar eastpos wenfa ano fw acre sa castes | a t wy NS } ex 107 WIN ExI0-PS) ex iotMn Exr04ps) se TENSUE STRESS. STRAW Ce TeNSLE TANGENT MooULUS 1 commnessve srress-sream | D+ COMPRESSIVE TANGENT MODULUS Figure 4.118 (6). Typical stress-strain and tangent modulus curees for magnesium alloy sand castings. 1084.12. Tewprnavors Errecrs 4.121 Low temperature 4.122 Eleoated temperature 4.1221 Static properties. Curves for com- puting the approximate reduction in tensile ultimate and tensile yield properties for mag- nesium alloys M, O-IHTA, AMC 585-151, and EMSI-HTA, held unstressed at elevated temperature up to 600° F., for various time intervals and then tested statically at temperature, are given in figures 4.1221 (a) to 4.1221 (m) ‘Available data indicates that the data in figures 4.1221 (a) to 4.1221 (m) may also be used to determine approximate shear, bearing and com- pressive properties of magnesium alloys at elevated temperatures as follows: (@) Tho percentages for tensile ultimate strength may also be applied to shear and bearing ultimate strengths. (8) The percentages for tensile yield strength may be applied to compressive and bearing yield strengths ‘Data are based on continuous heating but are considered applicable to intermittent heating when the total time at temperature is the same 103tH Petit ql 1. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGH, TIME EXPOSED 5. STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 10. CAEER, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.2% TOTAL DEFORMATION 99 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 9. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION ALCREEP. RATE, MINIMUM 1. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR L0% TOTAL DEFORMATION +4 g loo § 60 tivo Ico Iso \4o PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 8 ©8089@ 1.0 10 HOURS 100° 1000. 10000 @® lo” 10° /NJIN|HR. 10° lo* io? Figure $.1221 (a). Blecated temperature properties af forged M (annealed 1 hour at 700° P.) magnesium alloy at 200° P. 104 onsite) (Re T. Rye 83,500 p. «3.PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 096000 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 Figure 4.1921 & loo leo tht t— a fa CREP, TME REQUIRED FOR Q2% TOTAL DEFORMATION Le cREEP, TE REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION [6 SHORT ThE TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TWE: EXPOSED 1 SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE. STRENGTH, TME EXPOSED so 40 I \s0 leo ul L 0 10 TCREER, TIME REGO FOR 1.0% TOTAL DEFORM. ‘5 STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE. = 4. CREEP RATE, MINIMUM ® lo” (oS NANAR. 10° lo“ 10? (0), Blesated temperature properties cf forged M (annealed I hour at 700° F.) magnesium alloy at $00° F. (onsite) (RT. Fey=83,500 p. & i). a 58 oo Iso HAH + Fi stone Tine ULt TENSILE STRENGTH, Te EXPOSED | ©. SHORT TIME TENSILE WELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 9. CREEP, TINE REQUIRED FOR 05% TOTAL DEFORMATION "0 CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 02% TOTAL oeroRMATIONO 4. CREEP RATE, MINMUM 2.€REER, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSTION) {-CREEP, TME REQUIRED FOR 10% TOTAL DEFORMATION $ 3 leo g 50 8 § zo « \s0 yo PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH + 000®0@ 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 ® 10” 10* JM/IN./HR. 10° toe oe igure 4.1281 (6). Blevated temperature properties of forged M (annealed 1 hovr at 700° F.) magnesium alloy at 400° F aa tensile) (RT. Fu=83,500 p. 8.4).10 Fa - 90 t Hn a 1. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED eo 6. SHORT TIME TENSKE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 9. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL OEFORMATION un ravicueeycues OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE 70 A.CREEP RATE, MINIMUM 41) ROTATING BEAM, R.R MOORE TYPE 3000 AND 1.000 RPM. loo 50} Iso 40 30. lzo /&2, CREEP, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) 9 [5 STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 3. CREEP, TIME RECD FOR 10% TOTAL. DEFORM. PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 10. CREEP, TIME REGD FOR 02% TOTAL DEFORM. 000000® 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 ® 10” 10° IM JIM/HR. 10° o* io @ 10° IOSCYCLES 10° 10° 10° Figure 4.1221 (d). Klevated temperature properties of forged O ensile) (RT. HTA and AMC 688-751 magnesium alloy at 200° F. 000 p. 81). 107100 |. SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED Ee 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 9. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 05% TOTAL OEFORMATION O.CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 0.2% TOTAL DEFORMATION, InraTiGUeJCYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE 60 TIE 4 CREEP RATE, MINIMUM vol (0) ROTATING BEAM, RR, MOORE TYPE ~3,000 AND 10,000 RPA. en Lo eeeles eo t =Er “E5 STRESS RUPTURE, TIME TO FAILURE 2: cneer, TMe Recto FoR Lone Tor oer. Ht, 2. CREEP, START OF 3RO STAGE (rRANGTION) 40 g PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 020600 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 @® \o” 10° IN/IN./HR. \0° lo lo? ® wo 10° CYCLES 10” 10% 10° Figure 4.1921 (@). Bleed temperature properties of forged O-1HTA and AMCE8S-T51 magnesium alloy af 300° F. (lense) (RT. 9,000 p.# i) 108loo 1 SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED 6 SHORT TE TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TME EXPOSED i Heo so \s0 130 leo PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH O® 40 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 Figure 4.1281 (f). Elevated temperature properties of forged O-1HTA and AMC 688-T51 magnesium alloy at 400° F. (lensile) B. P. Ry= 48,000 p. i). os8 leo 8 \20 “4 CREEP RATE, MINIMUM CREEP, TME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION 10. CREEP, TIME REQUIRED FOR 02% TOTAL OCFORMATION 70. ttt leo g Iso 8 40 « ls0 IL FATICUE,/CYCLES OF STRESS FOR RUPTURE f leo (1) ROTATING BEAM, R.R. MOORE TYPE 3000 AND 10,000 P.M.) PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH ©®@ 10 10. HOURS 100 1000 10000 ® Jo” (ON. IN HR 10° 1o* to" @ 1o* 10° CYCLES 10” 10° 1o* Figure 4.1221 (g). Bloated temperature properties of forged EMB1-HTA magnesium alloy 800° P. (Lenste) (R. T. F 110 $7,000 p, 8.4)STRENGTH § te ‘6 SHORT TINE TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED | 2? 9. CREEP, TME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL, DEFORMATION [, SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED. a 70 ° ico \s0 40 ¢ l20 '& CREEP, Tive REGID FOR LOM TOT. DEF. ‘A. CREEP RATE, MINIMUM 10. CREEP, TIME. REQD FOR 0.2% TOT. DEF. yo PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE Q@OO®@ 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 @ 0” tor* IMIINIHR. 10° lo 10? Figure 4.1221 (8). Bleseted temperature properties of forged EMBI-HTA magnesium alloy at 400° B. (lnsile) (Re T. Fay= 537,000 p. 8. i). onFigure 4.1881 (), Elesatd temperature praporties of forged EME1-HTA magnesium alloy af 600° F. (tensile) (R. T. P= 112 STRENGTH OF METAL AIRCRAFT ELEMENTS We SHORT TIME ULT. TENSILE. STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED) 20) 6 SHORT TIME TENSILE YIELO STRENGTH, TIME EXPOSED CREEP, TME REQUIRED FOR 0.5% TOTAL DEFORMATION JO.CREEP, TME REQUIRED FOR 02% TOTAL DEFERWATION 70 4: CREEP. RATE, MINIMUM 0 S.CREEP, TME REQUIRED FOR LOM TOTAL DEFORMATION 10 60 60) bo) 40} leo 30) 50. PERCENT OF ROOM TEMPERATURE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH =o yo ie ‘5. STRESS. RUPTURE, TIME. TO FAILURE Z.CREER, START OF THIRD STAGE (TRANSITION) 0098000 10 10 HOURS 100 1000 10000 @ 107 10° IN/IN/HR. 10° lo* 103 37,000 p. . i).