Opium:Abriefhistory

ProducedforRawOpium:Pain,Pleasure,Profits,afeaturedocumentary
ByAssociateProducerScottCalbeck,2011.

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Opium:ABriefHistory

OPIUM:ABRIEFHISTORY
byScottCalbeck

Introduction:AWorldPainCrisis? .......................................................................................................................................................2
Opium:RelieffromSuffering..................................................................................................................................................................3
TheSpreadoftheOpiumPoppy:FromtheGreekstotheChinese ........................................................................................................3
Britain,China,andtheOpiumWars........................................................................................................................................................4
OpiumintheWest.............................................................................................................................. ....................................................5
TheEarlyModernEra ..................................................................................................................................................................5
NineteenthCenturyBritain..........................................................................................................................................................6
TheNewWorld ............................................................................................................................................................................7
OpiumDensintheNineteenthCentury...................................................................................................................................................7
TheDiscoveryofMorphine(1806)...........................................................................................................................................................8
TheDiscoveryofHeroin(1874)................................................................................................................................................................9
TheScienceofPainToday......................................................................................................................................................................10
TheCriminalizationofOpium................................................................................................................................................................11
TheHarrisonAct(1914) .............................................................................................................................................................11
ReactiontotheHarrisonAct......................................................................................................................................................12
InternationalActivity.................................................................................................................... ............................................12
InternationalDrugSmugglingSincethe1940s .....................................................................................................................................12
HeroinandtheVietnamWar.............................................................................................................13
TheWaronDrugs..................................................................................................................................................................................13
OpiumToday.........................................................................................................................................................................................14

Introduction:AWorldPainCrisis?

Foroverfivethousandyears,peoplehaverecognizedthemedicinalvalueofthepoppy.Itisjustaflower,buttheopiumit
producesisthesourceofthemostpotentpainrelieversknowntoman.Everydaydoctorsprescribethemorphineandcodeine
thatderivefromopium.However,morphineisalsousedtoproduceheroin.Opiumisbothagiftofthegodsandascourgeof
modernsociety.
Opium,morphine,andheroinformthebasisofamultinationaltrade,bothlegalandillegal,thatislargerthanthegrosseconomies
ofsomecountries.TodayinAfghanistan,despiteeffortstointroducealternativecrops,poppycultivationisthebackboneofthe
ruraleconomy.ThebulkofthecountryspoppycropcomesfromHelmandandKandaharprovinces,whereamajorityofresidents
areruralandtherearefewwaystoearnalivingfromthislandtoday.
BeforetheSovietUnionsinvasionofAfghanistanin1979,Kandaharprovinceboastedawiderangeofcrops.Therewasfruit:
manypeoplegrewapples,apricots,grapes,pears,plums,andpomegranates.Othersproducedcotton,barley,corn,sesame,
sunflowers,andwheat.Butdecadesofwar,anddrought,havechangedthat.Somefarmersstillcultivatewheat.Buttheymake
tentimeslessthanfarmerswhochoosetogrowPapaversomniferumtheopiumpoppy.
Cultivationofthepoppyislabourintensive,providingincomeforthousandsofpeople.Theplantthrivesinthearidconditionsof
southernAfghanistan,asitishardyandrequireslesswaterthanothercrops.Rawopiumiseasytostoreforalongtime,withno
spoilageandnolossofpotency.
Perhapsmostimportant,theworldsconstantdemandforheroinmeansthatopiumdealersarewillingtopayfarmersinadvance.
TheopportunitytoreceivemoneyinNovembersplantingseasonforacropthatwillnotbereadytoharvestuntilspringisa
powerfulincentiveforpeasantswithnootherwaytoearncash.
FrommerchantsoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyinthemideighteenthcentury,togangstersoftheFrenchConnectioninthemid
twentiethcentury,totheTalibananditssupportersinpresentdayAfghanistan,peoplehavesoughttoprofitfromtheopiumtrade.

Opium:ABriefHistory

ButthefactthatAfghanistantreatscultivationoftheopiumpoppyasacrimenotonlydeprivesdestitutefarmersofthenecessities
oflifeitdeprivestheworldofsomethingmanyofitscitizensdesperatelyneedtokillpain.
TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthattherewillbetenmillioncasesofcancerperyearindevelopingcountries,inaddition
tomillionsofpeoplewithHIV/AIDS.Itdescribesthelikelydemandforopiumbasedmedicinesasthesourceofaworldpaincrisis.
TheInternationalNarcoticsControlBoardlicensesthetrafficinmorphineandcodeine.Itreportsthattherichestnations
Australia,Britain,Canada,France,Germany,Japan,andtheUnitedStatesconsumenearlyalloftheworldslegalopiates,leaving
eightypercentoftheglobespopulationvirtuallywithout.
MeetingglobaldemandforpainmedicationwouldrequireperhapsaboutdoublethecurrentAfghanproduction.Purchasingthe
entireannualAfghanpoppycropatthecurrentmarketprice,whichdrugwarlordsset,wouldcostabout$600millionroughly10
percentofwhattheUnitedStatesspendsinamonthontheAfghanwar.

Opium:RelieffromSuffering

Opiumanditsderivatives,whichincludemorphine,codeine,andthebaine,arenarcoticsfromtheGreeknarcosis(benumbingor
deadening).Thesesubstancesnotonlyrelievepain;theyalsochangemoodandbehaviour,producingarelaxedfeelingofwell
beingorrelief.Thereforetheyreducetheanxietythatoftenaccompaniesandcanevenworsenpain.Today,medicinesfrom
opiumtreatpainincrediblyeffectivelyinfourkeyclinicalareas:cancer,HIV/AIDS,postoperativetreatment,andgeneralchronic
pain.

Mostpatientstakingnarcoticsstatethattheyareexperiencingjustasmuchpainastheydidwithoutthemedication,buttheyfind
thepainlesstroubling.Narcoticsconstrictthepupilsoftheeyes,slowbreathing,andwidentheveinsoftheskin,whicheffects
makethebodylookflushedandfeelwarm.Theyslowthedigestivesystemandareatraditionalremedyfordiarrhoea.Theyhave
acalmingactiononcoughsandhavelongbeenstandardtreatmentforthem.
Humanshavealwayssearchedforwaystorelievepain.Opiumwasprobablythefirstdrugthatearlypeoplesdiscovered,andone
oftheoldestcivilizationscultivatedopium:theSumerians,wholivedsixthousandyearsagointheFertileCrescentthearea
surroundingtheTigrisandEuphratesriversinpresentdayIraq.Theyvaluedhulgil(theplantofjoy)foritsabilitytorelievepain.
TheyintroducedopiumtotheAssyrians,whointurnshareditwiththeBabylonians.TheBabylonianspassedontheirknowledgeto
theEgyptians.
TheopiumpoppywashistoricallyindigenousthroughoutEurope,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica.Egyptianrecordsshowthat
tradeinandconsumptionofopiumflourishedunderseveralpharaohs,includingKingTutankhamun.Archaeologistshavefound
opiumextractingequipmentinthetombsofpharaohs,forwhomitwastohelpharvestpoppiesinthenextlife.
Egyptiansusuallyatetheplant,althoughsomepressedtheentireflowertomakepoppyjuice.Mostfamilieskeptastockintheir
homesandusedittotreatasthma,digestivedisorders,andheadaches,aswellascolic.ArchaeologistshaveuncoveredaRemedy
toPreventtheExcessCryingofChildren:Mixopiumwiththeexcretionsoffliesfoundonthewalls,straintoapulp,passthrough
asieve,andadministeronfoursuccessivedays.Thecryingwillstopatonce.
Intheearlytwentiethcentury,NorthAmericanswerestillusingopiumtotreatcolic.Andthemethodofharvestingithasnot
changedinallthesemillennia.

TheSpreadoftheOpiumPoppy:FromtheGreekstotheChinese

Opiumpoppyplantsgrowintemperateclimatesaroundtheworld.Theybearflowersthatrangeincolourfrompurewhiteto
brilliantpurple.Thefemalestructurethepistilliesatthecentreoftheflower.Afterpollination,seedsbegintomaturewithin
thepistil,whichswellstoformaseedpod.Withinafewdays,theflowerpetalsfallofftoexposetheseedpod.Iffarmersleavethe
seedpodontheplant,theseedsmatureanddryout.Poppyseedsareusefulincookingandbakingandarealsoconvertibletooil.
Butscoringthepodwithshallowcutsbyaknifereleasesopiumintheformofthick,whiteresinthatoozesfromtheslits.Asit
contactstheair,theresindarkensandcongeals.Peoplethenscrapeitfromtheseedpodandcombineitwithresinfromother

Opium:ABriefHistory

plantstoformaballofcrudeopium.Theythenboilandfilterthiscrudeopiumandshapeitintoblocks.Incontrasttomanyother
agriculturalcrops,opiumisnonperishable,easytostore,lowinweight,andhighinvalue.
Homerknewaboutopium.IntheOdyssey,Helenaddsittothewinetolightenthemoodatagatheringfollowinganencounteron
thefieldsofTroy.ManyGreeksbelievedthatopiumhadmetaphysicalqualities,butHippocratesdisagreed,seeingitaspotentially
beneficialonlyifoneuseditsparinglyandundercontrol.Heworriedlittleaboutitspotentialabusetohim,alcoholseemedafar
moredangeroussocialaddiction.
AlexandertheGreatknewaboutopium,andintroducedittoIndiaandPersia.TheRomanslearnedaboutopiumandother
medicinesfromtheGreeks.Romancitizensusedopiumastheequivalentofaspirin;theyateitwithhoney,tosuppressits
bitterness,ordrankitasajuice.Opiumwasavailableinlocalshopsandfromtravellingsalesmen.Thegreatphilosopheremperor
MarcusAureliuswasanaddict.
Arabphysiciansrecognizedthesubstanceforitsmedicinalvirtues.ButpartlybecauseIslamforbadealcohol,opiumbecamea
popularsocialdrug.Bytheseventhcentury,nativesofwhatisnowTurkeydevelopedanewwaytousethesubstance.Insteadof
eatingitorbrewingpartsoftheplanttomakeatea,theyfoundthatheatingaballofopiumandinhalingthesmokeitproduced
allowedthemtoexperiencethebenefitsmuchfaster.Whattheydidnotknowwasthatsmokingopiumratherthaneatingitwas
morelikelytomakeusersdependent.
TheexpansionoftheArabworldintheMiddleAgesbroughttradersintocontactwithPersia(Iran),India,andChina.Opiumgrew
wellinIndiaandbecameamajorsourceofrevenuefortheMogulempireinthenorth.Arabtradershadintroducedopiumto
Chinaduringtheeighthcentury.Itsoonbecameavaluableiteminmedicinecabinetsthere,andremainedprimarilyaremedy
ratherthanarecreationaldrugfornearlyonethousandyears.

ButbytheendofthenineteenthcenturyopiumwouldbecomeapoignantsymbolofChinesedecline,thanksinlargeparttooneof
thelargestdrugcartelstheworldhaseverknown:theBritishgovernment.

Britain,China,andtheOpiumWars

ImaginethataColombiandrugcartellaunchesasuccessfulmilitaryoffensiveagainsttheUnitedStatesandforcesthecountryto
legalizecocaineandallowitsimportationintomajorcities,withoutsupervisionortaxation.ThecartelthenforcestheUnited
Statestoreimburseitforthecostsofthewar.Lessthantwohundredyearsago,theBritishdidjustthattoChina;thedrugin
questionwasopium.
Onlyafewcenturiesago,Chinawasamysteriousandunknowncountrytomuchoftheworld.AsWesternpowersbegantheage
ofexplorationbysea,PortugalandSpainwerethefirsttomakecontactwithitandenjoyedavirtualmonopolyoftradethereinthe
sixteenthcentury.In1557theChineseemperorallowedthePortuguesetoleasethesmallpeninsulaofMacaointhesouth.
Therulingphilosophy,Confucianism,lookeddownontradersnomatterwhattheirculture.SotheChineseviewedtheforeigners
withcontemptasbarbarians,andwoulddealwiththeirtradersonlythroughtheportofCanton.Butwhiletheempirewouldsoon
findEuropeahugemarketforitstea,silk,andporcelain,itwasotherwiseselfsufficientandhadlittleneedtoimportforeigngoods.
ManyChinese,however,developedapassionwhichwould,formillions,becomeanaddictionforsmokingamixtureoftobacco
andIndianopiuminapipe.TheSpanishhadintroducedpipesmokingtoChina.Bytheearlyseventeenthcentury,Indianopium
wasforsaleinChina.Asthehabitofsmokingopiumspread,theemperorissuedanedictin1729banningthesmokingofthe
substanceanditsimportation.Butthevastcountryhadcloseto300millionpeople.Howtoenforceanybanespeciallyagainsta
substancethataddicteditsusers?Thepenaltyfordealinginopiumwasstrangulation.Butthereweresomanyaddictsthat
smugglerswerewillingtoignoretheimperialdecree.
TheBritishwerelatecomerstothetrade,butastheirinfluenceinIndiagrewtheytookovertherichopiumfieldsofBengal.In1772
theBritishgovernorgeneral,WarrenHastings,establishedacolonialmonopolyonopiumandgavetheBritishEastIndiaCompany
theexclusiverighttopurchaseitfromBengalsfarmers.
TheBritishhaddevelopedaloveaffairoftheirownwithtea.In1664KingCharlesIIreceivedtwopoundsofblack,strange
smellingleavesfromChina.By1785,Britainwasimporting15millionpoundsofteaayearfromthatnation.Ahugetrade

Opium:ABriefHistory

imbalanceresulted,becausetheselfsufficientChineseinsistedonpaymentinsilver.Thesolutionwasopium.Itwasanidealcargo
easytotransport,nondeteriorating,lowinweight,andveryvaluable,producinghugeprofits.Itsaddictiveproperties
guaranteedanexpandingmarket.
AstheopiumtradewasofficiallyillegalinChina,theBritishEastIndiaCompanylicensedandcontrolledprivatetraderswho
smuggledthesubstancetoMacao.RapidtravelfromIndiatoChinawasessential,toavoidbothstormsandpirates,andanewkind
ofshipemergedthesleek,fastopiumclipper.CrewstransferredhugequantitiesofopiumontheislandofLintintofastChinese
vesselswithflatbottomsfastcrabswhichuseduptofortyoarsmen.Thedeathpenaltyawaitinganyoneoncapturespurred
theprocess.
In1799theChineseemperordecreedatotalbanonopium,butincreasinglocaldemandmeantthatthetradecontinuedto
flourish.Bythe1830s,threemillionaddictswereconsuming1,500tonsofIndianopiumeachyear.
TherewasoppositioninBritaintothecountrysinvolvementintheopiumtrade.Somepeoplefeltitinconsistentwiththehonour
anddutyofaChristiankingdom;otherscalleditanationalcrime.Buttaxrevenuesfromopiumwereanimportantsourceof
revenueforthegovernmentinBritain.IftheChinesehadaphysicaladdiction,theBritishhadafinancialone.
ParliamentfinallyrevokedtheBritishEastIndiaCompanyscharterin1833.ButfreetradersflockedtoMacao,andtheillegalsale
ofIndianopiumcontinuedtothriveallalongtheChinesecoast.Opiumwasbynowunderminingthecountryssocialandeconomic
life;itsusewasrampantamongsoldiersandcivilservants.Theemperorsapparentpowerlessnessseemedathreattothesurvival
ofhisdynasty.ThegovernmentdecidedtotargetBritishtradersanddemandthattheysurrendertheiropium.WhentheBritish
relinquishedonlyatokenamount,authoritiesbannedalltradeandmovementofBritishshipsalongtheCantonRiver.
From1839to1842(theFirstOpiumWar),aBritishexpeditionaryforceshelledandcapturedvariouscitiesinChina,whosearmed
forceswereunabletodefendthem.ThispredicamenthumiliatedtheChineseandhighlightedtheirweakness.TheTreatyof
NanjingforcedthemtocedetheislandofHongKongtoBritainfor175yearsandopenotherportstoforeigntrade.Overthenext
tenyears,theempiresimportofIndianopiumdoubled.
In1856theChinese,furiousaboutthefloodofaproductthattheyhaddeclaredillegal,seizedashipsmugglingopium.Thevessel
wasflyingtheUnionJack.TheBritishrespondedbybombardingCanton.Fightingwentonfrom1856to1860(theSecondOpium
War)andculminatedwiththeinvadersdestroyingtheemperorsSummerPalaceinPeking(Beijing).Thepalaceboastedeighty
squaremilesofexquisiteparklandandgardens.Itstwohundredpagodas,palaces,andpavilionshousedlibraries,artwork,and
othertreasures.Ittooktwodaysforthislivingmuseumtoburntotheground.
AnewtreatyopenedmoreChineseportstotradeandmadeimportationofopiumlegal.Overthenexttwentyyears,importsof
opiumfromIndiacontinuedtorise.ChineseofficialsfosteredlocalproductiontocutintotheIndiantrade,butthisalsoencouraged
moreuseandaddictionathome.
By1906over13millionChineseaddictswereconsumingalmost40,000tonsofopiumayear.WhentheJapaneseoccupiedthe
countryinthelate1930stheyfoundthatabouttenpercentofthepopulation40millionpeoplewereaddicts,sotheyflooded
thenationwithopiumandmorphine.After1949,Communistrulersfinallyendedtheopiumproblem,executingdealersand
forcingusersintotreatment.
InsomewaysthehavocthatheroinaddictionhasbroughttotheWestinthelastcenturyseemsalmostpoeticjusticeforits
economicandpoliticalexploitationofadecayingChineseempire.SomeobservershavesaidthattheBritishempirereallybeganto
declinewhentheBritishgaveuptheopiumbusiness.

OpiumintheWest

TheEarlyModernEra

By1900opiumwasalsobecomingprevalentinEurope,eventhoughitwasnotnewthere.KnightsreturningfromtheCrusadeshad
broughtopiumwiththem,anditsoonbecameasubstanceoflegend.

Opium:ABriefHistory

WhentheCatholicsdrovetheMoorsfromSpainandtheinfluenceofIslamictradersdiminishedinthefifteenthcentury,the
Venetianstookovertheopiumtrade.MerchantsandrulersaskedColumbus,Cabot,daGama,andMagellantobringbackopium
fromtheirvoyagesofdiscovery.
Inthelate1500sParacelsus,aneccentricphysician,philosopher,andhealerfromSwitzerland,developedanewmethodof
consumingopium.Herealizedthatitscomponentsdidnotdissolveeasilyinwaterbecauseoftheiralkalinenature.
Byexperimenting,hefoundthathecouldcompletelydissolvethesubstanceinalcohol.Hecreatedamixtureofopiuminbrandy
thathenamedlaudanumsomethingtopraise.Heclaimedthatitcouldtreatanydiseasethatcausedpain.Heevenboasted
thatpatientswhompainhadrestrictedtotheirbedsregainedmuchoftheirformer,activelivesaftertakingit.Interestin
laudanumsurged.Thedrinkbecamepopularasamedicineandforrecreationaluse.

In1680ThomasSydenham,anEnglishphysicianandapothecary,revisedParacelsussrecipetomakeSydenhamsLaudanum.
Containingopium,sherrywine,saffron,cinnamon,andcloves,hisbrewnotonlytastedbetteritcostless,too.Hebecamean
enthusiasticproponent:IcannotforebearmentioningwithgratitudethegoodnessoftheSupremeBeing,whohassupplied
afflictedmankindwithopiatesfortheirrelief;nootherremedybeingequallypowerfultoovercomeagreatnumberofdiseases,or
toeradicatethemeffectually.

NineteenthCenturyBritain

ThomasdeQuinceywasoneofthefirstEuropeanstowriteaboutopium.Aftertakingittotreatpainfromatoothache,he
continuedtouseitrecreationally.Hebegantosavehissupplyforeventssuchasatriptotheopera,becauseitenhancedhis
sensesandmadetheexperienceseemlargerthanlife.HisConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEaterappearedin1822:Thatmy
painshadvanishedwasnowatrifleinmyeyesHerewasthesecretofhappiness,thatwhichphilosophershaddisputedforso
manyages,atoncediscovered;happinessmightnowbeboughtforapenny,carriedinthewaistcoatpocket;portableecstasies
mightbehadcorkedupinapintbottle;andpeaceofmindcouldbesentdownbythemail.DeQuinceysConfessionspopularized
thedrug,butfewpeoplereadhislaterMiseriesofOpium,abouttheagoniesofhisaddiction.
Englishchemists(i.e.,pharmacists)stockedopiumliniment,opiumpills,opiumsoap,opiatelozenges,andopiateplasters.Many
coughsyrupsandelixirscontainedopium.ThomasDoverwasawellknownseacaptain,andrescuedthereallifeRobinsonCrusoe.
Whenhissailingcareerended,heannouncedplanstospendtherestofhislifehealingpeople.Buthewasalreadyfortyand
unwillingtogotomedicalschool.Hepreferredtohealpeoplewithhisownopiumelixir.Hisfriendshipswithsailorsactiveinthe
opiumtradeallowedhimtoobtainalltheopiumheneeded.DoversPowderbecameoneofthebestsellingselfremediesin
England.
Opiumformedthebaseofseveralsoothingbabysyrups.In1862apharmacistinNottinghamestimatedthathesold12,000dosesa
week,mostlytopoorwomenwhohadtoworklonghoursandtakecareofchildren.Soothingsyrupshelpedtokeepthe
youngstersquiet;theyalsosuppressedhungerandthereforesavedonfood.

Laudanumcontinuedinuse.Victoriandoctorsoftenprescribeditforneurastheniafatigue,headache,andirritabilityor,less
charitably,womenstroublesorfemalecomplaints.ThegreatpoetElizabethBarrettBrowningconsumeditmostofheradult
life.Historiansdisagreeonheroriginalreasonsfortryingit,butmostconcurthatshecontinuedwithittotreatherneurasthenia:

ItmightstrikeyouasstrangethatIwhohavenopainno

acutesufferingtokeepdownfromitsanglesshouldneed

dopeinanyshape.ButIhavehadrestlessnessuntilitmade

mealmostmad.

AtonetimeIlostthepowerofsleepingquiteandevenin

theday,thecontinualachingsenseofweaknesshasbeen

intolerablebesidespalpitationasifoneslife,insteadof

givingmovementtothebody,wereimprisonedundiminished

withinit,andbeatingandflutteringimpotentlytogetout,

atallthedoorsandwindows.

SothemedicalpeoplegavemeopiumandeversinceI

Opium:ABriefHistory

havecalleditmydrinkofthegods,myelixirbecausethe

tranquilizingpowerhasbeenwonderful.

TheNewWorld

OpiumtravelledwithsettlerstotheNewWorldintheearly1600s.Newcomersplantedpoppyseedsandgrewfieldsofopium.As
peoplehaddoneforcenturiesandcontinuetodotodaytheymadecutsintheseedpodandscrapedtheresinfromit.Then
theydissolvedthegooeysapinwhiskytotreatpainandcoughs.Theyalsoallowedsomeplantstomatureandcollectedthesmall
blackseedsforbreads,pastries,andcookingoil.
DuringtheCaliforniagoldrush(184960),largenumbersofChinesepeopleimmigratedtoNorthAmerica,bringingwiththemmany
oftheircustoms.Someestablishedopiumdensquietroomswherecustomerscouldbuyandsmokethesubstanceunderthe
proprietorswatchfuleye.
ForthefirsttwentyyearsChineseimmigrantswerethedensonlycustomers;whitesettlers,viewingtheplaceswithsuspicion,did
notenter.Somelocalsfearedtheactivitybecausetheythoughtitdangerous;othersdislikedtheChineseimmigrants.Manyothers
simplythoughtitastrangeandsinfulpractice.However,by1868,Americansbegantosmokeopium.
ThefrontiertownofDeadwood,SouthDakota,wasinfamousintheOldWest:itcateredtoeveryconceivablevice,including
prostitution,drinking,andgambling.Butthesheriffwasshockedwhenhefoundmembersofthemiddleclasssmokingopium.
Afraidthatthisvicewouldrobamanofallsemblanceofmanhood,heclosedalltenopiumdens.
ButsomehistorianshavesuggestedthatpeopleintheOldWestusedmoreopiumthanalcohol.FamouscowboyssuchasKit
CarsonandWildBillHickokwereregularcustomersinopiumdens.TheOldWestmightconjureupforusimagesofsaloonsfullof
cowboys,butinrealitymanycowboyswerelyingoncotsinopiumdensanovelwaytopassthedayinapleasant,painfree
stupor.
InSanFranciscointhe1890s,aphysicianestimatedthatatleasttenthousandlocalshadthehabit:Alargeportionofthecityhad
takenupsmokingopium,hittingthepipeasoftenasthreetimesaday.Ifoundgirlsfromsixteentotwentyyearsofagelyinghalf
undressedonthefloororcouches,smokingwiththeirlovers.Bythistime,theBritishwereconsumingaround60,000poundsof
opiumayear.TherewastradeinBristol,Dover,andLiverpool,andauctionstookplaceeverytwoweeksinLondon.

OpiumDensintheNineteenthCentury

Thereweredensallovertheworldinthenineteenthcentury,inlargeportcitiessuchasHongKong,London,NewYork,San
Francisco,andSydney.Thephrasetobehipdescribedtherecliningpositionofthecustomers.Thebestsmokerequiredthatthe
flameandtheballofopiumcombineattherighttemperatureandtherightangle.
NovelistGrahamGreeneexplainedhisstateofmindaftertryingopiumforthefirsttime:

Mymindfeltalertandcalmunhappinessandfearofthe
futurebecamelikesomethingdimlyrememberedwhichIhad
thoughtimportantonce.I,whofeelshyatexhibitingthe
grossnessofmyFrench,foundmyselfrecitingapoemof
Baudelairetomycompanion.

WhenIgothomethatnight,Iexperiencedforthefirsttime
thewhitenightofopium.Oneliesrelaxedandwakeful,
notdesiringsleep.Wedreadwakefulnesswhenourthoughts
aredisturbed,butinthisstateoneiscalmitwouldbewrong
eventosayoneishappyhappinessdisturbsthepulse.

Andthensuddenlywithoutwarningonesleeps.Neverhasone
sleptsodeeplyawholenightlongsleep,andthenthewaking
andtheluminousdialoftheclockshowingthattwentyminutes
ofsocalledrealtimehavegoneby.

Opium:ABriefHistory

WhetherinadeninthesouthofFrance,inaroomoffanalleyinSanFrancisco,orinthehomeofarichmandarininCanton,the
smokerfollowedatraditionalprocedure.Thelayoutusuallyconsistedofapipe,aspiritlamp,alargeneedleandacontainerof
opiumpaste,ascraperforcleaningoutthebowl,asponge,scissorsfortrimmingthewickofthelamp,andasetofscalesfor
measuringouttheopium.
AnewtypeofopiumpipewasdevelopedinChina,andconsistsofalongstemortube,aceramicbowl,andametalsaddlethat
holdsthebowl.Theopiumisnotburnedbutconvertedtoavapourandinhaled.Opiumpipesrangefromsimplebambootubesto
exquisiteivoryorjadecarvings.
Thesmokermakeshimselforherselfcomfortablethemostefficientpositionforsmokingisreclining.Hetakesapeasizedball,or
pill,ofthepastewiththeneedleandholdsitoverthelampsflameuntiltheopiumbubblesandswellsandturnsgolden.Pushing
theopiumintotheholeinthebowl,heholdsthebowlclosetothelampsothattheflamehitstheballofopiumandtakesdeep
pullsatthepipeuntiltheopiumiscompletelyconsumed.
Somepeoplehadalternativestoopiumdens:intheUnitedStatesinthelatenineteenthcentury,themajorityofmaleaddictswere
physicians.Someopiumdenswerehousesofprostitution,anditbecameeasyforWesternerstodemonizeopiumdensasplaces
whereChinesemenseducedmiddleclasswhitegirls.UnfamiliarChinesehabits,languages,andmannerismscouldseemmenacing
toWesterners.Chineseopiumdensbecameafocusofinternationalcontempt.
Formanypeople,however,opiumwasrepresentativeoftheintriguingandexoticwaysofforeignlands.Butantidrugcrusaders
forcedgovernmentstoheeddemandsforahalttothetrade.Inthecourseofafewdecades,takingopiumchangedfromanexotic
iflegalvicetoacriminalactivityrunbygangssellingdrugsonthestreets.Heroinwaseasiertosurreptitiouslyconsume,andbythe
turnofthetwentiethcenturyopiumdenshadbecomeathingofthepast.

TheDiscoveryofMorphine(1806)

Scientistshadlongworriedaboutopiumsaddictivenature.Anumberofthemstudieditintheearlynineteenthcenturyinthe
beliefthatitsactivepainrelievingingredientalonewouldnotbeaddictive.
In1806aGermanpharmacistsassistant,FriedrichSerturner,changedmedicineandthetreatmentofpain.Hedilutedopiumin
acidandthenneutralizeditwithammonia.Hisresearchshowedthatopiumwasamixtureofsugars,resins,waxes,water,and
morethantwentyalkaloids.Oneofthesealkaloidshadadramaticsleepinducingeffectonanimals.Serturnernameditmorphine
afterMorpheus,theGreekgodofdreams.Healsoexperimentedwithitonhimself,andtheresultsfrightenedhim:Iconsiderit
mydutytoattractattentiontotheterribleeffectsofthisnewsubstanceinorderthatcalamitymaybeaverted.
Butmanyexpertshailedmorphineasthenextwonderdrug.Bythemid1820sitwaswidelyavailableinwesternEurope.Florence
Nightingale,asanursewiththeBritisharmyintheCrimeainthe1850s,usedsharpenedquillstoadministerit.Itsvalueasapain
relievergreatlyincreasedin1853,whenDr.AlexanderWoodperfectedthehypodermicsyringe.
Ratherthanhavepatientseatordrinkamorphineelixir,doctorscouldnowdeliverameasureddose.Bypassingthedigestive
systemalsogavefasterresults.Inaddition,doctorsbelievedthatopiumwasaddictivebecauseitwasdigestedinthestomach.
Introducingmorphinedirectlyintothebloodstream,theyassumed,avoidedthethreatofaddiction.
MorphineandthehypodermicsyringewerereadyforuseintheU.S.CivilWarandtheFrancoPrussianWar.Medicalpersonnel
administereditorallyandbyinjectiontohelpquellthepainofinjuriesandemergencysurgery.Theydistributeditliberallyto
treatdysenteryandmalaria.AccordingtohistorianMartinBooth,"UnionSurgeonMajorNathanMayerdidnotevendismount
fromhishorsetodispenseopium.Hepouredoutwhathetermed'exactdoses'intohishandsandletrecipientslickitfromhis
gloves."Sadly,Serturner'swonderdrugturnedsoldiersintoaddictsithasbeenclaimedthatwhatcametobecalledthe
"soldiers'diseaseafflictedasmanyas400,000CivilWarveterans.
Atonetime,surgeonWilliamHalstedwassufferingfromaddictiontococaine,ahighlystimulatingdrug.Advertisements
promotedmorphineasasafe,nonaddictivedrugthatcouldtreataddictiontootherdrugs.Halstedtrieditandweanedhimself
offcocaine.However,hewasneverabletoescapehisdailyfixofmorphine.Medicalprofessionalsoftenexperimentedon
themselveswithnewdrugswhenmanufacturersintroducedthem.Ineducatinghimselfaboutmedicationstohelphispatients,
Halstedlearnedatfirsthandabouttheaddictivepowersoftheopiates.

Opium:ABriefHistory

Eventhoughmorphineaddictionanditssymptomsweregainingrecognition,veryfewpeoplefullyunderstooditsdangers,and
itsusecontinuedtospreadthroughthecentury.InbothEuropeandtheUnitedStates,manymembersofthemiddleclassand
highsocietyinjectedthedrugdaily,asa"cure"foropiumaddiction,totreatpain,orforthepleasurablefeelingsitgave.Stores
andmagazinesopenlysoldmorphineandsyringes;theSearscataloguefeaturedsyringekits.By1900theUnitedStateshad
perhaps100,000morphineaddicts.
Mosthabitusbeganthroughmedicaluseofthesubstance.Pharmaciessoldavarietyofremediesthatcontainedeither
morphineoropium.Paregoric,amixtureofopiumandalcohol,wasadvertisedasatreatmentforbabieswithupsetstomachs.
Itisoneofthefewearlyopiumremediesstillavailabletoday.

Asdoctorsdocumentedmoreandmoremorphineaddiction,theirconcernsgrew.Eventually,theycouldnolongerignorethe
newdrug'sdarkerside.JohnWitherspoon,laterpresidentoftheAmericanMedicalAssociation,beggedhiscolleaguesto"save
ourpeoplefromtheclutchesofthishydraheadedmonsterwhichstalksabroadthroughthecivilizedworld,wreckinglivesand
happyhomes,fillingourjailsandlunaticasylums,andtakingfromtheseunfortunates,thepreciouspromiseofeternallife."

TheDiscoveryofHeroin(1874)

Soonresearchersturnedbacktothelaboratoryinpursuitofthatelusive,nonaddictingpainkiller.In1874Englishpharmacist
C.R.AlderWrightcookedmorphinewithaceticanhydrideandobtainedawhite,crystallinepowderthathenamed
diacetylmorphine.Aftertestingthechemicalondogs,Wrightfoundthatitcaused"greatprostration,fear,sleepinessspeedily
followingtheadministrationandaslighttendencytovomiting."Hedecidedagainstanyfurtherresearchonit.
In1897,GermanscientistsatBayerPharmaceuticalCompanyreexaminedhisfindingwithadifferentperspective.Heinrich
Dreser,headofthelab,realizedthecommercialpossibilitiesofamorphinerelatedmedication.Hesetouttotest
diacetylmorphineonavarietyofanimals,includingfish,frogs,andrabbits.HeeventesteditontheworkersattheBayerplant.
Thedrugprovidedthemwithinstantpainreliefalongwithintenseeuphoriaandseveralhoursofdreamyrelaxation.Mostof
themlovedit,andsomereportedthatitmadethemfeelstrong,even"heroic"hencethenameheroin.
By1898Bayerwasmanufacturingthechemicalandpromotingitasatreatmentforasthma,bronchitis,andcoughing,aswellas
acureformorphineaddiction.Optimistically,Bayerclaimedthatthetreatmenthadthepainkillingpropertiesofmorphinebut
noneofthetroublesomeaddictiveeffects.
Bayersentsamplestodoctorsallovertheworldandbegananaggressiveadvertisingprogram.By1899itwasproducingatona
year.Heroinbecameoneofitsmostvaluableproducts,makingup5percentofitsdrugsales.Themajorityofitsheroinlanded
intheUnitedStates,wherethedrugwasanimmediatesensation.InitiallytheAmericanandothernationalmedical
communitieswereaskeenaboutthesubstanceastheyhadbeenaboutmorphine.In1900theBostonMedicalandSurgical
Journalcommented:"Itpossessesmanyadvantagesovermorphine.It'snothypnoticandthere'snodangerofacquiringa
habit."
Manydoctorsprescribedittorelieveconstant,hackingcoughs.Physicianswerealsoseekingnewwaystotreatfatalrespiratory
diseasessuchastuberculosisandpneumonia.Antibioticsheldpromisebutwererelativelynewandnotyetabletoeliminate
manydeadlyrespiratoryconditions.Heroinquicklybecametheirchoiceforincurabletuberculosis,anddoctorsprescribeditto
hundredsofpatientstostoptheirpainfulcoughs.
Slowly,reportsofaddictiontrickledbacktotheU.S.medicalcommunity,andwarningsbegantoappearintheliterature.In
1903DrGeorgeE.Petteywrote"TheHeroinHabit:AnotherCurse"intheAlabamaMedicalJournal.Hereportedthatinthe
last150caseshehadtreatedforaddiction,heroinwastheculpritineightcases,threeofthemduringtreatmentbymedical
professionals.
Evenso,somephysiciansdidnotreadilybelievethedrugwasdangerous.Acrossthecountry,medicalpractitionerscontinued
toprescribeheroin.In1911JohnD.TrawickofKentuckydescribedthedilemma:"Ifeelthatbringingchargesagainstheroinis
almostlikequestioningthefidelityofagoodfriend.Ihaveuseditwithgoodresults,andIhavegottensomebadresults,suchas
apeculiarbandlikefeelingaroundthehead,dizziness,etc.,butinsomecasesreferredto,ithasbeenalmostuniformly
satisfactory."

Opium:ABriefHistory

10

Manyproponentshadreadreportsthatdirectlyconflictedwiththeirownobservations.Thediscrepancywasduetotwo
factors.Mostofthesephysiciansprescribedheroininpillform,whichcausedaddictionsograduallythatneithertheynor
patientsnoticedit.Also,scoresofpatientssufferedfromlifelonghealthproblems,sotheyneverstoppedtakingthemedicine,
andthereforeneversufferedwithdrawalsymptomsthestandardsignalofaddiction.
In1913Bayerdecidedtostopmakingthewonderdrug.Ithadreceivedhundredsofreportsofhospitaladmissionsfor
overdosesintheUnitedStates.Itwasclearthatthesubstancehadafollowingofrecreationalusers.Observershadidentifieda
largegroupofhabitualusersandnicknamedthem"junkies"becausetheyraisedmoneyfortheirhabitsbycollectingandselling
junkmetal.WithoutBayerasasourceofdrugs,manyusersturnedtoillegalmarkets.
By1925itwasimpossibleforanyonetoignorethewarningsanylonger.ResearchersreportedthatintheUnitedStatesthere
weremorethan200,000heroinaddicts.Thedrugprovedtobemuchmoreaddictivethanmorphine.Eventually,U.S.
authoritiesbanneditfrommedicaluse.
TodayscientistsknowmoreaboutherointhanWrightorDresercouldeverhavehopedtolearn.Itisapowerfuldrug,even
morepotentthanmorphine.Heroin'spotencycomesfromitsabilitytodissolveinfat.Sincemuchofthetissueinthebrain
containsfat,heroinpassesintobraincellsfasterthanmorphine.Thereforeitgivesquicker,moredramaticresults.

Itspowerisclearinoneyoungman'sdescription:"Afterthatfirstshotofheroin,Ithought'WOW,wherehaveyoubeenmy
wholelife,thisiswhereit'sat.ItgavemethatfalseeuphoricfeelingIhadneverknownbefore;itbecamemygirlfriend,my
God,mymotherandmycareer."

TheScienceofPainToday

Inthemidtwentiethcenturyresearchersbeganexploringhownarcoticsblockpain.Previousexperimentshadshownthatdrugs
entercellsinoneoftwoways:directlythroughthecellmembraneorbyspecialreceptors.Inexperiments,theymixedbraintissue
withnarcoticsthattheyhadtaggedwithradioactivematerialsandfoundthatthetissuequicklyattacheditselftosmallamountsof
opiates.Thisindicatedthatbraincellsmighthavereceptorsforopiates.SolomonH.SnyderandCandacePert,workingatJohns
HopkinsUniversitySchoolofMedicine,locatedthesereceptorsin1973.
Someareasofthenervoussystemhavemoreopiatereceptorsthanothers.Therearealotinthepartofthespinalcordthat
determinestheabilitytotoleratepain.Snyderexplains,"Opiatesrelievepainatthespinalcordlevelbyraisingpainthresholds.
Thus,ifyouweretreatedwithmorphine,anexperimenterwouldhavetoadministeramorepainfulstimulusthannormalin
orderforyoutonoticeanypainatall."Thesegmentofthebrainthatrecognizespainalsohasplentyofopiatereceptors.
Snydersaysthatopiatesreducepainnotsomuchbyraisingthepainthresholdasbybluntingthebrain'ssubjectiveappreciation
ofpain.Patientswhohavereceivedmorphinetotreatseverepostoperativediscomfortorextremepainfromcancer
frequentlytelltheirdoctors:"It'safunnything.Thepainisstillthere,butitdoesn'tbotherme."Inshort,whenthebrainstops
worryingaboutthepain,thepainbecomesmoremanageable.

Theeuphoriathatopiatesproducealsohasabiochemicalbasis.Inthebrain,severalstructuresarecollectivelyreferredtoas
thelimbicsystembecausetheyformaring,or'limbus,'surroundingthebrainstem.Alargebodyofresearchsuggeststhatthese
structuresarethemajorregulatorsofemotionalbehaviour.Thepresenceofopiatereceptorstheretiesopiumusetofeelings
ofhappiness.

Opium'sextraordinarypowertoaltersensationflowsfromtheclosefitofopiummoleculeswiththereceptorsinthehuman
brain.Opiumanditsderivativesmatchstructuresinthebrainlikekeysslippingintolocks.AfterresearchersSnyderandPert
foundthatthebodypossessednaturalopiatereceptors,theyaskedthenextlogicalquestion:sincethebodydoesnotmake
opiates,whydoesthebrainhavespecialreceptorsforthem?

Scientiststheorizedthatthebodymakescompoundsthatnormallyfitthesereceptorsandthatthesesubstanceshavea
chemicalstructuresimilartothatofopiates.Evenbeforetheylocatedthesenaturalchemicals,scientistsnamedthem
endorphins"(endogenousmorphine).Theynowknowthatendorphinsareneurotransmittersthatthebodyreleasesin
responsetodeeppain.Endorphinsareshortlived,naturalchemicalsthatbindtothereceptorsandthenrapidlydegrade.
Becausetheydonotremaininbraincellsforalongtime,theyhavenoneoftheharmfuleffectsofnarcoticsforexample,they
arenotaddictive.

Opium:ABriefHistory

11

Endorphinsplayvaluablerolesinhumansurvival.Whenapersonisindanger,endorphinsfloodthebody,preventingthe
perceptionofpain.Thisenablesapersontoescapefromdangerevenifheorshehasaninjury.Runnersandotherathletes
producelargeamountsofendorphinswhentheypushtheirbodiestotheirphysicallimits.Manyathletesreportthattheynever
feelbadorsufferanypainuntilafteracompetition,whentheirendorphinlevelsbegintodrop.

TheCriminalizationofOpium

TheHarrisonAct(1914)

Americanstatesintroducedlegislationagainstopiumsmokersinthelatenineteenthcentury.Itwasthefirstdruglegislation
anywheretocriminalizeusersratherthantoregulatesubstances.Atonetime,addictsweregenerallyviewedastheunfortunate
victimsofanillness.Butbytheendofthenineteenthcentury,societytreatedaddictsasinsane,criminal,depraved,ormentally
deficient.IntheUnitedStatesalone,overhalfamillionpeoplewereopium,morphineorheroinaddictsby1900.

IntheearlytwentiethcenturytheUnitedStatesbegantoenforceageneralpolicyofdrugprohibition.Thiswasthebeginningof
theconceptualizationofaddictionascrimeandderivedfromAmericanreactionstocannabis,cocaine,andopiates.Heroinhadnot
beenconsideredaproblemuntilthepassageoflawsagainstillicitorrecreationaluseofdrugs.Restrictionsonthesupplyof
cocaineandopiumdirecteduserstowardsheroin.
In1914theU.S.CongresstookacriticalsteptowardslimitinguseofnarcoticswhenitpassedtheHarrisonNarcoticsAct.This
legislationstatedthatonlydoctorsandpharmacistscouldbuy,sell,ordispenseopiates,andthosewhodidsomustfirstregister
withthefederalgovernmentandpayatax.Additionally,theyhadtorecordalltransactionsrelatingtoheroin.Thepunishment
fornotdoingsowasafineandaprisonsentence.Theneedforataxcollectingagencytoassesspenaltiesfornoncompliance
ledtocreationoftheBureauofNarcotics.
TheHarrisonNarcoticsActhadatremendousimpactontwogroupsofpeopleaddictsandtheirphysicians.Theaddictswere
inabadpositionforseveralreasons.Oncetheactwentintoeffect,itbecameverydifficulttoobtainopiates.Atthesametime,
addictsstatusfell;peopleviewedthemnolongerasill,orvictimsoffaultymedicaltreatment,butassocialoutcasts.One
youngheroinusersaidthathewasnow"oneofabandsetapartbythewillofsociety,too,andharriedforournonconformity.
Atleastitseemedtomethatwewerebeingpersecutedonlybecauseweweredifferent,notbecauseweweredangerous."
Notonlydidittreataddictionasacrime,butlawenforcementensuredthatvirtuallyalladdictshadtobehavelikecriminals.
Addictslookedfortreatmentprograms,buttherewereveryfewavailable.Thousandsofthemwhoturnedtothemedical
communityfoundacoldshoulderthattheyhadnotexpected.ManydoctorsdecidedtoavoidthembecausetheHarrisonAct
madeitcumbersomeandcomplicatedtotreatthem.
Thefewwillingtotreatthemfoundthemselvesinanawkwardsituation.Doctorsandpharmacistsassumedthattheycouldcare
fordrugaddictsinthewaytheysawfitaslongastheycompletedallthenecessarypaperwork.Thereforemanyofthem
continuedwritingprescriptionsformaintenancedosesofopiates.ButtheTreasuryDepartmentfrownedonthispractice
becauseitwantedtoendtheuseofdrugs.Consequently,itrequiredthatdoctorswriteprescriptionsforincreasinglysmaller
doseswiththegoalofweaningaddictsofftheirdrugs.
Thelogicgrewoutofatraditional,buterroneousbeliefthataprofessionalscarecouldeasilycureaddiction.Noonerealized
thatevenifapractitionercouldhelp,relapsewasverycommon.Manydoctorsanddruggistswhofailedcontinuedtoprescribe
maintenancedoses,andquiteafewofthemexperiencedarrestandfines.
Congresshadintendedtheacttoprohibitrecreationaluseofopiatesandonlytoallowdoctorstoprescribethemin"goodfaith"
aspartofalegitimatemedicalpractice.Although"goodfaith"mayhaveoriginallybeenambiguous,zealousTreasuryagents
soonmadeitquiteclear.TheoveralleffectoftheHarrisonActwastoprohibitmostmedicaluseofopiates.
Treasuryagentswerequicktoinvestigateandtoprosecuteopiateprescribingphysicians.Infact,between1915and1938,
authoritiesreceivedmorethanover25,000reportsofdoctorsviolatingtheHarrisonAct.Itisnotsurprisingthatthemedical
communitybegantoshunopiatesfortreatingnotonlyaddictionbutalsotheorganicallyill.

Opium:ABriefHistory

12

ReactiontotheHarrisonAct

TheHarrisonActunintentionallyprovidedalucrativebusinessopportunityforlesssavouryelementsofsociety.Withsofew
placesforaddictstobuydrugs,anewmarketappeared:thousandsofpeoplewhodesperatelywantedheroin.Arnold
Rothsteinwasoneofthemanycrimebosseswhotookadvantageofthismarketinthe1920s.

Aninnovatorofsorts,hecreatedasystemforsmugglingillegaldrugsintotheUnitedStates.HeknewthatpushersintheNew
Yorkareahadverylittlestocktosell.WhattheydidhavetheyhadsmuggledinfromChina,stolenfromdrugmanufacturers,or
orderedviafakecompaniesthatsetuptemporaryaddressesinMexico.
NoneofthesesourcescouldsupplyRothsteinsvastmarket,sohesenthisrepresentativestolegitimatedrugmanufacturersin
Europe.Theretheyboughthundredsofpoundsofnarcoticswithnoquestionsfromthesellers.Theycratedthesepurchases,
labelledthemasplumbingsupplies,engineparts,orotherbogusitems,andshippedthemtotheUnitedStates.

Rothstein'smenpickedupshipmentsatU.S.portsanddistributedthemtosellersinmajorcities.Innotime,othercriminals
werecopyinghistechniques,andillegaldrugswerepouringintoAmericanharbours.However,by1930authoritieshadfigured
outRothstein'sruseandwereseizingdrugsassoonastheyarrivedonAmericansoil,forcingmanyillegaldrugentrepreneurs
outofbusiness.

InternationalActivity

In1926theBritishgovernmentannouncedaplantoprogressivelyscalebackthecultivationofpoppiesinIndia.Persia(Iran)
immediatelybecameamajorsourceofopium.LargeshipmentswenttoRussiaandJapan,whichmanufactureditasheroin.
HongKongprocessedChineseopium.Bulgaria,Serbia,andTurkeyalsobecamesourcesofopium.Bytheearly1930sthere
werethreefactoriesinIstanbul,eachproducingupto2,000kilogramsofheroineverymonth.
TheJapanesegovernmentpromoteddrugaddictionamongtheChineseinterritoriesthatitoccupiedinthelate1930s.
AccordingtoSirThomasRussell,ithaddecidedonheroinaddictionasaweaponofaggressionanddeliberatelyconvertedthe
territoriessheconqueredfromChinaintoonehugeopiumfarmandheroinden.

Theantiopiummovementhadarousednewdemandforopiumderivatives,asmorphineandheroinwereeasiertotransport
andconsumesurreptitiouslythanopium.Withopiumanditsderivativesoutofreachoftheordinaryperson,theybecamethe
centreofanemergingcriminalclass.Violence,gangwarfare,andsmugglingescalatedonaninternationalscale.

InternationalDrugSmugglingsincethe1940s

In1946theUnitedStatesdeportedtoSicilyabout400gangsters,whointerestedthelocalMafiaindrugtrafficking,somethingin
whichtheyhadnotpreviouslyparticipated.TheybeganbuyingrawopiumfromTurkey,processingitinSicilianheroinlabs,and
smugglingitintotheUnitedStatesandCanada.
Atthesametime,theAmericangovernmentwasfightingtheColdWarandintentonstemmingCommunistthreatseverywhere.
TheCentralIntelligenceAgencysuppliedarmsandmoneytoCorsicangroupsthatattackedandharassedFrenchtradeunionists
andCommunists.SoontheseCorsicangangscontrolledtheMarseillesdocks,whichby1950constitutedaninternationaldrug
centretheFrenchConnection.
BecauseofitsfearofCommunism,theAmericangovernmenttoleratedtheFrenchConnectionasanecessaryevil.Heroinwas
producedfromTurkishopiumconvertedtomorphinebaseinLebanonandshippedtoclandestinelabsinFrance.By1969uptoten
tonsofheroinwentfromMarseillestotheUnitedStatesannually.
TheCIAalsosupportedantiCommunistelementsinSoutheastAsiaandprotectedtheirheroinbusinessinexchangefortheirco
operation.MuchoftheheroinintheUnitedStatesarrivedillegallyfromAsia.Oneregioninparticular,theGoldenTriangleinthe
highlandsofBurma,Laos,andThailandhadlongbeenasourceofopium.Poorfarmerstherestillgrowopiuminremoteareas.

Opium:ABriefHistory

13

OpiumandmorphineextractedfromopiumtravelledfromnortheasternBurmainhorseanddonkeycaravanstorefineriesalong
theThailandBurmaborderforconversiontoheroin.Mostoftheresultingproductscrossedtheborderintovarioustownsin
northernThailandandsouthtoBangkokfordistributiontoforeignmarkets.
MajorThaiChineseandBurmeseChinesetraffickersinBangkokcontrolledmuchoftheforeignsalesandmovementofSoutheast
AsianheroinfromThailand,butacombinationoflawenforcement,publicity,anddroughtsignificantlyreducedtheirrole.Asa
consequence,manyminortraffickersinBangkokandotherpartsofThailandcontrolledsmallerquantitiesoftheheroingoing
abroad.
HeroinfromSoutheastAsiareachedtheUnitedStatesmostoftenviacouriers,typicallyThaiandU.S.nationalsandHongKong
Chinese,travellingoncommercialairlines.CaliforniaandHawaiiweretheprimaryentrypoints,butsmallamountsreachedNew
YorkandWashington,D.C.
WhileSoutheastAsiangroupshavehadsuccessintraffickingherointotheUnitedStates,theyinitiallyhaddifficultyarranging
streetleveldistribution.However,incarcerationofAsiantraffickersinAmericanprisonsduringthe1970sallowedthemcontacts
withU.S.inmatesandhenceaccesstoindividualsandorganizationsdistributingheroinattheretaillevel.

HeroinandtheVietnamWar

TheavailabilityofheroininVietnamduringthewarthere,inpartbecauseofU.S.supportforopiumwarlordsopposedtothe
CommunistsinChina,causedproblemsforU.S.forces.Manyservicementriedheroin,anattractiveescapefromthepainful
realitiesofcombat.In1972theConsumer'sUnionReportonLicitandIllicitDrugsbyEdwardM.Brecherandtheeditorsof
ConsumerReportsmagazinequotedonesoldier:

"IhadmyallexpensepaidvacationinsunnySEAsia
in197071.Istillremembersteppingoffbaseonto
Highway1atPhuBaiCombatBasesouthofHueone
midmorningandbeingapproachedbyakidaboutten
yearsoldwhohadjumpedoffthebackofacycloto
offermeasmallvialof'skag'(heroin)foronly
twodollars."

During1971,theU.S.mediareportedthataddictionamongsoldiersranashighas10to15percent,afigurethatmany
Americansfoundunbelievable.However,930returneespassingthroughthearmyterminalatOakland,California,voluntarily
answeredanonymousquestions,and16percenthadusedheroinwithinthepreviousthirtydays.
Dr.PeterOlsson,apsychiatristinNewHampshire,workedfortheU.S.Armyandconductedextensiveinterviewswith
servicemenabouttheirdruguse.HeknowsofpeoplewhoenlistedinordertohavereadyaccesstoheroininVietnam.Healso
pointsoutthatmanysoldiersgaveuptheirheroinhabitupontheirreturntotheU.S.,whichsuggestedthatthestressofcombat
wasamajorfactorinheroinusebysoldiers.

TheWaronDrugs

Throughoutthe1960sand1970s,organizedcrimegroupsranextensivenetworkstodistributetheirillegalgoods.Asthe
numbersofheroinusersswelledthroughthe1970s,governmentofficialsworriedthattheAmericanwayoflifemightbein
danger.BythetimeRichardNixonbecamepresidentin1969,drugusewasupintheUnitedStates,withestimatesof750,000
heroinaddicts.

NixonthoughttheWaronDrugswasAmericassecondCivilWar.InJuly1969heannouncedaglobalcampaignagainstdrugs
andtraffickers,eventhoughhewassaidtohavedependedonafriendtoprovidehimwithDilantin(foritsantianxietyeffects).
TheU.S.governmentcreateditsDrugEnforcementAgencyin1973.

SuchorganizationshaveavestedinterestinescalatingtheWaronDrugs.TheDEAgrewfrom1,800agentsin1980to9,000in
2000.AftertheendoftheColdWar,thefightagainstdrugsreplacedthatagainstCommunismastheprincipalmoralimperative
ofAmericanforeignpolicy.

Opium:ABriefHistory

14

WiththeendoftheVietnamWar,SoutheastAsianheroinproducersfocusedonEurope.HeroinmadefromTurkishopium,already
reachingtheUnitedStatesbywayoftheFrenchConnection,filledevenmoreofAmericanmarketdemand.Amemofrom
presidentialaideDanielMoynihantoAttorneyGeneralJohnMitchellillustratedtheurgencywithwhichtheNixonadministration
viewedtheheroinproblem:

IftheUnitedStatesmoveswithenergyanddetermination

wecouldcrippletheherointrafficinthecourseoftwelve

totwentyfourmonths.Ifwedonotdisrupttheheroin

trafficnow,itislikelyshortlytodriftintothehandsof

middleclassAmericans,andmaybecomeunstoppable.

Whatisneededisamajordiplomaticinitiative,accompanied

byeconomicinducements,andifneedbe,sanctions

designedtogetTurkeyoutofthebusiness.
ButTurkishPrimeMinisterSuleymanDemirelknewthathisfarmersdependedonopium.Healsoknewthathisgovernment
dependedonthefarmers:Eradicationwouldcreateaclashbetweenthegovernmentforcesandthepeople,andwouldmakethe
problemworse,sinceitwouldcreatepublicsupportforplantings.
Turkishauthoritiesinsistedthateradicationwouldbringdownthegovernment.Instead,theybegantoimplementalicensing
programfortheproductionofpainrelievingmedicines.TheUnitedNationseventuallygrantedthemtechnicalassistanceforthe
constructionofpoppyprocessingfacilitiesandresourcesforthecontroloflicensedcultivation.

EachyeartheTurkishGrainMarketingBoardlicensesapproximately100,000farmers,andabout600,000peopleearntheirliving
frompoppycultivation.Thenationalprocessingfactoryproduces75tonsofmorphineannually.Insteadofthelabourintensive
scoringandscrapingrequiredtocollectopium,theentirepoppyplantisharvestedandprocessed.Concentratedpoppystraw(CPS)
istheextractedopiatescrystallizedoutofsolution.Closeto95percentofTurkeysopiumproductionisforexport.

OpiumToday

Opiumisstillconsumedsociallythroughouttheworld.TheopiumpoppyisalsocultivatedlegallyinAustralia(Tasmaniaisthe
worldslargestproducerofopiatesforthepharmaceuticalmarket),FranceandIndia.Englandisusingdomesticopiumtoproduce
painmedicationforitsNationalHealthService.

Theprohibitionofopiumisquestionedbymany,includingPeterLeeinthebookOpiumCulture:Itsawellknownfactofmedical
sciencethatopiumreadilyrelievessuchcommonconditionsasinsomnia,hypertension,depression,andchronicpain,forreliefof
whichsomanymillionsofpeopletodayhavebecomeaddictedtoexpensivetranquilizers,antidepressants,painkillers,andother
patentedpharmaceuticaldrugs.Themoreoneinvestigatesthetruthaboutopium,themoreonerealizesthattherealreasonithas
beenprohibitedistoprotecttheprofitsofthepoliticallypowerfulpharmaceuticalcartels,whichhaveestablishedalucrative
internationalmonopolyinthevastmarketsformedicaldrugsthroughouttheworld.

Today,mostAfghanopiumisconvertedtoheroininthatcountryandshippedeastthroughIran,norththroughTajikistan,and
souththroughPakistantoworldmarkets.OpiumgrowninColombiaandMexicoalsoreachesNorthAmericanmarkets.Iran
hasmoreopiumusersandheroinaddictsthananyothercountry.

OpiumbasedpainmedicationisvirtuallynonexistentinmostThirdWorldcountries,includingAfghanistan,whichproducesmore
than90percentoftheworldsillicitopium.Aninternationalthinktank,theICOSGroup,hascalledfortestingofalicensing
programforpoppyfarmersinAfghanistan.Selectedvillageswouldproduceopiumforconversiontomorphine,foruseinlocal
hospitalsandclinics.
Criticsarguethatuntilthecountryenjoysaminimumlevelofsecurity,anylicensingprogramisunmanageable.TheICOSGroup
believesthatthetraditionalvillagelevelstructureofgovernanceiscapableofmonitoringpoppycultivationanddiscouragingany
illicittrade.
Forfivethousandyears,peoplehaveknownofopiumsbenefits.Itsnegativeaspectsmustalsoberecognized.Butprohibitionof
anythingthatpeopledemandhasalwaysresultedinthechaosofblackmarketsandunregulatedcriminalenterprise.Thechallenge
istofindwaystoharnessthepowerofthepoppythatbenefitsociety.

Opium:ABriefHistory

15

Forfurtherreading:

DeQuincey,Thomas
Dikotter,Frank
Glenny,Misha

Hafvenstein,Joel
Hodgson,Barbara
Hodgson,Barbara
Lee,Peter

Mate,Gabor,M.D.

McCoy,Alfred

Peters,Gretchen
Robbins,Christopher

Scott,PeterDale

Shearing,Colin
Tosches,Nick

Zheng,Yangwen

ConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater(1822)
NarcoticCulture:AHistoryofDrugsinChina(2004)
McMafia:AJourneyThroughtheGlobalCriminal
Underworld(2008)
OpiumSeason:AYearontheAfghanFrontier(2007)
Opium:APortraitoftheHeavenlyDemon(1999)
IntotheArmsofMorpheus(2001)
OpiumCulture:TheArt&RitualoftheChinese
Tradition(2006)
InTheRealmofHungryGhosts:CloseEncounters
withAddiction(2008)
ThePoliticsofHeroin:CIAComplicityinthe
GlobalDrugTrade(2001)
SeedsofTerror:HowHeroinisBankrollingtheTalibanandAlQaeda
(2009)
AirAmerica:TheStoryoftheCIAsSecret
Airlines(1979)
Drugs,OilandWar:TheUnitedStatesin
Afghanistan,ColombiaandIndochina(2003)
Opium:AJourneyThroughTime(2004)
TheLastOpiumDen(2004)
TheSocialLifeofOpiuminChina:AHistory(2005)

ProducedforRawOpium:Pain,Pleasure,Profits,afeaturedocumentary
ByAssociateProducerScottCalbeck,2011.

Forfurtherinformationaboutthefeaturedocumentaryvisitwww.rawopium.com