BACKGROUND SHEET 1

INDIAN TOOLS
BASKETS:
Baskets were important tools for everyday life. Making baskets involved a lot of time and patience. It
could take a year to create just one basket. Indian women waited a long time for the right season to find and
gather the materials needed. Sometimes these materials, such as sedge root, needed to be dried for an entire
year before they were ready to use.
There were lots of kinds of baskets. Coiled baskets were waterproof and were used for pots, pans, and
buckets. Flat baskets were used as plates, trays, and for sifting seeds. Conical baskets with straps were used
like backpacks. Large baskets were used for storing items. Baskets were also used for fish traps, baby carriers,
cups, and hats. They also used bottomless baskets stuck to flat rocks with tar as a mortar to grind acorns into
flour. The tar was also used to waterproof baskets used as canteens.
HUNTING & FISHING TOOLS:
The most important tools used by the Indians were the bow and arrow. Bows were critical for catching
deer. Arrow shafts were made from wooden sticks. A tool called an arrow straightener, often made from
soapstone, was used to help straighten the wood. Arrowheads were made out of obsidian when possible, but
they also used rocks such as chert and flint. Arrowheads were attached with sinew and tar, and feathers were
added to help the arrow fly accurately.
Many tools were used for fishing. Fishing hooks were made from bones. Fish were also caught by
using special hooked spears, a basket trap, or a basket scoop. Nets were also used to catch fish. A plant called
a soap root was also used as a poison to stun the fish and make them easy to catch.
PLANTS:
The soap root was a bulb-like plant that was used for many purposes. It could be boiled and eaten, it
could be used as soap, it helped catch fish, and the fibrous outer layer was used to create brushes. Hemp,
milkweed, nettle, yucca were plants used to make rope, nets, and string. Tule grass was used for making houses
and woven mats and even skirts. Herbs such as yerba buena, poppy root, rose hips, willow bark, and mint were
used as medicine and as a part of religious ceremonies. They were often made into teas, steamed and inhaled,
or used as poultices on wounds. Wood of various kinds was used to make stirring sticks, headrests, knife
handles, chest armor, wedges, hide scrapers, musical instruments, loop sticks, split stick clappers, whistles,
clubs, spears, arrow shafts, fire drills, and prayer sticks.
MINERALS:
Rocks were a valuable resource for the California Indian. Rocks such as hematite and cinnabar were
valued for the red paint they made. Obsidian, chert, flint, and jasper were used for making spear points,
arrowheads, and knife blades. Soapstone was a soft rock that could easily be carved. It was used to make
decorative figures, beads, arrow straighteners, and bowls that wouldnt break in the fire. Flat rocks were used
as mortars and stubby rocks used as pestals to grind plants into flour. Rocks were also heated in the fire and
used in cooking baskets to cook acorn mush. Serpentine and magnesite were made into beautiful beads to
decorate items. Tar was used as a glue and sealant for canoes, attached arrowheads, and waterproofing baskets.
ANIMALS:
Animal hides such as deer and rabbit were used for blankets, clothing, quivers, and capes. Deer antlers
were used for scraping tools. Elk horn was especially prized for chipping obsidian into arrowheads. Deer
sinew was used for bowstrings and the backs of bows. Bones were used for beads, awls (to punch holes),
needles, whistles, knives, and a special scraping and chopping tool called an adze. Shells, especially clamshells,
were carved and used as money. Feathers were used mainly for decoration but also on arrow shafts.

BACKGROUND SHEET 2
TRADING
TRADE AND TRAILS:
Trade and visiting were carried out over ancient trails that stretched between San Francisco Bay and San
Diego Bay and way up into the Sierra Mountains. When it was time to trade, the people gathered their supplies
into large nets, or conical baskets that were carried on the back and set out on the trail. It was amazing how
much a typical Indian man could carry on his back on the trail...up to 200 pounds for one man was normal!
The trails that the Indians used for trading were used for thousands of years and, because they were used
so often, were often worn inches into the ground with rest spots marked along the way. Often, the trails were
clearly marked with stone borders. The trails that the Indians made are still used today. Have you ever traveled
on Highway 1 or Highway 101? They both started out as Indian trading trails!
TRADE GATHERINGS:
It was not unusual for villages to receive a few visitors periodically throughout the year who brought
goods to trade. At other times, invitations were sent by a messenger calling on many distant villages to gather
together at a specific time and place for a large trade gathering. Marked invitation sticks or counting ropes with
knots were used to count-down the days until the gathering. One knot would be untied each day to keep track
of the days to the big event.
Trade gatherings were usually happy and exciting events, especially for the children. The people used
the time to trade for important supplies, but that wasnt all they did! The gathering usually turned into a big
social event. Everybody would dance and sing, laugh and play games, and feast for days! Sometimes even
marriages were arranged between different villages and tribes!
COMMUNICATION:
Although California Indian lifestyles and beliefs had a lot in common, that didnt mean that they all
spoke the same language. In fact there were seven major language groups in California, along with numerous
dialects and differences within each group. Because of this, when different tribes gathered together to trade,
they usually did not speak the same language. But this did not stop the tribes from trading. They learned to
communicate with gestures and other nonverbal means. After a while they usually were able to learn key words
and sometimes, if they were lucky, they spoke a dialect that was similar enough to their own language to be able
to figure out what was being said.
WAYS TO TRADE:
There were basically two ways to trade. The first way was called bartering. This meant that one item
was traded directly for another item. For example, three chunks of soapstone might have been traded for five
pumpkins.
The other way to trade was to buy the items you wanted with money. California Indians typically used
special beads as money. Beautiful minerals such as magnesite were sometimes made into beads and used as
money. A unique, curved shell called dentalium was also highly valued. But the most common kind of money
was made from clamshells. California Native Americans would carve and grind the thickest part of the
clamshell until it was a perfect circle. They would then string these shells to make necklaces. These necklaces
were used as money and were also worn to show off great wealth.
IMPORTANCE OF TRADE:
California Indians survived, for the most part, on materials and food items that could be easily found in
their environment. However, sometimes there were items that were highly valued that could only be found far
away. For example, obsidian was a volcanic rock that was highly prized because it made the best and sharpest
arrowheads and knife blades. However, it could only be found in mountainous places. So if those who lived on
the coast would definitely buy obsidian if someone brought it for trading. Trading was not necessary for
survival, but it helped to enrich the lives of all the Native American tribes throughout California.

BACKGROUND SHEET 3
VILLAGE BUILDINGS
HOUSES:
Not all California Indians lived in the same kind of houses. The plank house, the tule hut, and the
redwood bark house were three common types of houses.
The plank house was common in the cooler climates. It was made by digging a large, deep pit into the
ground. Then the Indians burned down trees and used deer antlers as wedges to cut the trees into planks. These
planks were used for the walls and roof. These houses took a long time to build, but they were strong and lasted
for generations. They were cool in the summer and warm in the winter.
The tule hut was also a common type of home. It was often used near the coast where the marsh grass,
called tule was common. To make the house, they first dug a shallow, circular pit in the ground. Then
willow poles (used because they could bend easily) were set around the pit and tied together to make a
framework. Finally, large bundles of thatch made from tule were tied onto the frame in layers, starting at the
top. These houses were quick and easy to make but they didnt last as long as plank houses and often had to be
rebuilt.
The bark house was built by coastal and mountain Indians who could easily find thick slabs of redwood
bark. To make the dwelling, a frame of about five poles were tied together in a bunch and then splayed out in
a ring so it would stand. Then, large slabs of redwood bark were leaned up against this frame. The result
looked rather like a teepee made out of wood instead of leather.

SWEAT LODGE:
There was always at least one sweat lodge in every village. The sweat lodge was not used as a house.
Instead, it was a special gathering place for the village. The sweat lodge was used for special ceremonies,
games, treatment of illness, and initiation rites. One of the main rituals that took place in the sweat lodge was
special preparation for deer hunting. During this ritual, fire or red-hot stones were used to make the Indians
sweat heavily. Many tribes believed that if a man had not first sweated, he would not be successful in hunting a
deer.
Sweat lodges were larger than typical homes and were often built similarly to a plank house. The pit
was dug very deep and usually thick poles were needed to support the heavy roof that was made of brush, tule,
and mud. The walls were covered in mud and the entrance was usually so small that a man had to crawl to enter
it. Usually the sweat lodge was located near a river or stream.

DANCE HOUSE:
Many Indian tribes also created large dance houses. This house was the center of many village
activities. It was the largest building in the village, often about 50 feet wide and up to 18 feet high. It usually
needed up to five huge beams to support the roof.
Dances and ceremonies were a big part of the California Indian life, and the dance house was where the
action was! It was so large that as many 100 to 300 Indians could gather there to celebrate.

SUN SHADE:
Another type of brush shelter was used often in the summer as shelter from the hot sun. It was made
with a simple frame of four poles. A flat roof of brush was woven and placed between the poles. These simple
shelters were used by everybody in the heat of the day during their daily chores such as acorn grinding and
arrow making. In this way, it functioned almost as a living room.

BACKGROUND SHEET 4
BASKETS
IMPORTANCE:
Baskets were an everyday necessity and an important part of everyday life. Baskets were used for every
conceivable purpose. They were used like suitcases, dresser drawers, cupboards, purses, pockets, backpacks,
and tupperware containers to hold just about everything they owned. They were also used as pots and pans,
buckets, cups, plates, bowls, trays, animal traps, fish traps, gifts, seed beaters, cradles, game boards, mattresses,
pillows, canteens, and even hats!

NECESSARY SUPPLIES:
Many different supplies were used to create baskets. What material was used depended on what the
basket was going to be used for. Supple twigs from willow and redbud trees, sedge roots, sumac reeds, bulrush
and tule were all used to make baskets.
California Native Americans had to work very carefully to harvest and prepare the plants needed for
basket weaving. For example, the sedge roots had to be dug up very carefully so as to keep them as long as
possible. These were then carefully split down the middle to make them even narrower. Finally, these roots
had to be hung up to dry for at least a year before they were ready to use.
Baskets were also decorated with shells and beads of all kinds. Many kinds of feathers were used such
as duck feathers, wild canary feathers, and meadowlark feathers. The woodpecker had bright red feathers that
were especially prized. Baskets were sometimes coated with tar to make them waterproof.

KINDS OF BASKETS:
There were two main types of woven baskets. The twined baskets were more loosely woven and were
made for rougher use. These baskets were used for to hold most possessions or supplies such as acorns. They
were also used as backpack baskets and baby cradles.
The second type of basket was a coiled basket. Coiled baskets took much longer to make - it could even
take an entire year to make just one! These baskets were woven so tightly that they could be made waterproof.
Because of this, these baskets were used as buckets and as pots and pans for cooking.

BASKETS AS ART:
Although baskets were a practical part of everyday life, they were also considered a form of art. Baskets
were created with roots and twigs that were dyed different colors. These were used to create beautiful patterns
into baskets. Baskets were also decorated with shells and feathers.
Every woman spent much of her day making baskets and created her own special touches that made the
baskets unique to her. It was considered unacceptable to copy someone elses designs. Great pride went into
the construction of every basket.

BACKGROUND SHEET 5
BELIEFS & CUSTOMS
FAMILY:
Family was extremely important to a California Native American. In fact, family ties were so strong
that the people hardly recognized themselves as individuals. One Pomo man was expressing this when he
claimed that a man was worth less than a bug without family. This produced a strong sense of loyalty and love.
WAR:
Life was usually peaceful. Unfortunately, at times, neighboring tribes or villages would quarrel and
arguments between them could actually heat up into a war. Tribes were known to go to war over such issues as
a disagreement about the boundaries of their hunting grounds or over who had the fishing rights for a particular
creek. When war became necessary, it was usually settled after one battle.
GOOD LUCK / BAD LUCK:
California Indians were very sensitive to their environment and to the relationships between people. It
was important to keep all relationships, both in nature and between people, harmonious and well balanced. If
they acted improperly, they believed they could restore the harmony with certain actions and rituals.
As many generations passed, the people ended up with many traditions that they believed would
generate good luck. Some examples that brought good luck were: burning stones, having a good dream,
tossing clamshell money into the wind after a successful hunt, paying generously for goods, taking a bear bone
with you to gather mussels, singing a special song after catching a fish. Some examples that would bring bad
luck were: burning feathers, digging a pit to catch deer, eating a coyote.
ADMIRED TRAITS:
Generosity and sharing were traits greatly admired among the California Native Americans. In fact, it
was so important that it was almost impossible to imagine being selfish. Generosity towards others was the
only way a proper person could conceivably behave.
California Indians did not believe that they lived in a highly competitive every man for himself kind
of world. Instead, they valued cooperation. There was a strong sense in the community that everyone was
taking care of everyone else. They firmly believed that it was important to help others who needed it. Then,
when the time came when you needed help, others would be there to help you. A good example of this was
how a hunter almost always gave away the meat he caught. The people treated him with honor and fed him
with the best they had. He gained more wealth and security in the end than if he had kept the meat for himself.
Overall, California Native Americans were a peaceful people. They admired truthfulness, a modest
opinion of oneself, industry, courage, and kindness. Cheating was almost unheard of, bragging was looked
down on, and promises were carefully kept.
PROPERTY & OWNERSHIP
Owning objects was not all that important to California Indians. This made sense in a society where the
environment was so rich and most necessities could easily be replaced. There were a few exceptions to this. For
example, specific oak trees, and the gathering rights to it, often did belong to specific families. People could
also own springs, hunting grounds, fishing spots, fruit bushes, and the plants on specific meadows. All these
objects were marked with special arrows or sticks to show ownership.
PUNISHMENT & GOVERNMENT
Because of the closeness within families and the strong emphasis on generosity, a strong government
just wasnt necessary. Even the village chiefs did not control the people or interfere with their decisions. From
childhood everyone was raised with a strong sense of right and wrong, and everyone worked hard to follow the
traditions of their elders.
Sometimes there were people who acted greedy or did not behave according to the proper traditions. If
this happened, the people punished them by simply pushing them out of the community. People who were
shunned in this way had to live the rest of their lives on the outskirts of the village and had to live a lonely life
without the help of family and friends.

BACKGROUND SHEET 6
ACORNS
IMPORTANCE:
California Indians were gatherers. This meant that they did not grow their food like a farmer does.
They gathered food that was readily available in their environment. Oak trees were plentiful throughout
California, and because of this, acorns became the single most important plant food for most tribes.
Acorns were used to create a kind of flour. This flour was then used to make a kind of mush and also
a kind of bread. This mush and bread was the main staple of the Indian diet although it was supplemented by
many other food such as deer, fish, rabbit, grass seed, nuts, shellfish, and even mice and insects.

THE HARVEST:
Each tribe knew the location of the oak groves around them. They followed carefully the stages of the
trees development. In the spring, they all were joyful as the buds thickened and the new leaves burst into life.
And it was an occasion to celebrate when the pale flowers blossomed. During the summer, when the nuts began
to grow, they were filled with a sense of security and happiness. Many of the village feasts and dances were
tied to the different stages of the oak tree.
Everybody looked forward to the acorn harvest in the autumn. In fact, it was probably the biggest event
of the year! When the time was ripe, families would head off to harvest their oak trees. (Although California
Indians did not own property, they did own oak trees and the collecting rights that went with them.)
During the day everyone would be busy picking acorns. Each family worked hard at harvesting because
they needed to pick thousands of acorns in order to have enough for the coming year. But at night there was
much celebrating. There was a special acorn dance that was performed as part of the celebration. The entire
process of harvesting took about three weeks.

THE PREPARATION:
Turning acorns into flour was an important job that had to be done every day. This was not an easy
process!
First, the acorns needed to be hulled. This was done by hitting them with a rock and then peeling off the
skin. Next, the acorns were put into a stone mortar or a mortar basket (a bottomless basket that was glued to a
rock with tar) and were pounded with a club-shaped rock. Then, the ground up acorns needed to be sifted with
a special basket so that only the finest flour was set aside for eating. This had to be done over and over until
there was enough flour made for the day.
Once the flour was made, it was still not ready to eat. Acorns contain something called tannin, which
makes them too bitter to eat. The California Native Americans solved this problem with a process called
leaching. To do this, the flour was placed into a hole in the sand lined with leaves. Then lots and lots of
water was poured over the flour until it was no longer bitter. Finally, it was ready to cook!

COOKING ACORNS:
California Native Americans had a very clever way of cooking acorns in baskets! Since they couldnt
put baskets directly on the fire, they thought of an ingenious way to solve that problem. First, they mixed the
acorn flour with water inside a coiled, watertight basket. Next, they heated rocks in the fire. With a looped
stick they would fish out the hot rocks and drop them into the basket. These hot rocks were stirred around and
would cook the acorn flour into a mush. Pretty smart!
Acorn mush was sometimes made into a kind of bread. To do this the mush was cooked longer so it was
thicker. Then it was patted out and placed onto a hot slab of rock where it could cook. It was little like fry
bread, or a tortilla.

BACKGROUND SHEET 7
HUNTING & FISHING
PREPARING TO HUNT:
The deer hunters had to prepare themselves both physically and mentally for many days before going
out to hunt. A typical preparation involved living in the sweat lodge for several days. While they were there
they would sweat out impurities and try to get rid of their human smell. Sometimes they spread special herbs
on their bodies to further disguise their scent. They also spent days fasting, practicing a sense of calmness and
peace, singing, and dancing. A deer hunter usually waited until he had a lucky dream before setting out on the
hunt. Once all the omens looked favorable, he would paint his body with special paint and designs, put on his
deer head mask, and head out into the forest.
THE DEER HUNT:
The hunt itself was an amazing sight. Wearing his deer head disguise, the hunter was filled with a sense
of going with the deer and would move towards the grazing deer as if he was a deer himself. A skilled
hunter could actually wander among the deer, mimicking their actions, without causing the deer to panic. The
hunters imitation was at times so perfect that he had to watch out for mountain lions and bears that would
mistake him for a real deer! Once he was close enough to the deer, it was a simple matter to select his prey and
shoot it with an arrow.
After a gesture of thanks to the deer, the hunter would bring the carcass back to his family where he
would be welcomed warmly as bringer of meat. Hunters rarely ate any of the deer they caught - this was
considered ill mannered and sure to bring him bad luck. Instead, the villagers would feed him fish and other
food.
FISHING:
Most California Indians either lived near the ocean, a river, a stream, or a lake. Because of this, fish was
a big part of their diet. Many different techniques were used to catch fish.
Many people used soaproot to catch fish. This root was ground up and sprinkled on the water and would
cause the fish to become dazed and swim up to the surface for air. It was then a simple process to grab the fish
with a simple scoop tool.
Fish were also caught with many types of traps and nets. Sometimes they would make a weir - stakes
pounded into the ground with tule or willow woven around them. When the fish swam through the woven
netting they could easily be guided into a basket trap on funneled near to someone standing ready with a
harpoon.
FISHING BOATS:
California Indians made many different types of boats, depending on what resources were nearby. The
plank boat, the dugout canoe, and the tule boat were all common types of boats.
The plank canoe was made with pine planks that were punched with small holes and skillfully fastened
together with fiber cords. The canoe was then carefully sealed with a special tar to make sure it was waterproof.
These boats could hold many men and were often passed on from generation to generation.
The dugout canoe was usually made from redwood logs. The centers of these logs were carefully
burned and then the softened, scorched wood was painstakingly scraped out with a bone tool called an adze. It
was critical to make sure just the right amount of wood was scraped out so the hull was a uniform thickness.
After working on the scraping for as long as a year or two, it was ready for a layer of tar to keep out the
moisture. These boats were sturdy enough to be used out on the open ocean.
The tule boat was made by making large bundles of tule and tying them together with strong vines. A
tule boat could only hold one or two people and were usually good for only one year. They had to be taken out
of the water when not in use so they wouldnt become soggy and fall apart.

BACKGROUND SHEET 8
CELEBRATIONS
DANCE:
In the old days almost any reason was a good reason to dance. Sometimes dancing was just for fun and
the people would gather to dance and sing songs. At other times the dances were more like ceremonies. For
example, the people would dance to encourage the acorns to grow, to celebrate the arrival of visitors, to
celebrate a war victory, or to give thanks for a plentiful harvest.
Before a big gathering, often the speaker would walk through the village announcing the beginning of
a dance. The people would head towards the village dance house or the central plaza while the dancers finished
preparing their costumes and body painting. When they were ready, they would enter the dance house and the
celebration would begin. The dances sometimes took the form of two lines. At other times, the people would
create a double circle. The people would stomp and sing in long, rhythmic, and repetitious sequences. A dance
could go on for hours or even for days.
CEREMONIES:
Ceremonies were used to celebrate seasons of the year, religious beliefs, and mark the stages of life. Along with
the dancing and singing there were often special rituals that accompanied specific ceremonies.
Both young boys and young girls went through a ceremony that celebrated their official growing up. During
these ceremonies they were taught special secrets about the universe and they were given lots of advice on the duties that
were part of being an adult man or woman.
Mourning ceremonies were held for all the people of the tribe who had died during the year. Life-size images of
each dead person were made and decorated. After much crying, dancing, and story telling, these images were burned
along with all the possessions that had belonged to them.
The Winter Solstice ceremony was celebrated on the shortest day of the year (usually December 21). During this
ceremony all debts from the year had to be paid, and a special ritual was performed to draw the sun back toward the earth
using a sun stick called the Rays of the Sun.

SITTING GAMES:
When Indians gathered for dances and celebrations, many kinds of games were played. A big favorite was any
kind of guessing game. In one guessing game the players would divide into two teams. One player held a bone in each
hand and would shuffle the bone from hand to hand. The other team would then try to guess which hand held the marked
bone. Players became very good at switching the bone in a confusing manner. Often the players would chant to distract
the other team. If a team guessed correctly, they received a counting stick from the pile. The game was finished when
one side had all the counting sticks.
Dice games were popular also. The two most common types of dice were flat sticks that were decorated on one
side only and split shells of walnuts. Counting sticks were earned according to how the designs turned up. Players often
made bets on the way the dice would get thrown.

ACTIVE GAMES:
California Native Americans also enjoyed games and contests that required physical strength, endurance, and
athletic skill. One popular game, called Shinny was a game a lot like hockey. Strong branches were used as shinny
sticks and a round piece of bone or wood was used as a puck. Each team tried to earn points by hitting the puck past the
opposing teams goal line.
Stick and Hoop was a game that required great eye-hand coordination and it also helped prepare boys to become a
good hunter. A hoop was made from coiled willow branches - sometimes the hole in the center was only two inches
across. Each player had a stick, and as the hoop was rolled, the players threw their sticks, trying to ring the hole in the
hoop. This taught boys to aim accurately at a fast moving target.
Foot races were also popular. In one relay race, rocks were placed in two parallel lines, one line of rocks for each
player. Each player had to run to the first rock on his or her line and return the rock, soccer-style, back to the goal line.
They then ran back to get the next rock and so forth until all the rocks had been kicked to the goal. The winner was the
first player to do so successfully.