Indian Journal of Pharmacology 1999; 31: 1-13

SPECIAL ARTICLE
PHARMACOLOGY IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

REFLECTIONS ON THE EVOLUTION OF PHARMACOLOGY IN INDIA DURING

TWENTIETH CENTURY
P.S.R.K. HARANATH
Flat 22, 'ALKA', 15th Road, Santacruz West, Mumbai - 400 054.
Manuscript Received: 26.11.98

Revised: 19.12.98

Accepted: 23.12.98

SUMMARY

The paper traces the genesis of Pharmacology in India, to the early pioneers. It reflects on several
facets and trends in the growth of Pharmacology during the current century under several subheads:
Pharmacology and clinical care; Pharmacology as a career; Nonmedical personnel in Pharmacology;
Undergraduate teaching of Pharmacology; Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical companies;
Postgraduate training in Pharmacology; Research; Clinical Pharmacology; Animal experiments. It
concludes reflecting on the glowing role of Pharmacology in this century and its promise for the coming
millenium.

KEY WORD

Pharmacology

clinical pharmacology

Pharmacology took shape as an independent subject at the beginning of 20th century. This paper is a
brief recapture of the early pangs of its birth; growth
in India and ramifications till it reached its present
stature. The names of men and institutions have been
mentioned as land marks in the development of this
vibrant and progressive science. There are many,
not mentioned here but whose contributions have
been equally significant and magnificent. This paper attempts to present different facets of Pharmacology and the background, which influenced its evolution during this century.
Dr. V Iswaraiah1, gave us a glimpse of Pharmacology at the beginning of the century. As a student in
Madras Medical College in mid thirties, the writer
(Iswaraiah) studied what was then called Materia
Medica (Drug Vendor or Drug Peddler). When I went
to specialize in the subject, conservative Edinburgh
still stuck to the name. At Madras, the teacher of the
subject then was a retired military assistant surgeon
(I.M.D.) whose academic qualification was about the
same as L.M.P. with which we are familiar today. The
subject was taught with Anatomy and Physiology in
the preclinical period or Second year. We had to
commit to memory 18 preparations of opium (Pilula
plumbi Co., Pilula Saponis Co) and over 25 laxatives
or purgatives ranging from castor oil to croton oil with
innumerable intermediates: Anthracene, Sulphur and

Correspondence: P.S.R.K. Haranath

india

twentieth century

others. There was a group of drugs named

Alteratives which had no meaning then or now. A
small green book called Halewhite was the
Upanishads to memorize. On going through the
Pharmacopoeia of 1876 one has a most exhilarating
feeling seeing medicaments like bile from crocodile
of Nile, horn of Rhinoceros etc(Iswaraiah 1974).
A book Materia Medica of India and Therapeutics
was published in 1903 2 by RN Khory MRCP (Hon.
Physician J.J. Hospital etc) and NN Katrak (Licentiate of Medicine and Surgery, Justice of Peace for
City of Bombay, Secretary and Vice President of
Grant College Medical Society). I photocopied this
95-year-old book and kept a copy at Department of
Pharmacology, Rajah Muthiah Medical College, and
Annamalai University. Its objective given in its preface, was to supply medical men with knowledge of
various drugs and remedies used in India. Indian
drugs are given side by side with those used in Western Medicine. Drugs were presented as Organic
drugs of animal origin from Ruminantia, Pachydermata, Aves, Pisces, Insecta, Annulosa, Actinozoa,
Rhizopoda-spongida, Mollusca, GastreropodaUnivalve or monovalve shell, Conch, Reptilia and
Chemicals. Some drugs presented according to action include interesting categories like Alteratives,
Anaphrodisiacs, Antilithics and Lithontriptics,
Antiperiodics, Antizymotics Deodorants, Errhines and

P.S.R.K. HARANATH

Sternutatories (sneezing), Celiary excitants, cardiac

sedatives, renal sedatives etc. One of the methods
of dermal application was to apply it to the raw area
by raising a blister.
Before 1900 only 3 Medical Colleges existed in India
- Madras Medical College & Medical College, Calcutta started in 1835 and Grant Medical College at
Bombay in 1845 (Information from Hand book by
Association of Indian Universities3 ). By 1925 six
more came up - KG Medical College, Lucknow
(1911), RG Kar Medical College, Calcutta (1916),
Patna Medical College and Andhra Medical College,
Visakhapatnam (1925), TN Medical College (1921)
and Seth GS Medical College (1925) at Bombay. The
number of Medical Colleges rose to 13 by 1944, 106
by 1975 and 144 by 1994. All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) at New Delhi and Jawaharlal
Institute for Postgraduate Medical Education & Research (JIPMER) were established in 1956 and Postgraduate Institute for Medical Education & Research
(PGIMER) Chandigarh in 1962. AIIMS, PGIMER and
Nizams Institute of Medical Sciences (NIMS),
Hyderabad (1989) have autonomous status.
Dr. RN Chopra reviewed the beginnings of Pharmacology and his own baptism to the subject 4. As a
student of Medicine at University of Cambridge in
1903 he was familiar with descriptive Materia Medica
in the preclinical stage. Pharmacology as it is understood and taught today was then absent. Materia Medica involved use of drugs and recipes on patients in the wards. WE Dixon was the First Reader
in Pharmacology in 1904 and later its Professor in
1907 at Cambridge. Dixon introduced animal experiments, isolated tissues and with his innate ability of
teaching and humor involved Chopra in Experimental Pharmacology. Chopra after completing Medicine took MD from Cambridge University with his thesis subject Celiary movements. He entered Indian
Medical Services in 1909 and spent several years
on general medical duties in different parts of the
country before joining as Professor of Pharmacology in August 1921 at the newly established Calcutta
School of Tropical Medicine. There his duties involved
research and patient care. He was simultaneously
Professor at the adjacent Calcutta Medical College
teaching pharmacology to undergraduates.
Sir Henry Dale (1963) 5 in his review Pharmacology
during past sixty years confirms that the subject of

Pharmacology did not exist in 1900 at Cambridge or

in London at St. Bartholomews Hospital. He vaguely
remembers that a student had to obtain certificates
of diligent attendance at a course of lectures in some
subject of the kind but these certainly amounted to
no more than the preparation, presentation of certain odds and ends of Materia Medica and toxicology by one of the Assistant Physicians. Thus one
could trace the beginning of Pharmacology to Dixon
in 1904.
Early Pharmacology in India can be linked to RN
Chopra as Professor of Pharmacology at the School
of Tropical Medicine (STM), Calcutta 1921. His duties involved research investigations into merits and
demerits of Indian indigenous drugs, which had been
used for centuries in ancient India and folk lore medicine and to explore avenues for finding suitable Indian substitutes for imported drugs besides teaching Pharmacology to undergraduates at Calcutta
Medical College 4. BN. Ghosh (associated with Professor Arthur Cushney) was a contemporary of
Chopra and Professor at other Medical Colleges at
Calcutta. Till then Professors/Asst. Professors of
clinical medicine at Hospital were delivering the lectures in Materia Medica. Slowly Pharmacology was
recognized as an independent branch of Medical
Science, dealing with actions of drugs on the human
body as understood from animal experiments and
on observations in human beings. STM had a Dept.
of Chemistry for chemical isolation and fractionation
of plant and animal products. which were tried in the
attached hospital. Many of the noted Pharmacologists of India had their initiation to the subject at Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine with RN Chopra: B
Mukherji, BB Dixit, JC David, V Iswariah, RS Grewal
and Venkatachalam Pillai were some.
B Mukherji collaborated with Chopra at STM (1928 1937). Later he established the Central Drug Research
Institute at Lucknow exclusively for pharmacological research, standardization and toxicological studies of
drugs. He was its Director 1951-63 and has been a
pioneer in Indigenous Drug Research. Apart from several research papers, he has prepared the Indian Pharmacopoeia and Indian Pharmaceutical Codex. ML Gujral
MB (Lahore) MRCP (Lond) headed the Department of
Pharmacology at KG Medical College, Lucknow (194862). KG Medical College is unique that the University
manages it. It is also the only Department of Pharmacology with a separate well-equipped wing for

PHARMACOLOGY IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

Chemical Pharmacology with a Professor to synthesize compounds for research. Lucknow has been
an active centre for development of Pharmacology
over the years with contributions from KG Medical
College, CDRI, and National Laboratory for Industrial Toxicology Research, Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, National Botanical Research
Institute etc.

in Osmania General Hospital, Hyderabad till his retirement in 1946. He was succeeded by Dr MY
Ansari, PhD (1943) who worked with AJ Clark and
JH Gaddum 6. Pharmacologists who had beds in
the hospital were irked slowly when they had no powers of admission and had to take responsibility for
emergencies. Some felt it better to relinquish this
half-baked arrangement.

Pharmacology and Clinical Care:

V Iswariah MRCP (Applied Pharmacology & Medicine) and FRFPS (Medicine & Therapeutics) succeeded BB Dixit as Lecturer in Pharmacology,
Visakhapatnam A.P. in 1932. He fiercely fought for a
clinical attachment and got a permission to work
under Physician Unit II of the attached KG Hospital.
He used to attend the OPD of Veneriology and Dermatology for over 10 years. He formulated the syllabus for M.D. Degree as Pharmacology and Therapeutics with 2 examiners in Pharmacology and 2 in
Medicine for Therapeutics, with a paper in Medicine
and the Essay in Therapeutics & Pharmacology.
There was a clinical examination with long & short
cases, in addition to laboratory animal experiment.
The author of this paper took M.D. in Pharmacology
& Therapeutics with Dr. Iswariah in 1952 under the
above set up. At Andhra Medical College, Government issued orders allotting 5 beds in the K.G. Hospital Visakhapatnam to Professor of Pharmacology
in 1954. However, this was not implemented by the
then Principal, a Physician who remarked Today
Pharmacology wants beds, tomorrow Anatomy wants
beds! I could with difficulty persuade the clinicians
to use chlorpromazine to treat hiccups and published
a paper. The Dept. of Obstetrics however declined
my suggestion to use chlorpromazine in Eclampsia,
till it was tried 3 years later at Madras Medical College.

At School of Tropical Medicine (STM), the Professor

of Pharmacology has clinical beds in the adjacent
hospital, Pharmacology serving as a connecting link
between laboratory and hospital medicine. Through
such applied and broad based activities in the early
days, the cause of pharmacology in India was advanced, its essentiality as a cog in the wheel of medical education was proved and it could secure for itself an honorable place in the medical curriculum of
Indian Universities 4 (Chopra).
In India from the beginning Pharmacology is taught
in the early part of clinical years of medical course.
But in West it is taught as Basic Medical Science as
a preclinical subject before the students have any
clnical contact. Many Departments of Pharmacology in India still retain the title of Pharmacology &
Therapeutics though their role in teaching of therapeutics has receded far. Professors of Therapeutics
when separately appointed are Physicians with General Medicine qualifications and not Pharmacologists.
However in the early period Professors of Pharmacology in India had beds in the Hospital like RN
Chopra at Carmichael Hospital attached to STM
which has 150 beds exclusively for investigation, research and therapy of tropical diseases and not for
emergency patients. These are available to all the
Departments of STM including Pharmacology. KN
Ojha Professor of Pharmacology at SCB Medical
College, Cuttack had 8 hospital beds in 1950s. Professor SW Hardikar, Dip.LM&S (1911), MBChB (Edinburgh 1929) worked with Professor AR Cushney,
at Edinburgh and Barger at School of Tropical Medicine in London. He took MD and MRCP from Edinburgh and is the first Indian to work as University
Assistant in Department of Materia Medica at Edinburgh (1922-24). He joined as Professor of Physiology (1928) and later Professor of Pharmacology
(1930) at Osmania Medical College, Hyderabad. As
Professor of Pharmacology, he had a ward of 24 beds

By 1950s Pharmacology is allotted a slot in the 1st

clinical year, (1-1/2 years in some places) and its
clinical access is completely clipped. Clinicians deny
access of Clinical work to Pharmacologists on the
ground that Pharmacologists do not have postgraduate training in diagnostic & investigative aspects of
patient care. Therapeutics taught in Pharmacology
being more didactic and far removed from field experience has less impact on the students. In the
Pharmacology viva examination, questions on doses
of important drugs have slowly been replaced to
mode of action, drug interactions, toxicity and therapeutic indications. Dale stated 5: As for research,

P.S.R.K. HARANATH

the very distinguished and candid physician in whose

wards, I began my clinical studies made it very clear
to me, that medicine, as he understood it and was
prepared to teach it, was still a traditional art, an
empirical craft, so that my first duty, on entering his
wards was to forget anything which I might have acquired of physiology as an experimental science -So medical treatment was still largely empirical and
the use of it varied widely with the temperament and
attitudes of different physicians.
The concept of integrated teaching emanated in the
West, where Pharmacology is still a basic or preclinical science. To stimulate students interest a
comprehensive approach of teaching was actively
advocated in terms of vertical integration with clinical subjects and horizontal integration with
paraclinical subjects Pathology and Microbiology.
Such efforts by medical administrators and educationists had only a marginal influence in India. The
teaching of Pharmacology continues mostly isolated,
as didactic lectures and practical. There are even
instances of physicians advising students to forget
all that is learnt of therapeutics in Pharmacology and
learn it afresh in the Hospital wards. Student is more
impressed when the information is received from a
clinician than staff of Pharmacology. Feed back sessions with Interns on the usefulness of the therapeutics learnt in Pharmacology can reveal the real state.
Pharmacologists are yet to concede their limited role
in therapeutic education of the student. The administration tries to co-opt staff of Pharmacology Department as members in preparation of hospital formularies, drug selection committees and in some institutions to be in charge of the drug stores and
dispensing. In all these assignments Pharmacologists have more a passive than a decisive role. In
some institutions Pharmacologists get case sheets
from hospital for mock therapeutic audit to train the
students in prescription procedures. Here also the
last word is with the clinicians. Pharmacologists are
involved in preparing Essential Drug lists supported
by WHO and other organizations. These lists have
only recommendatory and have no mandatory role
in the ever-changing scenario of flooding with new
drugs.
Pharmacology as Career:
Pharmacology evolved as an offshoot of Medicine,
and the early Pharmacologists were drawn from Med-

ical profession. But it was not always a ready choice

for them but chosen out of circumstances. Even Sir
Henry Dale, Doyen of Pharmacology, reminisces 5
By 1902 I had to decide what to do next. Further
and more responsible clinical experience as a house
physician, was available for my acceptance. On the
other hand, one of the very few studentships, which
then existed for a frugal support of a year or two of
research, had just fallen vacant. If it were awarded
to me, I shall be committing myself to the precarious
prospect of finding some entry into teaching and research in Physiology, for my further support. In balance, however and following what seemed to be more
natural instinct, I applied for and was awarded this
George Henry Lewes studentship with Starling and
his brother-in-law Bayliss. Later he visited Paul
Ehrlich at Frankfurt for 4 months. On his return he
was recruited by Henry S Wellcome to his Pharmaceutical laboratory of Burroughs Wellcome Ltd., in
spite of being informed by Dale that he had never
heard a lecture or read a text book on Pharmacology and that he had nothing to offer. But yet he was
offered the appointment at a salary, which would
make it possible for me to marry. He started investigating Ergot and unraveled several mechanisms on
autonomic nervous system, culminating in award of
the Nobel Prize. Dr. Iswaraiah was equally reluctant to join Pharmacology and stated 1 that he went
to Calcutta much against his will after failing in his
various attempts to evade Pharmacology by frank
and even questionable methods. A Government
Servant had no choice. His heart was in Therapeutics. Dr. UK Sheth with MD (Gen. Medicine) sought
an appointment in Pathology Dept, but instead was
appointed in Pharmacology, Seth GS Medical College. He received formal recognition as Teacher in
Pharmacology by MCI 2 years later. He never looked
back, learnt Experimental Pharmacology in detail and
equipped the Department. He kept up his contact
with Clinical Departments and has been a Pioneer
in India to start a Clinical Pharmacology wing, which
today has become full fledged well established and
recognized. Many have joined Pharmacology (including the author) as it offers a paid appointment during
postgraduate study and an illusory connection with
Therapeutics, which is the cherished dream of all
medical graduates. There are some Pharmacologists
who have a MD (General Medicine) in addition to
MD (Pharmacology) qualification like RB Arora, PN
Saxena etc. But having taken up Pharmacology,

PHARMACOLOGY IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

none looked back, but plunged whole hearted into

the study and Research in the subject. Of course
some like Chopra, Hardiker, Ojha enjoyed clinical
work also simultaneously.
Again, we have examples of 3 generations of Pharmacologists in the same family like Cornelle Heymans
(Nobel Prize winner, for his work on Carotid Sinus).
In India, we have ML Gujral, BC Bose, BN Ghosh,
and AD Joseph who initiated their sons into Pharmacology. This is rare nowadays. In 1950s to 1970s
many top rankers in medicine took Pharmacology or
other basic medical sciences as it helped them to
acquire a PG qualification in paid posts. In 1970s, a
change has come in PG selections and education
when stipends were available to PGs both in clinical
and basic medical sciences. As an administrator in
charge of PG selection where choice of subject is
offered to candidates in the order of their merit at the
PG entrance tests, I observed their choice invariably
followed the following order of preference. Clinical
subjects were followed by Community medicine
(which has a PHC medical service centre), Laboratory branches of nonclinical subjects like Pathology
Microbiology and Biochemistry, then Anatomy &
Physiology with greater opportunities of promotion
and last choice was Pharmacology! The bleak prospects in employment and promotions in Pharmacology with no access to patients or clinical laboratories dissuaded many medical graduates and PG
seats remained vacant in many institutions. Pharmacology lost its attraction in most places except
Bombay, other PG Institutes and metropolitan towns
where they have prospects of joining the pharmaceutical companies or teaching staff or develop contacts to go abroad. Other reasons are particularly for
women who prefer to remain in cities with their
spouses already working in teaching institutions, or
in the city.
Non medical Personnel in Pharmacology:
In the 1950s there were few non-medical pharmacologists in Medical Colleges in India. Situation was
different in the West. Stalwarts in Pharmacology are
not necessarily medical men. Sir John Vane, HL
Borison, Alfred Gilman, WC Bowman, PB Bradley and
MJ Rand are not medical. Half the authors of the
multi-authored standard textbooks of Pharmacology
are authorities in their field and do not have a medical qualification. As on date more than half the mem-

bers of British Pharmacological Society are PhDs

and do not have a medical qualification. It is nonmedical scientists who usually corner Nobel prizes!
In 1960s, noticing the reluctance of medical members to join Pharmacology and to encourage research, some institutions started MSc (Medical Pharmacology) course of 3 to 4 years duration at JIPMER, Pondichery and Madras Medical College with
courses and examination in allied subjects. At AIIMS
and PGIMER it was MSc (Pharmacology) with a thesis followed by an examination. However, MCI regulation restricted the employment of non-medical pharmacologists to a third of staff with a further restriction that they should not be heads of departments.
This was because the staff of pharmacology departments are primarily engaged for teaching medical
students in the first clinical year, for which they are
expected to have a clinical background. Research is
far from the main objective, in medical colleges.
A notable exception in the old order was PC Dandiya,
MSc (Pharm), PhD (Pharm), Professor of Pharmacology at Jaipur who stood the test of time, contributed to pharmacological research and trained others. He occupied important positions as President,
Pharmacy Council of India and President, Indian
Pharmacological Society.
In the West, Pharmacologists are trained without reference to medicine, since Pharmacology is taught
as a pre clinical subject. Further the status of any
department is measured on its research contributions and not on its duration in medical course or its
postgraduate output. Recognizing the need for more
pharmacologists, medical students were given the
choice to branch out for PhD course at the end of
second preclinical year. After securing their PhD, it
was open to them to complete their MB course. Thus
by about 7 years, in UK or USA they obtain MB
&Ph.D. (In India a medical graduate spends 8-9 years
to acquire his MD after which he has neither the inclination need nor facilities for getting a PhD taking
another 3 years). Indians thus take their Ph.D. if at
all after about 14 to 15 years. British Pharmacological Society has a Convenor, Education subcommittee for matters relating to Careers in Pharmacology,
educational aids and information - Dr. IE Hughes,
Pharmacology Dept., University of Leeds. The British Pharmacological Society prepares a number of
brochures on the prospects in Pharmacology for the

P.S.R.K. HARANATH

Science graduates to take up their Bachelor, Master

or Doctorate courses in the subject and actively attempts to popularize the subject of Pharmacology.
Similarly from 1960s in USA a science graduate is
straight selected for a graduate program and acquires
a PhD (basic medical sciences like pharmacology)
at the end of 3 to 4 years. During this period, he
attends courses in related topics of medical subjects
allied to his subject of research. After acquiring his
PhD in 4 years, it is open to him to join for his MD
(the basic medical qualification in USA). Even in
USA, for the post of head of department of pharmacology in teaching institutions medically qualified persons are preferred. But most of the other staff including professors do not need/have medical qualification. Many of our pharmacologists have worked
with these non-medical stalwarts abroad for their
PhD.
In 1970s, it was realized that job opportunities to non
medical MSc (Pharmacology) candidates were not
bright, except in drug industry. They are not considered appropriate to teach clinical students under MCI
regulations, and their potential for research has been
hardly utilized. Slowly MSc (Medical Pharmacology)
courses were wound up in many centres. At one
stage an attempt was made to help them acquire
medical qualification with a condensed MBBS course
in Tamilnadu. This only resulted in further problems,
with questions that their MSc is not a postgraduate
qualification on par with a similar MSc (pharmacology) obtained after MBBS. Meanwhile some of those
who obtained medical qualification started clinical
practice, erasing their past.
Thus when the prospects were against the non medical pharmacologists in India, many non medical pharmacologists and pharmaceutical chemists left the
country and occupied responsible positions in both
academic institutions and industry abroad. They now
visit as special invitees to our annual conferences!
This situation is likely to continue as long as research
is not the primary objective or an integral part in training pharmacologists - their only function appears to
be didactic teaching!
Undergraduate Teaching:
Theory: Pharmacology is taught in 100 to 120 lectures spread over 1 or 1-1/2 years. In 1950s General
Pharmacology received only cursory attention with

greater emphasis on Systemic Pharmacology on

mechanism of action and toxicity of drugs with a representative drug in each group. The chapters on
CNS, chemotherapy and endocrines were much
smaller. In 1990s with explosion of knowledge and
introduction of new groups of drugs, topics like vitamins and vaccines are left out. Chemical formulae
are rarely given. In the transitional period of 1970s
teachers had difficulty with some examiners insisting on knowledge of drugs from the past and others
on the latest. Though therapeutics included in pharmacology books deal with established drugs there
is still a gap with drugs actually used in hospitals.
In 1940s R Ghosh, and BN Ghosh from Calcutta
published separate textbooks of Pharmacology to
meet the requirements of Indian students at affordable cost. In 1960s JC David, V Iswariah and MN
Guruswami from Madras and later RS Satoskar,
Bhandarkar, Kale SS Ainapure from Bombay have
brought out several editions of their books. UK Sheth
at Nepal published Applied Pharmacology. In 1980s
KD Tripathi launched a new textbook. In 1990s we
had books by PK Das, P Sen, SK Bhattacharya and
later by SD Seth. Realizing the demand for smaller
books for rapid revision, PSRK Haranath published
Synopsis of Pharmacology with MCQs. UK Sheth,
Dadkar and Usha Sarma, Bombay and MN Ghosh
and colleagues from Pondicherry published laboratory guides to experimental pharmacology. There
were and are many books and booklets by several
authors with specific objective of MCQs or abridged
information with a useful role - but not mentioned
here for want of space.
Practicals: Practical classes varied widely in different universities, with dispensing pharmacy, experimental pharmacology or a combination of both finding place. In 1950s to 1970s, practical classes were
mainly dispensing pharmacy, once a week. Medical
Council of India (MCI) regulations of 1981 are vague
about practicals. Experimental Pharmacology by
Demonstrations and practicals by students (p 11).
It is not clear whether the student practicals are to
be in pharmacy or experimental pharmacology! In
some Institutions practical pharmacy has been completely replaced by experimental pharmacology by
1980s. Many institutions had difficulty in changing
over, with medical administrators who identified pharmacology practicals with pharmacy of their own student days, reluctant to invest on fresh laboratory

PHARMACOLOGY IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

space with work benches and equipment necessary

for experimental pharmacology. Students view pharmacy practicals with distaste and disdain. At the same
time they are not good at experimental pharmacology
practicals with drums reluctant to move at the right
time, and tissues not responding properly or at all.
Isolated tissues require quality chemicals and distilled
water for the bathing fluid, correct maintenance of temperature and aeration or oxygenation. In general, results at the practical examinations with experimental
pharmacology have been disappointing.
The 1997 MCI regulations on Graduate Medical Education are completely silent on practicals, though
pharmacology is allotted 300 hours and whole afternoons are ear marked for practicals for paraclinical
subjects in its model timetables. The minimum requirements for 100 admissions by MCI even now
contains 30 sets each of items of equipment required
both for experimental pharmacology and practical
pharmacy. Skills in pharmacology (p 28 MCI Regulations 1997) are: 1) To prescribe drugs for common
ailments 2) Recognize adverse reactions and interactions of commonly used drugs 3) Observe ( perform?) experiments designed for study of effects of
drugs, bioassay and interpretation of experimental
data 4) Scan information of common pharmaceutical preparations and critically evaluate drug formulations. This gives an inference of demonstration by
staff and not practicals by students. Pharmacy
practicals almost ceased by 1990s shared or replaced
by experimental pharmacology depending on the
availability of equipment and animals and enthusiasm of staff. Even experimental pharmacology
practicals find fewer advocates with the nonavailability
and high cost of laboratory animals and crusade by
various NGOs obtaining official ban on even dissections of frogs. It is slowly found convenient to replace actual animal experiments with graphs, records,
diagrams and experimental data prepared ahead by
staff.
Practical Examinations: In 1950s to 70s, the 3 hr
practical examination consisted of 1) identification of
crude drugs, herbs and chemicals by colour or smell
2) dispense two preparations in pharmacy of mixtures/emulsions/ointments and rarely ampoules 3) a
question on criticizing a prescription in respect of
incompatibilities and lastly (4) a prescription for a
common ailment. The labeling on the containers and

even the methods of folding powders are given due

credit. The students, interns and teachers in the
hospital often discredit these practicals. By the 1980s
practical examination consisted mostly of knowledge
on predrawn diagrams, kymographic tracings, chemical formulae or drug interactions.
Prescription writing taught usually towards the end
of the course, viewed in the context of actual prescriptions in the hospital, is elementary. Today a
pharmacologist finds it difficult to prescribe for himself and obtain drugs from a chemists shop using
generic names. MIMS is a desk reference to all
practicing doctors for therapeutic information, indications and contra indications of drugs and trade
names under which they are available in the market.
pharmaceutical companies have completely taken
over. There are no dispensing pharmacies in the
cities. It would be difficult to obtain salicylic acid ointment of specified strength or soda bicarb solution
for the ear. A prescription in generic name often attracts suspicion from the chemists on the bonafides
of the prescriber!
In contrast, I learnt that at Indiana University Hospital in USA the Hospital Pharmacy under the control
of Division. of Infectious Diseases of Department of
Medicine exercises control and even veto on the prescriptions of the doctors particularly of antimicrobials.
Drugs are categorized as i. Unrestricted - no approval
prior to use ii. Controlled - requires no approval for
72 hrs, after which approval is required from the
Committee iii. Restricted and Nonformulary items require approval prior to initiation of treatment. The
controlled and restricted group of drugs requires the
clearance of Antimicrobial Prescription Improvement
Subcommittee. Stop dates are notified 24 hrs before and approval of committee necessary for further continuation. Norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin are included in Restricted Drugs group. Benefits of this program for 1992-94 are published 7. Situation is completely
different and reverse in our country. Pharmacologists
who initiate the student into therapeutics have little say
in the clinical use of drugs in teaching hospitals.
Pharmacology and Pharmacy:
Till 1950s to 60s Diploma in Pharmacy Course with
a few seats was taught in pharmacology departments
of medical colleges conducted in collaboration with
departments of chemistry. In some places the

P.S.R.K. HARANATH

universities have B.Pharm and M.Pharm courses,

taking the help of pharmacology departments of
neighboring medical colleges. The oldest Institution,
Madras Medical College still has the pharmacy department on its rolls. When the Pharmacy Act 1948
was passed, Education regulations formulated and
Diploma in Pharmacy was fixed as minimum qualification for all pharmacists, State Governments
delinked the Dip. Pharmacy Course from Medical
Colleges and started independent Pharmacy Institutions under Dept. of Technical Education. Several
Universities started independent Departments of
Pharmacy or Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Since then
there was a rapid increase in Institutions, particularly after 1980 imparting Pharmacy Education, with
about 90 institutions as of now? The Faculties of
Pharmacy expanded and developed faster after they
were delinked from the medical faculty. State Governments who are not conversant with difference between Pharmacology and Pharmacy used to nominate Professors of Pharmacology to Pharmacy Council or appoint Pharmacologists as Drug Controllers.
In some places the hospital dispensary and drug
stores are kept in charge of the Professors of Pharmacology causing unnecessary complications for
them. Though some pharmacologists did enjoy the
power of such extra faculty positions, many times it
is forced on them. Drug Controllers ought to be those
with qualifications in Pharmacy or even general medicine for effective function. In some states IPS officers are made Drug Controllers.! Haffkine Institute,
Bombay had eminent pharmacologists like NK.Datta
and BB Gaitonde as Directors. Haffkine Institute has
now a Biopharmaceutical wing. Pathologists and
Microbiologists are now in charge of these Biological
Products Institutes in the National laboratories. A post
often aspired for by pharmacologists is Medical Director of Pharmaceutical concerns with attractive pay,
perks and position to act as a bridge between pharmaceutical industry and the medical Profession.
Pharmacists and pharmaceutical chemists are asserting themselves and are actively participating in
pharmacological societies, apart from establishing
their own societies.
Pharmaceutical Companies: World over, pharmaceutical companies are playing a major role in the
Research and Development of new drugs. They have
well established, equipped laboratories in each system. Scientists are slowly migrating from the

universities to join these well-established and

equipped laboratories to occupy highly paid positions
in Industry. Computer-suggested formulae for synthesis of chemicals, screening programs in animals
and humans are their priorities. Pharmaceutical companies generously donate funds to conferences, symposia, societies and the journals.
Postgraduate (PG) Education and training in
Pharmacology
In 1950s the PG degree in non-clinical subjects after MBBS was called MSc in some Universities and
MD in others. Since there are MSc courses open to
non-medical graduates in Pharmacology, MCI directed all PG degrees in Pharmacology to be designated MD for Medical graduates in the 1960s. MCI
also permitted redesignation of those awarded MSc
earlier as MD. Of course Ph.D. is available to both
Medical and Non medical persons, which requires
only a thesis and a viva voce and no written examination.
MD course was for 2 years for some time and later
made 3 years. In institutions with large staff with postgraduates and ongoing research programs PGs have
some useful training. Such institutions are not many.
In many medical colleges, the teaching duties predominate and occupy the staff, with low research
output with little or no attention to the lone postgraduate. Thesis/dissertation is a part and in some universities a prerequisite for appearing for the final
examination. When research is in progress in the
department, PGs join the research projects and carve
out their dissertation subject. In others where the
candidate has to fend for himself, the availability of
equipment, library facilities determine his success.
Research seminars and original research in the department go a long way in stabilizing the project,
particularly if collaboration with another department
is also required. Often the standard not being high
many dissertations remain unpublished. But most
of the time of the PG is taken up in preparing the
dissertation almost up to 3 months before the final
examination leaving little time to study rest of the
pharmacology, which mainly decides his result. The
availability of books like Pharmacological Basis of
Therapeutics by Goodman & Gilman, Pharmacological Reviews, Yearbooks, Annual reviews of Pharmacology, Advances in Pharmacology is doubtful in
many institutions with limited budgets. Thus the

PHARMACOLOGY IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

training received by a PG ranges from nil to excellent and varies between institutions.
At the end of the first year part I examination in general medicine with a common paper for all non-clinical subjects is held in some universities with professors of pharmacology and not medicine valuing the
papers. The final examination has 3/4 papers, usually set by external examiners. In some institutions
the internal examiner has a choice of selecting the
questions sent by externals either on the day of examination or earlier. In general, candidates do study
well and are better informed though no syllabus is
outlined. Only previous years question papers guide
them. The questions are so vast, vague and wide in
scope from the historical aspects to the latest and
vary from veteran to young examiners. Practical examination consists of a long experiment on a dog/
cat with parameters like respiration, blood pressure,
and intestinal movements/ spleen volume. This is
followed by a bioassay on an isolated tissue like
guineapig ileum with a test substance acetylcholine/
histamine (carried over into the night) with the varnished graph kept ready for next day. There may be
a chemical assay. The Viva is fairly long, satisfying
to the examiners and difficult to candidate.
PGs should be more familiar with experimental pharmacological techniques of different systems in the
body, latest technical developments in pharmacology, use of equipment like polygraphs (though hardly
few in the country in medical colleges), colorimetry,
chromatography, biochemical and enzyme techniques. There is a need for planned and well-defined syllabus of experiments to be practiced by PGs
as a routine, taking into consideration the availability
of animals equipment etc. While we are yet to formulate guidelines, Government is setting up committees to supervise animal experiments, and even
the little biological training to PGs will be in jeopardy.
PGs knowledge of chemistry, comprehension of
mathematical formulae, calculus, and understanding
a research publication in a contemporary journal of
pharmacology is limited. Biology, physics & chemistry (organic & inorganic) taught in pre registration
course for 6 months in 1940s, were shifted to the
first year MBBS course in 1950s and altogether deleted by 1970s when 12 year school education with
enlarged syllabus was introduced. Medical entrance
test papers of recent years reveal that their stand-

ards are far higher than those of 1950s at pre medical level are. The new entrants have good knowledge of chemistry, statistics and calculus, which definitely improved their understanding of biochemistry.
Pharmacology also requires a good back ground in
these subjects. But the staff of pharmacology, with
their own limited knowledge in organic chemistry,
statistics and calculus could not take advantage of
the enhanced background of their students. I recommended teaching of organic chemistry, biochemistry, statistics and calculus to PGs in pharmacology
during their first year of study with an examination at
the end by the professors of those subjects in a draft
MD syllabus of Annamalai University Chidamparam,
Tamilnadu. Statistics is particularly important for carrying out and publishing research work. Calculus
helps them to understand mathematical formulae and
equations commonly used in general pharmacology.
Most scientific publications in journals require this
back ground, without which they cannot be properly
understood.
Financial support to PG is insufficient. In 1950s, a
PG has to pay the institution Rs.250/- towards the
cost of chemicals to be used, pay for the animals,
staff assistance and buy any special chemicals himself. Situation improved. But research still is not an
integral duty of the department and, is treated as
optional or hobby of staff and the responsibility of
the PG.
Research:
One of the duties of professor of pharmacology at
the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine was to undertake research investigations into merits and demerits of Indian indigenous drugs, which had been
used for centuries in ancient India and folklore medicine and to explore avenues for finding suitable Indian substitutes for imported drug 4. This goal before Chopra is true even today. Chopra published
several papers and reference books on Indigenous
Drugs of India, an Indian Pharmacopoeia and a
Handbook of Tropical Therapeutics (1935). Regional
Research Institutes at Jammu and Hyderabad followed the same research goals. Dr. Dwaraknath at
ICMR established a liaison for drug testing units by
different disciplines for exploring indigenous drugs.
Dr. GV Satyavathi, who retired as Director General
ICMR, kept the torch alive and vigorously active. She
revised and published Medicinal Plants of India vol.

10

P.S.R.K. HARANATH

1&2 (1976 & 1987) and supported research schemes

on indigenous drugs and systems. The CDRI and
its associated institutions made a significant
contribution in both indigenous and synthetic drug
researches. For those interested there is a valuable
collection of 1033 color plates of Indian Medicinal
Plants by Major BD Basu (1918), well preserved in
Pharmacology Department, Andhra Medical College,
Visakhapatnam.
In the absence of sophisticated equipment for specialized studies with synthetic compounds in 1970s
and 80s, attention once more reverted to exploration
of Indigenous Drugs. Research publication on a plant
was accepted usually only when it is identified and
the botanical name given. Some pharmaceutical companies marketing indigenous drugs give the name of
the constituent plants, while others give only a formula number or code number. In 1980s papers on
indigenous drugs with formula or code number were
also being published. One of the pioneer firms marketing Indigenous drugs since 1950s, Himalaya Drug
Co., have been assisting research in plant products
and formulations and taking the advice of senior pharmacologists like RD Kulkarni. With adequate clinical
and experimental support they are able to market
their products successfully in India and abroad. Central Council for Indian Medicine and Homeopathy has
under its control several Institutions of Ayurveda &
Unani. Their official publication is Journal of Research
in Indian Medicine, based at BHU Varanasi and published since 1967. They sometimes investigate coded
compositions for experimental trial.
The success of developing an indigenous drug depends on 1. Identification of the correct plant prescribed in indigenous systems 2. Collections of the
plant specimens from correct geographical terrain
and season 3. Their preparation for use in the same
way as prescribed in indigenous systems and 4. Open
mind on their possible efficacy. Since these formulations on indigenous drugs are not accepted by Drug
Controller or permitted by MCI, it is desirable that
they are only monitored by a modern scientific team,
while actually being used by experts in indigenous
systems of medicine. First identifying clinically useful indigenous drug recipes by a monitoring team before detailed investigation could save time. Such a
fresh approach was emphasized by Haranath 8 (Dr.
Achanta Lakshmipathi Memorial Oration of NAMS
1990-91) and Sheth 9 (Dr. BB Yodh Memorial Oration

1995). WHO held a Regional meeting of Southeast

Asian Countries on Traditional Medicine at Varanasi
in November 1980 and published a report.
Quality of research output depends on the quality,
ability and commitment of the head of the department, equipment available, funds and avenues to
acquire or import fresh equipment. Autonomous institutes like AIIMS, PGIMER have both facilities and
funds. University Departments like KG Medical College, Lucknow had better access to foreign universities. Medical Colleges under State & Central Governments however were bogged down with paucity
of funds and bureaucratic delays and blocks in their
research pursuits. CSIR made available adequate
funds for its own institutions like Regional Research
Labs, CDRI and other Departments like Seth GS
Medical College. ICMR with limited budget and varieties of disciplines to cater to could not make big
grants. But it ensured, generated and sustained keenly interested scientists, by suitable grants and also
monitored several composite Drug Research schemes for indigenous drug research. It created a Neuropharmacology Research Centre at KG Medical College, Lucknow. Indian Journal of Medical Research,
the official publication of ICMR since 1913 publishes
excellent research papers in pharmacology.
New developments in pharmacology stimulated parallel research work in India. Histamine and antihistamines, cortical hormones, autocoids like 5HT, antipsychotic drugs, hypoglycemic (antidiabetic) drugs
received attention in 1950s to 80s. Experimental techniques limited research in antimicrobial chemotherapy and anthelmintics, which could be handled
only in certain specialized organizations like CDRI.
Chemotherapy of malignancy received little attention.
Research in neuropharmacology generally consisted
of drug injections into cerebral ventricular spaces in
acute and chronic experiments. But special techniques like iontophoretic application of nanogram
amounts to neurons in discrete areas of brain have
not been taken up in the absence of special equipment and training in stereotaxic techniques. Thus the
available equipment restricted the activities of pharmacologists. Molecular biology, molecular pharmacology and genetic engineering recently introduced
is a far cry for pharmacologists.
Several pharmacologists in India, some of whom,
also members of British Pharmacological Society,
made significant research contributions in 1960s to

PHARMACOLOGY IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

80s: KP Bhargava, BN Dhawan, RC Srimal, PSRK

Haranath in neuropharmacology; PC Dandiya in Psychopharmacology; RK Sanyal, SC Lahiri, Lalitha
Kameswaran in autocoids; OD Gulati in autonomic
pharmacology, RB Arora PLSharma PK Das in cardiovascular pharmacology; UK Sheth in diuretics.
Some published in diverse fields: BN Dhawan, UK
Sheth, BB Gaitonde, Joy David, RS Grewal, MN
Ghosh. UK Sheth, BB Gaitonde and RR Chaudhury
occupied important positions in WHO, a matter of distinction. There are many reviews of the research work
done in the country and status reports 10-12.
Unfortunately, research is not treated as part of one's
duty in medical colleges. It is optional and does not
play a significant role in promotions or appointments.
Expenditure on purchase of equipment, chemicals,
animals required for research is grudged by management, government or private. One has to work
against time and authorities to do research. Research funding agencies insist on infrastructure before giving grants!
In a 6-day (6 h per day) week, the share of pharmacology staff in undergraduate teaching is 2 lectures
and 2 practicals accounting for 6 or 7 hours per week!
with no clinical load. The qualified staff in the department is at least 3 or 4 including professor, but
usually more. If the timetable is properly drafted 2 or
3 days can be exclusively kept apart for research.
The skill, qualifications, enthusiasm of the staff are
thus blunted and not channeled for research with
dearth of animals, equipment, encouragement, atmosphere and support from the management/government. When research is not considered a part of
duty of staff, how can one talk of student research
projects! Where costly equipment is already available in the premises, younger staff should be deputed
officially to other active centres for gaining skills and
expertise in its use. Otherwise it leads to idle equipment, commonly seen in many departments inviting
criticism.
Retirement (at different ages in different states) cuts
short the research activity of scientists. A clinician
can practice as long as he wishes. But MCI restricts
non-clinical teachers to 65yrs of age even in private
medical colleges! A pharmacologist needs laboratory support for any research activity.
Clinical Pharmacology:
With advances in knowledge subdivisions, like clinical pharmacology, pediatric pharmacology, ocular

11

Pharmacology have come up. Clinical Pharmacology is given a status of a super specialty by MCI. Its
history dates back to 1960s when UK Sheth gave it
a shape at Seth GS Medical College, Bombay and
also introduced a Diploma in Clinical Pharmacology
in 1969. ICMR was supporting 3 months training
courses each year at this centre for selected applicants from different medical colleges. The department had 30 beds with financial support from drug
industry, CSIR, and phase I & II drug trials were conducted. Today it has become an independent department of Clinical Pharmacology headed by a Professor (N Kshirasagar) with beds in KEM Hospital
and is starting a DM course. PGI Chandigarh, an
autonomous institute started DM Clinical Pharmacology in 1980s and Nizam Institute of Medical Sciences at Hyderabad followed in 1982. NBE awards
a Diplomate in Clinical Pharmacology. MCI (1993)
prescribed MD (Med) and MD (Pharmacol) as prerequisite PG degrees to be admitted to DM (Clinical
Pharmacology). Clinical pharmacology sections are
created in pharmacology departments at various
places: KG Medical College, Lucknow, Madras Medical College, JIPMER, Pondicherry,Christian Medical
College, Vellore and Calcutta Medical College.
Clinical pharmacology departments function in association with one or more clinical departments of
attached hospital. In some places they have beds in
attached hospital as in School of Tropical Medicine
where they admit patients of select disease/condition. In Seth GS Medical College, they have beds
and also run OP for specific group of patients. The
main functions of the clinical pharmacology are a)
Therapeutic drug monitoring like estimation of drug
levels in the patients b) observe patients under phase
I & II clinical trials c) compile adverse drug reactions
d) discuss and advise clinical colleagues on drug
usage e) submit reports of new findings. The above
functions vary from institution to institution on the
degree of acceptance and cooperation by clinical
colleagues, availability of beds in the hospital and
equipment necessary for drug estimations and qualified staff to carry out biochemical, microbiological
and chemical assays, clinico-pathological laboratories etc. Departments like biochemistry, pathology
and microbiology only submit a report on the material sent to them by clinicians. The functions of clinical pharmacologist are slowly evolving and there is
as yet no clear-cut mandate or plan for organizing
the departments. The DM course prescribes the PG

12

P.S.R.K. HARANATH

to be familiar with techniques to be adopted in the

several branches he is supposed to supervise with
the help of well-qualified and trained scientists in each
section.
Experimental Animals:
Availability of animals determines the type of research. In India there is a religious taboo against
using cats and monkeys for experiments and hence
used only in large institutions. Pigs were used for
chronic heart experiments (AIIMS). Dogs were used
often for demonstrations or chronic experiments in
1950s to 70s, available on a mere requisition to the
Corporation or Municipal dog disposal department.
By 1980s and 90s it became difficult to get dogs for
experiment, their cost escalating to Rs.200/ each.
Street dogs are plenty but cannot be brought to laboratory! Frogs available at Rs.2/- each before, now
cost Rs.10 or 15/- each and frog dissections are officially banned in schools in some states. That leaves
only rabbits, guineapigs and white rats and mice for
experimentation. Maintenance of a good central
animal house with suitable cages, bedding, pellet or
natural food is very expensive and possible only at
large institutions. Animal stocks and their breeding
has to be planned well ahead of their demand. Woe
unto the animal house if the animal utilization is not
proportional to production! 1980s and 90s have witnessed a rapid welling up of sympathy for animal
welfare by several NGOs, politicians, government and
judiciary that restrictions are being placed for animal
experiments and scientists are kept in defense. A
Committee for Purpose of Controlling and Supervising Experiments on Animals (CPC-SEA) is announced in 1998. While the pharmaceutical firms,
which are vigilant, have immediately reacted, the
scientific community is yet to realize the gravity and
act strongly to protect their interests. ICMR lodged
its protest.
Scientists have now an adequate excuse for not doing animal experiments, which are already banned
in schools in biology classes. Postgraduates after
getting their MD (Pharmacology) are not keen to do
animal experiments. Administration finds it convenient to minimize the expenditure on maintenance of
animal houses. Thus biological research is taking a
back seat in our country. Biologists have yet to organize themselves to educate the public, government
and judiciary that it is suicidal to stifle animal experi-

mentation, which is meant to save human life.

Biological Societies in Britain have nearly 6 decades
ago formed a Research Defense Society with ardent
champions for the cause like Sir William Paton, who
published a book, and Lord Perry to handle the problem with tact. The Nobel Lecture by Sir John Vane13
on 8th December 1982 Adventures and excursions
in bioassay: the stepping stones to prostacyclin reveals how the simple bioassay techniques have
helped in the research on prostaglandins, their role
in disease and their antagonists, and the mechanism
of action of aspirin. Bioassay on isolated tissues is
tissue specific, cheap and within easy reach of pharmacologists.
However the insistence of foreign journals to identify
biological substances by chemical methods has
steadfastly grown over the years. In 1960, adrenaline assay on rat uterus was found acceptable in Journal of Physiology (Lond). But by 1975 noradrenaline
assay on rat blood pressure was termed archaic.
Even when acetylcholine was demonstrated by all
biological tests as prescribed by Gaddum, it was
published only when it was confirmed by Gas chromatography- Mass spectrometry (GC-MS) 14. Estimation of biogenic amines DA, NA and 5HT with
spectrofluorometer was accepted in 1975 but its determination by HPLC was insisted in 1980s. How
many institutions in India possess these instruments
for research purposes to be able to compete with
West? Only in 1990s a few pharmaceutical concerns
and some major institutions possess GC-MS. Electron Microscopes are not that common! If biological
methods of research have no scope for acceptance
in spite of their tissue specificity, research workers
are at great disadvantage and are turning away from
biological research.
Associations and Journals:
In early 30s Pharmacologists used to be members
of The Physiological Society of India, Calcutta ushered in 1934 by Professor SC Mahalanobis. Its official journal is Indian Journal of Physiology and Allied Sciences published since 1947. Its annual meetings were held as a section of the Science Congress.
More medical institutions and All India Institute of
Medical Sciences, Delhi were established after
independence. With increased academic activity that
followed, a separate Association of Physiologists and

PHARMACOLOGY IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

Pharmacologists of India was formed by a group of

eminent scientists on 6 Jan 1955 at Baroda 15. Its
official publication is Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology since 1956 and Professor ML Gujral
was its first editor. In 1969 Indian Pharmacological
Society was formed separately for pharmacologists
and associated scientists in pharmacy, pharmaceutics, biological Sciences. UK Sheth was its first general secretary. Its journal Indian Journal of Pharmacology is being published since 1969. KP Bhargava
was its first editor. The Journal has grown in the
years from a quarterly to bimonthly, well organized
with quality publications and has its own website with
Dr. C Adithan as its current editor. Indian Society of
Clinical Pharmacology was started in 1980 open to
all interested in the specialty, with its own journal Indian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics.
Looking back, it has been a glorious century of scientific advances, which made human life more valuable, challenging and worth living. Pharmacologists
in India can justifiably feel proud of their own contributions to science. It is exciting to contemplate on
the approaching millenium. We may be short of sophisticated equipment, but we have abundant expertise and a munificent ancient legacy of indigenous
systems of medicine still vibrant and promising. We
should make vigorous efforts to unravel the workings and secrets of these exclusive treasures, before the West casts its eye and lays claims on them.
being an optimist, I look forward to a great future for
pharmacology in our country in the coming millenium

13

their Therapeutics. Times of India Press 1903

3.

Association of Indian Universities. Handbook of Medical

Education 1994

4.

Chopra RN. Problems and Prospects of a Pharmacological career in India. In Annual Reviews of Pharmacology,
Ed: Cutting WC, Dreisbach RH, Elliot HW vol 5, Annual
Reviews Inc. Palo Alto, California 1963 p 1-8

5.

Dale HH. Pharmacology during the past sixty years. In

Annual Reviews of Pharmacology: Ed. Cutting WC,
Dreisbach RH & Elliot HW Annual Review Inc vol 3. Palo
Alto California, 1963, p 1-8

6.

Souvenir and Abstracts. Indian Pharmacological Society

XXIX National Conference, Hyderabad 1996 p IX - XII

7.

Frank MO, Batteiger BE, Sorensen SJ, Hartstwein AI, Carr

JA, McComb JS, et al. Decrease in Expenditures and Selected Nosocomial Infections Following Implementation of
an Antimicrobial-Prescribing Improvement Program. Clinical Performance and Quality Health Care 1997;5: 180-188

8.

Haranath PSRK. Indigenous drugs. A plea for assimilation of Indian Systems of Medicine into main stream of
scientific medicine. Ann Natl Acad Med Sci (India)
1992;28(3&4): 101-116.

9.

Sheth UK. A rational approach to alternate systems of

medicines. Indian J Med Sci 1998;52: 287-293

10.

Dandiya PC, Bapna JS. Pharmacological Research in India. In Annual Reviews of Pharmacology Ed Elliot HW,
Okun R, George R vol 14 Annual Revews Inc., Palo Alto,
California, 1974 p 115-126

11.

Das PK, Dhawan BN. Editors. Current Research in Pharmacology in India (1975-1982). Indian National Science
Academy, New Delhi, 1984.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
12.

I thank Dr UK Sheth for going through the manuscript fully and for his suggestions. Several friends,
colleagues and organizations helped me in collecting information to which I am thankful.

Chauhan CK. Reviews of Research in Pharmacology in

India (1988-93). Mumbai: Author, 1997.

13.

Vane JR. Nobel Lecture 8 th December 1982. Adventures

and excursions in Bioassay: The stepping stones to
prostacyclin. Br J Pharmacol, 1983;79: 821-838

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Iswaraiah V Retrospect & Prospect in Pharmacology. Souvenir of Neuropharmacology Workshop and IIIrd Regional Conference of Indian Pharmacol Society, Kurnool 1974. p 1-4.

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